Reference
Encyclopedia
Reference is derived from Middle English
referren, from Middle French
rèférer, from Latin
referre, "to carry back", formed from the prefix
re- and ferre, "to bear". A large number of words derive from this root, including referee, reference, referendum
, all retaining the basic meaning of the original Latin as "a point, place or source of origin" that something of comparable nature can be defined in terms of. A referee is the provider of this source of origin, and a referent is the possessor of the source of origin, whether it is knowledge
, matter
or energy
.
Because of its meaning, the word reference is used in every sphere of human knowledge, adopting shades of meaning particular to the contexts in which it is used.
References can take on many forms, including: a thought, a sensory perception that is audible
(onomatopoeia), visual
(text), olfactory
, or tactile, emotional state, relationship with other, spacetime
coordinate, symbolic
or alpha-numeric
, a physical object or an energy projection; but, other concrete and abstract contexts exist as methods of defining references within the scope of the various fields that require an origin, point of departure, or an original form. This includes methods that intentionally hide the reference from some observers, as in cryptography
.
The following sections give specific usages of reference in different subjects.
, reference
s are data type
s that refer to an object elsewhere in memory and are used to construct a wide variety of data structure
s, such as linked list
s. Generally, a reference is a value that enables a program to directly access the particular data item. Most programming language
s support some form of reference.
programming language has a specific type of reference also referred to as a "reference"; see reference (C++)
.
s that are used to identify as many published works on a given subject as possible, and serve as compilations for other authors or researchers.
, "reference" may refer to a dictionary
, an encyclopedia
or other reference work
, that contains many brief articles that cover a broad scope of knowledge in one book, or a set of books. However, the word reference is also used to mean a book that cannot be taken from the room, or from the building. Many of the books in the reference department of a library are reference works, but some are books that are simply too large or valuable to loan out. Conversely, selected reference works may be shelved with other circulating
books, and may be loaned out.
References to many types of printed matter may come in an electronic or machine-readable form. For books, there exists the ISBN
and for journal articles, the Digital object identifier (DOI)
is gaining relevance. Information on the Internet
may be referred to by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI)
.
Librarians also conduct reference interview
s at the library reference desk
s, to help people find the information they seek. Help may also be available outside the library though virtual reference
and digital reference services
.
is used in psychology to establish identification with a mental state during self-analysis. This seeks to allow the individual to develop own frames of reference in a greater state of immediate awareness. However, it can laso lead to circular reasoning, preventing evolution of thought.
In the labour market
, potential employers often ask job applicants for references or recommendations
, so that their suitability can be verified independently. The references can be a written letter, but are often just a contact telephone
number. Employers can ask for professional references, which are from former employers, or for character references, which are from people of distinction such as doctors or teachers. The source of the reference must be well known to the applicant and able to vouch for their abilities during employment.
and footnote
s, specifying complete works of other people. Copying of material by another author without proper citation or without required permissions is plagiarism
.
Keeping a diary
allows an individual to use references for personal organization, whether or not anyone else understands the systems of reference used. However, scholars have studied methods of reference because of their key role in communication and co-operation between different people, and also because of misunderstandings that can arise. Modern academic study of reference has been developing since the 19th Century.
In scholarship, a reference may be a citation
of a text that has been used in the creation of a piece of work such as an essay, report, or oration. Its primary purpose is to allow people who read such work to examine the author's sources, either for validity
or to learn more about the subject. Such items are often listed at the end of an article or book in a section marked "Bibliography
" or "References". A bibliographical section often contains works not cited by the author, but used as background reading or listed as potentially useful to the reader. A reference section contains all of the works and only those works cited by the author(s) in the main text.
law, a reference is a document that can be used to show the state of knowledge at a given time and that therefore may make a claim
ed invention
obvious
or anticipated. Examples of references are patents of any country, magazine articles, Ph.D.
theses that are indexed and thus accessible to those interested in finding information about the subject matter, and to some extent Internet material that is similarly accessible.
is a procedure through which the government of Canada
can submit legal questions to the Supreme Court of Canada
and provincial governments to the provincial courts of appeal.
