Red meat
Encyclopedia
Red meat in traditional culinary terminology is meat
which is red when raw and not white when cooked
. In the nutrition
al sciences, red meat includes all mammal meat. Red meat includes the meat of most adult mammals and some fowl (e.g. ducks
).
, red meat is darker-colored meat, as contrasted with white meat
. The exact definition varies by time, place, and culture, but the meat of adult mammals such as cows
, sheep, and horses
is invariably considered red, while chicken
and rabbit
is invariably considered white. The meat of young mammals such as milk-fed veal calves
and sheep, and pigs
is traditionally considered white; while the meat of duck
and goose
is considered red. Game
is sometimes put in a separate category altogether (French viandes noires 'black meats').
Red meat does not refer to how well a piece of meat is cooked. Nor does it refer to its coloration after it has been cooked.
. The white meat of chicken has under 0.05%; pork and veal have 0.1-0.3%; young beef has 0.4-1.0%; and old beef has 1.5-2.0%.
According to the USDA all meats obtained from livestock are red meats because they contain more myoglobin
than chicken or fish.
. Red meat also contains protein, levels of creatine
, minerals such as zinc
and phosphorus
, and vitamins such as niacin
, vitamin B12, thiamin
and riboflavin
. Red meat is the richest source of Alpha Lipoic Acid, a powerful antioxidant.
has been criticized for not distinguishing between red meat and other types of meat. The 2005 edition, MyPyramid
, recommends lean forms of red meat.
, the American Institute for Cancer Research
and World Cancer Research Fund
stated that there is "convincing" evidence that red meat intake increases the risk for colorectal cancer
.
Professor Sheila Bingham of the Dunn Human Nutrition Unit
attributes this to the haemoglobin and myoglobin
molecules which are found in red meat. She suggests these molecules, when ingested trigger a process called nitrosation
in the gut
which leads to the formation of carcinogens.
Others have suggested that it is due to the presence of carcinogenic compounds called heterocyclic amines
, which are created in the cooking process. However, this may not be limited to red meat, since a study from the Harvard School of Public Health
found that people who ate skinless chicken five times or more per week increased their risk of developing bladder cancer by 52 percent.
, pancreatic
and endometrial
cancer. As a result, they recommend limiting intake of red meat to less than 300g (11oz) cooked weight per week, "very little, if any of which to be processed."
Some studies have linked consumption of large amounts of red meat with breast cancer
, stomach cancer
, lymphoma
, bladder cancer
, lung cancer
and prostate cancer
(although other studies have found no relationship between red meat and prostate cancer).
A 2009 study by the National Cancer Institute
revealed a correlation between the consumption of red meat and increased mortality from cancer, as well as increased mortality from all causes. This study has been criticized for using an improperly validated food frequency questionnaire, which has been shown to have low levels of accuracy.
. Specifically, increased beef intake is associated with ischemic heart disease. Some mechanisms that have been suggested for why red meat consumption is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease include: its impact on serum cholesterol, that red meat contains arachidonic acid
, heme iron
, and homocysteine
.
A 1999 study funded by the National Cattlemen's Beef Association
, an advocacy group for beef producers, involved 191 persons with high cholesterol
on diets where at least 80% of the meat intake came from either lean red meat in one group, or lean white meat in another. The results of this study showed nearly identical cholesterol, and triglyceride levels in both groups. This study suggests that lean red meat may play a role in a low-fat diet
for persons with high cholesterol.
Red meat consumption is also associated with acute coronary syndrome
, as well as stroke
. It has also been associated with greater intima-media thickness
, an indicator of atherosclerosis.
A 2008 article published in Nature
found that red meat consumption was "strongly associated" with increased odds of acute coronary syndrome, with those eating more than 8 servings of red meat per month being 4.9 times more likely to have cardiac events than those eating less than four servings per month.
A 21 year follow up of about thirty thousand Seventh Day Adventists found that people who ate red meat daily were 60% more likely to die of heart disease than those who ate red meat less than once per week.
The Seven Countries Study found a significant correlation between red meat consumption and risk of CHD. A significant relationship between red meat and CHD has been found specifically for women, most strongly with regards to processed red meat.