, reference is generally construed as the relationships between noun
s or pronoun
s and objects that are named by them. Hence, the word
"John" refers to John. The word "it" refers to some previously specified object. The object referred to is called the "referent" of the word. Sometimes the word-object relation is called "denotation
"; the word denotes the object. The converse relation, the relation from object to word, is called "exemplification
"; the object exemplifies what the word denotes. In syntactic analysis, if a word refers to a previous word, the previous word is called the "antecedent
".
argued that reference cannot be treated as identical with meaning: "Hesperus
" (an ancient Greek name for the evening star) and "Phosphorus
" (an ancient Greek name for the morning star) both refer to Venus
, but the astronomical fact that '"Hesperus" is "Phosphorus"' can still be informative, even if the "meanings" of "Hesperus" and "Phosphorus" are already known. This problem led Frege to distinguish between the sense and reference
of a word. Some cases seem to be too complicated to be classified within this framework; the acceptance of the notion of secondary reference
may be necessary to fill the gap.
" illustrate this possibility. Sign links with absent referents also allow for discussing abstract ideas ("love," "peace") as well as people and events of the past and future.
For those who argue that one cannot directly experience the divine (e.g. God), the sign "God
" can serve as an example of a reference with an absent referent. Additionally, certain sects of Judaism
and other religions consider it sinful to write, discard, or deface the name of the divine. To avoid this problem, the signifier G-d
is sometimes used, though this could be seen as a sign that refers to another sign with an absent referent.
, i.e., typically pronoun
s. The subset of reflexives expresses co-reference of agent
(actor) and patient (acted on), as in "The man washed himself".
A reference point in Geometry
is a location used to describe another point, by giving the relative position. Similarly there is the concept of frame of reference
(both in physics and figuratively) and benchmark
(in surveying and figuratively).
describe the purpose and structure of a project
, committee
, meeting
, negotiation
, or any similar collection of people who have agreed to work together to accomplish a shared goal. The terms of reference of a project are often referred to as the project charter
.
is often used during the pre-production phase of design development to test design features against original specifications.
, a reference is an item from which a work is based. This may include:
Another example of reference is samples
of various musical works being incorporated into a new one.
that has been used as a source for theory or claims referred to that are used in the text. References contain complete bibliographic information so the interested reader can find them in a library. References can be added either at the end of the publication or as footnote
s.
In publishing, a reference is citation
of a work, in a footnote, from which an idea was taken.
Middle English
Middle English is the stage in the history of the English language during the High and Late Middle Ages, or roughly during the four centuries between the late 11th and the late 15th century....
referren, from Middle French
Middle French
Middle French is a historical division of the French language that covers the period from 1340 to 1611. It is a period of transition during which:...
rèférer, from Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
referre, "to carry back", formed from the prefix
Prefix
A prefix is an affix which is placed before the root of a word. Particularly in the study of languages,a prefix is also called a preformative, because it alters the form of the words to which it is affixed.Examples of prefixes:...
re- and ferre, "to bear". A large number of words derive from this root, including referee, reference, referendum
Referendum
A referendum is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. This may result in the adoption of a new constitution, a constitutional amendment, a law, the recall of an elected official or simply a specific government policy. It is a form of...
, all retaining the basic meaning of the original Latin as "a point, place or source of origin" that something of comparable nature can be defined in terms of. A referee is the provider of this source of origin, and a referent is the possessor of the source of origin, whether it is knowledge
Knowledge
Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something unknown, which can include information, facts, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject...
, matter
Matter
Matter is a general term for the substance of which all physical objects consist. Typically, matter includes atoms and other particles which have mass. A common way of defining matter is as anything that has mass and occupies volume...
or energy
Energy
In physics, energy is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems...
.
Because of its meaning, the word reference is used in every sphere of human knowledge, adopting shades of meaning particular to the contexts in which it is used.
References can take on many forms, including: a thought, a sensory perception that is audible
Hearing (sense)
Hearing is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations through an organ such as the ear. It is one of the traditional five senses...
(onomatopoeia), visual
Visual perception
Visual perception is the ability to interpret information and surroundings from the effects of visible light reaching the eye. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight, or vision...