A 2009 study by the National Cancer Institute
revealed a correlation between the consumption of red meat and increased mortality from cardiovascular diseases, as well as increased mortality from all causes. This study has been criticized for using an improperly validated food frequency questionnaire, which has been shown to have low levels of accuracy.
levels. Replacing red meat with a low protein or chicken diet can improve glomerular filtration rate.
Other findings have suggested that the association may be to saturated fat
, trans fat
and dietary cholesterol, rather than red meat per se. An additional confound is that diets high in processed meat could increase the risk for developing Type 2 diabetes.
One study estimated that “substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type two diabetes”.
A 1998 survey of about five thousand vegetarian and non-vegetarian people found that vegetarians had about 30% lower BMI
s. A 2006 survey of fifty thousand women found that those with higher "western diet pattern" scores gained about two more kilograms over the course of four years than those who lowered their scores.
A ten-year follow up of 80,000 men and women found that "ten-year changes in body mass index was associated positively with meat consumption" as well as with weight gain at the waist. In a Mediterranean population of 8,000 men and women, meat consumption was significantly associated with weight gain. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey showed "consistent positive associations between meat consumption and BMI, waist circumference, obesity and central obesity."
A survey of twins found that processed meat intake was associated with weight gain. Western diets, which include higher consumption of red meats, are often associated with obesity.
, and arthritis
.
.
Meat
Meat is animal flesh that is used as food. Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs and offal...
which is red when raw and not white when cooked
Cooking
Cooking is the process of preparing food by use of heat. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely across the world, reflecting unique environmental, economic, and cultural traditions. Cooks themselves also vary widely in skill and training...
. In the nutrition
Nutrition
Nutrition is the provision, to cells and organisms, of the materials necessary to support life. Many common health problems can be prevented or alleviated with a healthy diet....
al sciences, red meat includes all mammal meat. Red meat includes the meat of most adult mammals and some fowl (e.g. ducks
Duck (food)
Duck refers to the meat of several species of bird in the Anatidae family, found in both fresh and salt water. Duck is eaten in many cuisines around the world.-Types of ducks:The most common duck meat consumed in the United States is the Pekin duck...
).
Gastronomic
In gastronomyGastronomy
Gastronomy is the art or science of food eating. Also, it can be defined as the study of food and culture, with a particular focus on gourmet cuisine...
, red meat is darker-colored meat, as contrasted with white meat
White meat
White meat or light meat refers to the lighter-colored meat of poultry as contrasted with dark meat. In a more general sense, white meat may also refer to any lighter-colored meat, as contrasted with red meats like beef and some types of game....
. The exact definition varies by time, place, and culture, but the meat of adult mammals such as cows
Beef
Beef is the culinary name for meat from bovines, especially domestic cattle. Beef can be harvested from cows, bulls, heifers or steers. It is one of the principal meats used in the cuisine of the Middle East , Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Europe and the United States, and is also important in...
, sheep, and horses
Horse meat
Horse meat is the culinary name for meat cut from a horse. It is a major meat in only a few countries, notably in Central Asia, but it forms a significant part of the culinary traditions of many others, from Europe to South America to Asia. The top eight countries consume about 4.7 million horses...
is invariably considered red, while chicken
Chicken
The chicken is a domesticated fowl, a subspecies of the Red Junglefowl. As one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, and with a population of more than 24 billion in 2003, there are more chickens in the world than any other species of bird...
and rabbit
Rabbit
Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world...
is invariably considered white. The meat of young mammals such as milk-fed veal calves
Veal
Veal is the meat of young cattle , as opposed to meat from older cattle. Though veal can be produced from a calf of either sex and any breed, most veal comes from male calves of dairy cattle breeds...
and sheep, and pigs
Pork
Pork is the culinary name for meat from the domestic pig , which is eaten in many countries. It is one of the most commonly consumed meats worldwide, with evidence of pig husbandry dating back to 5000 BC....
is traditionally considered white; while the meat of duck
Duck (food)
Duck refers to the meat of several species of bird in the Anatidae family, found in both fresh and salt water. Duck is eaten in many cuisines around the world.-Types of ducks:The most common duck meat consumed in the United States is the Pekin duck...
and goose
Goose
The word goose is the English name for a group of waterfowl, belonging to the family Anatidae. This family also includes swans, most of which are larger than true geese, and ducks, which are smaller....
is considered red. Game
Game (food)
Game is any animal hunted for food or not normally domesticated. Game animals are also hunted for sport.The type and range of animals hunted for food varies in different parts of the world. This will be influenced by climate, animal diversity, local taste and locally accepted view about what can or...
is sometimes put in a separate category altogether (French viandes noires 'black meats').
Red meat does not refer to how well a piece of meat is cooked. Nor does it refer to its coloration after it has been cooked.
Nutritional
The main determinant of the nutritional definition of the color of meat is the concentration of myoglobinMyoglobin
Myoglobin is an iron- and oxygen-binding protein found in the muscle tissue of vertebrates in general and in almost all mammals. It is related to hemoglobin, which is the iron- and oxygen-binding protein in blood, specifically in the red blood cells. The only time myoglobin is found in the...
. The white meat of chicken has under 0.05%; pork and veal have 0.1-0.3%; young beef has 0.4-1.0%; and old beef has 1.5-2.0%.
According to the USDA all meats obtained from livestock are red meats because they contain more myoglobin
Myoglobin
Myoglobin is an iron- and oxygen-binding protein found in the muscle tissue of vertebrates in general and in almost all mammals. It is related to hemoglobin, which is the iron- and oxygen-binding protein in blood, specifically in the red blood cells. The only time myoglobin is found in the...
than chicken or fish.
Nutrition
Red meat is a source of ironIron
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust...
. Red meat also contains protein, levels of creatine
Creatine
Creatine is a nitrogenous organic acid that occurs naturally in vertebrates and helps to supply energy to all cells in the body, primarily muscle. This is achieved by increasing the formation of Adenosine triphosphate...
, minerals such as zinc
Zinc
Zinc , or spelter , is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc is, in some respects, chemically similar to magnesium, because its ion is of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2...
and phosphorus
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the chemical element that has the symbol P and atomic number 15. A multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus as a mineral is almost always present in its maximally oxidized state, as inorganic phosphate rocks...
, and vitamins such as niacin
Niacin
"Niacin" redirects here. For the neo-fusion band, see Niacin .Niacin is an organic compound with the formula and, depending on the definition used, one of the forty to eighty essential human nutrients.Niacin is one of five vitamins associated with a pandemic deficiency disease: niacin deficiency...
, vitamin B12, thiamin
Thiamine
Thiamine or thiamin or vitamin B1 , named as the "thio-vitamine" is a water-soluble vitamin of the B complex. First named aneurin for the detrimental neurological effects if not present in the diet, it was eventually assigned the generic descriptor name vitamin B1. Its phosphate derivatives are...
and riboflavin
Riboflavin
Riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2 or additive E101, is an easily absorbed micronutrient with a key role in maintaining health in humans and animals. It is the central component of the cofactors FAD and FMN, and is therefore required by all flavoproteins. As such, vitamin B2 is required for a...
. Red meat is the richest source of Alpha Lipoic Acid, a powerful antioxidant.
Food pyramid
The 1992 edition of the USDA food guide pyramidFood guide pyramid
A food guide pyramid is a triangular or pyramid-shaped nutrition guide divided into sections to show the recommended intake for each food group. The first food pyramid was published in Sweden in 1974. The most widely known food pyramid was introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture...
has been criticized for not distinguishing between red meat and other types of meat. The 2005 edition, MyPyramid
MyPyramid
MyPyramid, released by the United States Department of Agriculture on April 19, 2005, is an update on the American food guide pyramid that was used until June 2, 2011, when the USDA's MyPlate replaced it. The icon stresses activity and moderation along with a proper mix of food groups in one's diet...
, recommends lean forms of red meat.
Colorectal Cancer
Due to the many studies that have found a link between red meat intake and colorectal cancerColorectal cancer
Colorectal cancer, commonly known as bowel cancer, is a cancer caused by uncontrolled cell growth , in the colon, rectum, or vermiform appendix. Colorectal cancer is clinically distinct from anal cancer, which affects the anus....
, the American Institute for Cancer Research
American Institute for Cancer Research
The American Institute for Cancer Research is a large American cancer research organization associated with the World Cancer Research Fund umbrella organization.Its stated mission is:...
and World Cancer Research Fund
World Cancer Research Fund
World Cancer Research Fund International is a not-for-profit association, established by royal decree in Belgium, with headquarters in London, UK...
stated that there is "convincing" evidence that red meat intake increases the risk for colorectal cancer
Colorectal cancer
Colorectal cancer, commonly known as bowel cancer, is a cancer caused by uncontrolled cell growth , in the colon, rectum, or vermiform appendix. Colorectal cancer is clinically distinct from anal cancer, which affects the anus....