(text), olfactory
Olfaction
Olfaction is the sense of smell. This sense is mediated by specialized sensory cells of the nasal cavity of vertebrates, and, by analogy, sensory cells of the antennae of invertebrates...
, or tactile, emotional state, relationship with other, spacetime
Spacetime
In physics, spacetime is any mathematical model that combines space and time into a single continuum. Spacetime is usually interpreted with space as being three-dimensional and time playing the role of a fourth dimension that is of a different sort from the spatial dimensions...
coordinate, symbolic
Symbolic system
In the fields of anthropology, sociology, and psychology, symbolic system refers to a system of interconnected symbolic meanings. In particular, the field focuses on the dynamic relationships between various symbols within different task or theoretical contexts...
or alpha-numeric
Alpha-numeric grid
An alphanumeric grid is a simple coordinate system on a grid in which each cell is identified by a combination of a letter and a number....
, a physical object or an energy projection; but, other concrete and abstract contexts exist as methods of defining references within the scope of the various fields that require an origin, point of departure, or an original form. This includes methods that intentionally hide the reference from some observers, as in cryptography
Cryptography
Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties...
.
The following sections give specific usages of reference in different subjects.
Data processing and computer science
In computer scienceComputer science
Computer science or computing science is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems...
, reference
Reference (computer science)
In computer science, a reference is a value that enables a program to indirectly access a particular data item, such as a variable or a record, in the computer's memory or in some other storage device. The reference is said to refer to the data item, and accessing those data is called...
s are data type
Data type
In computer programming, a data type is a classification identifying one of various types of data, such as floating-point, integer, or Boolean, that determines the possible values for that type; the operations that can be done on values of that type; the meaning of the data; and the way values of...
s that refer to an object elsewhere in memory and are used to construct a wide variety of data structure
Data structure
In computer science, a data structure is a particular way of storing and organizing data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently.Different kinds of data structures are suited to different kinds of applications, and some are highly specialized to specific tasks...
s, such as linked list
Linked list
In computer science, a linked list is a data structure consisting of a group of nodes which together represent a sequence. Under the simplest form, each node is composed of a datum and a reference to the next node in the sequence; more complex variants add additional links...
s. Generally, a reference is a value that enables a program to directly access the particular data item. Most programming language
Programming language
A programming language is an artificial language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs that control the behavior of a machine and/or to express algorithms precisely....
s support some form of reference.
Computer programming, programs & data
The C++C++
C++ is a statically typed, free-form, multi-paradigm, compiled, general-purpose programming language. It is regarded as an intermediate-level language, as it comprises a combination of both high-level and low-level language features. It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell...
programming language has a specific type of reference also referred to as a "reference"; see reference (C++)
Reference (C++)
In the C++ programming language, a reference is a simple reference datatype that is less powerful but safer than the pointer type inherited from C...
.
Bibliographies
Bibliographies are special reference workReference work
A reference work is a compendium of information, usually of a specific type, compiled in a book for ease of reference. That is, the information is intended to be quickly found when needed. Reference works are usually referred to for particular pieces of information, rather than read beginning to end...
s that are used to identify as many published works on a given subject as possible, and serve as compilations for other authors or researchers.
Library and information sciences
In a libraryLibrary
In a traditional sense, a library is a large collection of books, and can refer to the place in which the collection is housed. Today, the term can refer to any collection, including digital sources, resources, and services...
, "reference" may refer to a dictionary
Dictionary
A dictionary is a collection of words in one or more specific languages, often listed alphabetically, with usage information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, and other information; or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon...
, an encyclopedia
Encyclopedia
An encyclopedia is a type of reference work, a compendium holding a summary of information from either all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge....
or other reference work
Reference work
A reference work is a compendium of information, usually of a specific type, compiled in a book for ease of reference. That is, the information is intended to be quickly found when needed. Reference works are usually referred to for particular pieces of information, rather than read beginning to end...
, that contains many brief articles that cover a broad scope of knowledge in one book, or a set of books. However, the word reference is also used to mean a book that cannot be taken from the room, or from the building. Many of the books in the reference department of a library are reference works, but some are books that are simply too large or valuable to loan out. Conversely, selected reference works may be shelved with other circulating
Library circulation
Library circulation or library lending comprises the activities around the lending of library books and other material to users of a lending library. A circulation or lending department is one of the key departments of a library....
books, and may be loaned out.
References to many types of printed matter may come in an electronic or machine-readable form. For books, there exists the ISBN
International Standard Book Number
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering code created by Gordon Foster, Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Trinity College, Dublin, for the booksellers and stationers W.H...
and for journal articles, the Digital object identifier (DOI)
Digital object identifier
A digital object identifier is a character string used to uniquely identify an object such as an electronic document. Metadata about the object is stored in association with the DOI name and this metadata may include a location, such as a URL, where the object can be found...
is gaining relevance. Information on the Internet
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
may be referred to by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI)
Uniform Resource Identifier
In computing, a uniform resource identifier is a string of characters used to identify a name or a resource on the Internet. Such identification enables interaction with representations of the resource over a network using specific protocols...
.
Librarians also conduct reference interview
Reference interview
A reference interview is a conversation between a librarian and a library user, usually at a reference desk, in which the librarian responds to the user's initial explanation of his or her information need by first attempting to clarify that need and then by directing the user to appropriate...
s at the library reference desk
Library reference desk
The reference desk or information desk of a library is a public service counter where professional librarians provide library users with direction to library materials, advice on library collections and services, and expertise on multiple kinds of information from multiple sources.- Explanation...
s, to help people find the information they seek. Help may also be available outside the library though virtual reference
Virtual reference
Virtual reference is the remote, computer-mediated delivery of reference information provided by library professionals to users who cannot access or do not want face-to-face communication. Virtual reference service is most often an extension of a library's existing reference service program...
and digital reference services
Digital reference services
Digital reference is a service by which library reference service is conducted online, and the reference transaction is a computer-mediated communication....
.
Psychology
In terms of mental processing, a self-referenceSelf-reference
Self-reference occurs in natural or formal languages when a sentence or formula refers to itself. The reference may be expressed either directly—through some intermediate sentence or formula—or by means of some encoding...
is used in psychology to establish identification with a mental state during self-analysis. This seeks to allow the individual to develop own frames of reference in a greater state of immediate awareness. However, it can laso lead to circular reasoning, preventing evolution of thought.
Economics
- Further information: Employment reference letterEmployment reference letterAn employment reference letter is a letter from an employer about an employee's qualities. This letter could then be used to help the employee find a new job at another company...
, Reference letterReference letterA reference letter or letter of reference is a letter in which the writer makes a general assessment of the qualities, characteristics, and capabilities of a person, or confirms details about that individual’s situation or circumstances...
In the labour market
Labour economics
Labor economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the market for labor. Labor markets function through the interaction of workers and employers...
, potential employers often ask job applicants for references or recommendations
Recommendation letter
A letter of recommendation is a letter in which the writer assesses the qualities, characteristics, and capabilities of the person being recommended in terms of that individual’s ability to perform a particular task or function. Recommendation letters are almost always specifically requested to be...
, so that their suitability can be verified independently. The references can be a written letter, but are often just a contact telephone
Telephone
The telephone , colloquially referred to as a phone, is a telecommunications device that transmits and receives sounds, usually the human voice. Telephones are a point-to-point communication system whose most basic function is to allow two people separated by large distances to talk to each other...
number. Employers can ask for professional references, which are from former employers, or for character references, which are from people of distinction such as doctors or teachers. The source of the reference must be well known to the applicant and able to vouch for their abilities during employment.
Education
In academics and scholarship, an author-title-date information in bibliographiesBibliography
Bibliography , as a practice, is the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology...
and footnote
Footnote
A note is a string of text placed at the bottom of a page in a book or document or at the end of a text. The note can provide an author's comments on the main text or citations of a reference work in support of the text, or both...
s, specifying complete works of other people. Copying of material by another author without proper citation or without required permissions is plagiarism
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is defined in dictionaries as the "wrongful appropriation," "close imitation," or "purloining and publication" of another author's "language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions," and the representation of them as one's own original work, but the notion remains problematic with nebulous...