.
Professor Sheila Bingham of the Dunn Human Nutrition Unit
Dunn Human Nutrition Unit
The MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit is an institution of the Medical Research Council based at the Addenbrooke’s Hospital site in Cambridge, England...
attributes this to the haemoglobin and myoglobin
Myoglobin
Myoglobin is an iron- and oxygen-binding protein found in the muscle tissue of vertebrates in general and in almost all mammals. It is related to hemoglobin, which is the iron- and oxygen-binding protein in blood, specifically in the red blood cells. The only time myoglobin is found in the...
molecules which are found in red meat. She suggests these molecules, when ingested trigger a process called nitrosation
Nitrosation
Nitrosation is a process of converting organic compounds into nitroso derivatives, i.e. compounds containing the R-NO functionality.-C-Nitroso compounds:C-Nitroso compounds, such as nitrosobenzene, are typically prepared by oxidation of hydroxylamines:...
in the gut
Gut (zoology)
In zoology, the gut, also known as the alimentary canal or alimentary tract, is a tube by which bilaterian animals transfer food to the digestion organs. In large bilaterians the gut generally also has an exit, the anus, by which the animal disposes of solid wastes...
which leads to the formation of carcinogens.
Others have suggested that it is due to the presence of carcinogenic compounds called heterocyclic amines
Heterocyclic amines
Heterocyclic amines, also sometime referred to as HCAs, are chemical compounds containing at least one heterocyclic ring, which by definition has atoms of at least two different elements, plus the compound has at least one amine group. While some heterocycles are amines themselves, the amines...
, which are created in the cooking process. However, this may not be limited to red meat, since a study from the Harvard School of Public Health
Harvard School of Public Health
The Harvard School of Public Health is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University, located in the Longwood Area of the Boston, Massachusetts neighborhood of Mission Hill, which is next to Harvard Medical School. HSPH is considered a significant school focusing on health in the...
found that people who ate skinless chicken five times or more per week increased their risk of developing bladder cancer by 52 percent.
Other Cancers
There is "suggestive" evidence that red meat intake increases the risk of oesophageal, lungLung cancer
Lung cancer is a disease characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung. If left untreated, this growth can spread beyond the lung in a process called metastasis into nearby tissue and, eventually, into other parts of the body. Most cancers that start in lung, known as primary...
, pancreatic
Pancreatic cancer
Pancreatic cancer refers to a malignant neoplasm of the pancreas. The most common type of pancreatic cancer, accounting for 95% of these tumors is adenocarcinoma, which arises within the exocrine component of the pancreas. A minority arises from the islet cells and is classified as a...
and endometrial
Endometrial cancer
Endometrial cancer refers to several types of malignancies that arise from the endometrium, or lining, of the uterus. Endometrial cancers are the most common gynecologic cancers in the United States, with over 35,000 women diagnosed each year. The incidence is on a slow rise secondary to the...
cancer. As a result, they recommend limiting intake of red meat to less than 300g (11oz) cooked weight per week, "very little, if any of which to be processed."
Some studies have linked consumption of large amounts of red meat with breast cancer
Breast cancer
Breast cancer is cancer originating from breast tissue, most commonly from the inner lining of milk ducts or the lobules that supply the ducts with milk. Cancers originating from ducts are known as ductal carcinomas; those originating from lobules are known as lobular carcinomas...
, stomach cancer
Stomach cancer
Gastric cancer, commonly referred to as stomach cancer, can develop in any part of the stomach and may spread throughout the stomach and to other organs; particularly the esophagus, lungs, lymph nodes, and the liver...
, lymphoma
Lymphoma
Lymphoma is a cancer in the lymphatic cells of the immune system. Typically, lymphomas present as a solid tumor of lymphoid cells. Treatment might involve chemotherapy and in some cases radiotherapy and/or bone marrow transplantation, and can be curable depending on the histology, type, and stage...
, bladder cancer
Bladder cancer
Bladder cancer is any of several types of malignant growths of the urinary bladder. It is a disease in which abnormal cells multiply without control in the bladder. The bladder is a hollow, muscular organ that stores urine; it is located in the pelvis...