.
Keeping a diary
Diary
A diary is a record with discrete entries arranged by date reporting on what has happened over the course of a day or other period. A personal diary may include a person's experiences, and/or thoughts or feelings, including comment on current events outside the writer's direct experience. Someone...
allows an individual to use references for personal organization, whether or not anyone else understands the systems of reference used. However, scholars have studied methods of reference because of their key role in communication and co-operation between different people, and also because of misunderstandings that can arise. Modern academic study of reference has been developing since the 19th Century.
In scholarship, a reference may be a citation
Citation
Broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source . More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression Broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source (not always the original source). More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated...
of a text that has been used in the creation of a piece of work such as an essay, report, or oration. Its primary purpose is to allow people who read such work to examine the author's sources, either for validity
Validity
In logic, argument is valid if and only if its conclusion is entailed by its premises, a formula is valid if and only if it is true under every interpretation, and an argument form is valid if and only if every argument of that logical form is valid....
or to learn more about the subject. Such items are often listed at the end of an article or book in a section marked "Bibliography
Bibliography
Bibliography , as a practice, is the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology...
" or "References". A bibliographical section often contains works not cited by the author, but used as background reading or listed as potentially useful to the reader. A reference section contains all of the works and only those works cited by the author(s) in the main text.
Law
In law, references are documents or people providing witness to character. This connotation is also used in employment.Patent law
In patentPatent
A patent is a form of intellectual property. It consists of a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or their assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for the public disclosure of an invention....
law, a reference is a document that can be used to show the state of knowledge at a given time and that therefore may make a claim
Claim (patent)
Patent claims are the part of a patent or patent application that defines the scope of protection granted by the patent. The claims define, in technical terms, the extent of the protection conferred by a patent, or the protection sought in a patent application...
ed invention
Invention
An invention is a novel composition, device, or process. An invention may be derived from a pre-existing model or idea, or it could be independently conceived, in which case it may be a radical breakthrough. In addition, there is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social...
obvious
Inventive step and non-obviousness
The inventive step and non-obviousness reflect a same general patentability requirement present in most patent laws, according to which an invention should be sufficiently inventive — i.e., non-obvious — in order to be patented....
or anticipated. Examples of references are patents of any country, magazine articles, Ph.D.
Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as Ph.D., PhD, D.Phil., or DPhil , in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities...
theses that are indexed and thus accessible to those interested in finding information about the subject matter, and to some extent Internet material that is similarly accessible.
Canadian law
A reference questionReference question
In Canadian law, a Reference Question is a submission by the federal or a provincial government to the courts asking for an advisory opinion on a major legal issue. Typically the question concerns the constitutionality of legislation....
is a procedure through which the government of Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
can submit legal questions to the Supreme Court of Canada
Supreme Court of Canada
The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court of Canada and is the final court of appeals in the Canadian justice system. The court grants permission to between 40 and 75 litigants each year to appeal decisions rendered by provincial, territorial and federal appellate courts, and its decisions...
and provincial governments to the provincial courts of appeal.
Semantics
In semanticsSemantics
Semantics is the study of meaning. It focuses on the relation between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs and symbols, and what they stand for, their denotata....
, reference is generally construed as the relationships between noun
Noun
In linguistics, a noun is a member of a large, open lexical category whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition .Lexical categories are defined in terms of how their members combine with other kinds of...
s or pronoun
Pronoun
In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun , such as, in English, the words it and he...
s and objects that are named by them. Hence, the word
Word
In language, a word is the smallest free form that may be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content . This contrasts with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning but will not necessarily stand on its own...
"John" refers to John. The word "it" refers to some previously specified object. The object referred to is called the "referent" of the word. Sometimes the word-object relation is called "denotation
Denotation
This word has distinct meanings in other fields: see denotation . For the opposite of Denotation see Connotation.*In logic, linguistics and semiotics, the denotation of a word or phrase is a part of its meaning; however, the part referred to varies by context:** In grammar and literary theory, the...