, lung cancer
Lung cancer
Lung cancer is a disease characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung. If left untreated, this growth can spread beyond the lung in a process called metastasis into nearby tissue and, eventually, into other parts of the body. Most cancers that start in lung, known as primary...
and prostate cancer
Prostate cancer
Prostate cancer is a form of cancer that develops in the prostate, a gland in the male reproductive system. Most prostate cancers are slow growing; however, there are cases of aggressive prostate cancers. The cancer cells may metastasize from the prostate to other parts of the body, particularly...
(although other studies have found no relationship between red meat and prostate cancer).
A 2009 study by the National Cancer Institute
National Cancer Institute
The National Cancer Institute is part of the National Institutes of Health , which is one of 11 agencies that are part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The NCI coordinates the U.S...
revealed a correlation between the consumption of red meat and increased mortality from cancer, as well as increased mortality from all causes. This study has been criticized for using an improperly validated food frequency questionnaire, which has been shown to have low levels of accuracy.
Cardiovascular diseases
Red meat consumption is associated with cardiovascular diseases, possibly because of its high content of saturated fatSaturated fat
Saturated fat is fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between the individual carbon atoms of the fatty acid chain. That is, the chain of carbon atoms is fully "saturated" with hydrogen atoms...
. Specifically, increased beef intake is associated with ischemic heart disease. Some mechanisms that have been suggested for why red meat consumption is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease include: its impact on serum cholesterol, that red meat contains arachidonic acid
Arachidonic acid
Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid 20:4.It is the counterpart to the saturated arachidic acid found in peanut oil, Arachidonic acid (AA, sometimes ARA) is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid 20:4(ω-6).It is the counterpart to the saturated arachidic acid found in peanut oil,...
, heme iron
Heme
A heme or haem is a prosthetic group that consists of an iron atom contained in the center of a large heterocyclic organic ring called a porphyrin. Not all porphyrins contain iron, but a substantial fraction of porphyrin-containing metalloproteins have heme as their prosthetic group; these are...
, and homocysteine
Homocysteine
Homocysteine is a non-protein amino acid with the formula HSCH2CH2CHCO2H. It is a homologue of the amino acid cysteine, differing by an additional methylene group. It is biosynthesized from methionine by the removal of its terminal Cε methyl group...
.
A 1999 study funded by the National Cattlemen's Beef Association
National Cattlemen's Beef Association
National Cattlemen's Beef Association or NCBA, an advocacy group for beef producers in the United States, reports that it works "to increase profit opportunities for cattle and beef producers by enhancing the business climate and building consumer demand."The NCBA operates the Cattle Industry...
, an advocacy group for beef producers, involved 191 persons with high cholesterol
Hypercholesterolemia
Hypercholesterolemia is the presence of high levels of cholesterol in the blood. It is not a disease but a metabolic derangement that can be caused by many diseases, notably cardiovascular disease...
on diets where at least 80% of the meat intake came from either lean red meat in one group, or lean white meat in another. The results of this study showed nearly identical cholesterol, and triglyceride levels in both groups. This study suggests that lean red meat may play a role in a low-fat diet
Diet (nutrition)
In nutrition, diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. Dietary habits are the habitual decisions an individual or culture makes when choosing what foods to eat. With the word diet, it is often implied the use of specific intake of nutrition for health or weight-management...
for persons with high cholesterol.
Red meat consumption is also associated with acute coronary syndrome
Acute coronary syndrome
Acute coronary syndrome is usually one of three diseases involving the coronary arteries: ST elevation myocardial infarction , non ST elevation myocardial infarction , or unstable angina ....
, as well as stroke
Stroke
A stroke, previously known medically as a cerebrovascular accident , is the rapidly developing loss of brain function due to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. This can be due to ischemia caused by blockage , or a hemorrhage...
. It has also been associated with greater intima-media thickness
Intima-media thickness
Intima-media thickness , also called intimal medial thickness, is a measurement of the thickness of artery walls, usually by external ultrasound, occasionally by internal, invasive ultrasound catheters, see IVUS, to both detect the presence and to track the progression of atherosclerotic disease in...
, an indicator of atherosclerosis.
A 2008 article published in Nature
Nature
Nature, in the broadest sense, is equivalent to the natural world, physical world, or material world. "Nature" refers to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general...
found that red meat consumption was "strongly associated" with increased odds of acute coronary syndrome, with those eating more than 8 servings of red meat per month being 4.9 times more likely to have cardiac events than those eating less than four servings per month.
A 21 year follow up of about thirty thousand Seventh Day Adventists found that people who ate red meat daily were 60% more likely to die of heart disease than those who ate red meat less than once per week.
The Seven Countries Study found a significant correlation between red meat consumption and risk of CHD. A significant relationship between red meat and CHD has been found specifically for women, most strongly with regards to processed red meat.
A 2009 study by the National Cancer Institute
National Cancer Institute
The National Cancer Institute is part of the National Institutes of Health , which is one of 11 agencies that are part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The NCI coordinates the U.S...
revealed a correlation between the consumption of red meat and increased mortality from cardiovascular diseases, as well as increased mortality from all causes. This study has been criticized for using an improperly validated food frequency questionnaire, which has been shown to have low levels of accuracy.
Diabetes
Red meat intake has been associated with an increased risk of type II diabetes. Interventions in which red meat is removed from the diet can lower albuminuriaAlbuminuria
Albuminuria is a pathological condition wherein albumin is present in the urine. It is a type of proteinuria.Measurement=The amount of protein being lost in the urine can be quantified by collecting the urine for 24 hours, measuring a sample of the pooled urine, and extrapolating to the volume...
levels. Replacing red meat with a low protein or chicken diet can improve glomerular filtration rate.
Other findings have suggested that the association may be to saturated fat
Saturated fat
Saturated fat is fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between the individual carbon atoms of the fatty acid chain. That is, the chain of carbon atoms is fully "saturated" with hydrogen atoms...
, trans fat
Trans fat
Trans fat is the common name for unsaturated fat with trans-isomer fatty acid. Because the term refers to the configuration of a double carbon-carbon bond, trans fats are sometimes monounsaturated or polyunsaturated, but never saturated....
and dietary cholesterol, rather than red meat per se. An additional confound is that diets high in processed meat could increase the risk for developing Type 2 diabetes.
One study estimated that “substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type two diabetes”.
Obesity
The Diogenes project used data from ninety thousand men and women over about seven years and found that "higher intake of total protein, and protein from animal sources was associated with subsequent weight gain for both genders, strongest among women, and the association was mainly attributable to protein from red and processed meat and poultry rather than from fish and dairy sources. There was no overall association between intake of plant protein and subsequent changes in weight." They also found an association between red meat consumption and increased waist circumference.A 1998 survey of about five thousand vegetarian and non-vegetarian people found that vegetarians had about 30% lower BMI
Body mass index
The body mass index , or Quetelet index, is a heuristic proxy for human body fat based on an individual's weight and height. BMI does not actually measure the percentage of body fat. It was invented between 1830 and 1850 by the Belgian polymath Adolphe Quetelet during the course of developing...
s. A 2006 survey of fifty thousand women found that those with higher "western diet pattern" scores gained about two more kilograms over the course of four years than those who lowered their scores.
A ten-year follow up of 80,000 men and women found that "ten-year changes in body mass index was associated positively with meat consumption" as well as with weight gain at the waist. In a Mediterranean population of 8,000 men and women, meat consumption was significantly associated with weight gain. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey showed "consistent positive associations between meat consumption and BMI, waist circumference, obesity and central obesity."
A survey of twins found that processed meat intake was associated with weight gain. Western diets, which include higher consumption of red meats, are often associated with obesity.
Other health issues
Regular consumption of red meat has also been linked to hypertensionHypertension
Hypertension or high blood pressure is a cardiac chronic medical condition in which the systemic arterial blood pressure is elevated. What that means is that the heart is having to work harder than it should to pump the blood around the body. Blood pressure involves two measurements, systolic and...
, and arthritis
Arthritis
Arthritis is a form of joint disorder that involves inflammation of one or more joints....
.
Culture
In some cultures, eating red meat is considered a masculine activity, possibly due to traditions of hunting big game as a male rite of passageRite of passage
A rite of passage is a ritual event that marks a person's progress from one status to another. It is a universal phenomenon which can show anthropologists what social hierarchies, values and beliefs are important in specific cultures....
.