"; the word denotes the object. The converse relation, the relation from object to word, is called "exemplification
Exemplification
Exemplification is a mode of symbolization characterized by the relation between a sample and what it refers to.- Description :Unlike ostension, which is the act of showing or pointing to a sample, exemplification is possession of a property plus reference to its label...
"; the object exemplifies what the word denotes. In syntactic analysis, if a word refers to a previous word, the previous word is called the "antecedent
Antecedent
An antecedent is a preceding event, condition, cause, phrase, or word. It may refer to:* Antecedent moisture, a hydrologic term describing the relative wetness condition of a sewershed.* Antecedent , the first half of a hypothetical proposition....
".
Meaning
Gottlob FregeGottlob Frege
Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege was a German mathematician, logician and philosopher. He is considered to be one of the founders of modern logic, and made major contributions to the foundations of mathematics. He is generally considered to be the father of analytic philosophy, for his writings on...
argued that reference cannot be treated as identical with meaning: "Hesperus
Hesperus
In Greek mythology, Hesperus is the Evening Star, the planet Venus in the evening. He is the son of the dawn goddess Eos and is the brother of Eosphorus , the Morning Star. Hesperus' Roman equivalent is Vesper...
" (an ancient Greek name for the evening star) and "Phosphorus
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the chemical element that has the symbol P and atomic number 15. A multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus as a mineral is almost always present in its maximally oxidized state, as inorganic phosphate rocks...
" (an ancient Greek name for the morning star) both refer to Venus
Venus
Venus is the second planet from the Sun, orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days. The planet is named after Venus, the Roman goddess of love and beauty. After the Moon, it is the brightest natural object in the night sky, reaching an apparent magnitude of −4.6, bright enough to cast shadows...
, but the astronomical fact that '"Hesperus" is "Phosphorus"' can still be informative, even if the "meanings" of "Hesperus" and "Phosphorus" are already known. This problem led Frege to distinguish between the sense and reference
Sense and reference
Sinn and bedeutung are usually translated, respectively, as sense and reference. Two different aspects of some terms' meanings, a term's reference is the object that the term refers to, while the term's sense is the way that the term refers to that object.Sinn and bedeutung were introduced by...
of a word. Some cases seem to be too complicated to be classified within this framework; the acceptance of the notion of secondary reference
Secondary reference
Secondary reference points to the representation as a necessary part in granting a meaning to a sentence. In this approach, words that don’t contribute to the representation are void; they can only provide a figurative expression. Examples of phrases which lack a secondary reference are 'a black...
may be necessary to fill the gap.
Absent referent
Words can often be meaningful without having a concrete here-and-now referent. Fictional and mythological names such as "Bo-Peep" and "HerculesHercules
Hercules is the Roman name for Greek demigod Heracles, son of Zeus , and the mortal Alcmene...
" illustrate this possibility. Sign links with absent referents also allow for discussing abstract ideas ("love," "peace") as well as people and events of the past and future.
For those who argue that one cannot directly experience the divine (e.g. God), the sign "God
God
God is the English name given to a singular being in theistic and deistic religions who is either the sole deity in monotheism, or a single deity in polytheism....
" can serve as an example of a reference with an absent referent. Additionally, certain sects of Judaism
Judaism
Judaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
and other religions consider it sinful to write, discard, or deface the name of the divine. To avoid this problem, the signifier G-d
Names of God in Judaism
In Judaism, the name of God is more than a distinguishing title; it represents the Jewish conception of the divine nature, and of the relationship of God to the Jewish people and to the world. To demonstrate the sacredness of the names of God, and as a means of showing respect and reverence for...
is sometimes used, though this could be seen as a sign that refers to another sign with an absent referent.
Linguistic sign
Certain parts of speech exist only to express reference, viz. anaphoraAnaphora (linguistics)
In linguistics, anaphora is an instance of an expression referring to another. Usually, an anaphoric expression is represented by a pro-form or some other kind of deictic--for instance, a pronoun referring to its antecedent...
, i.e., typically pronoun
Pronoun
In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun , such as, in English, the words it and he...
s. The subset of reflexives expresses co-reference of agent
Agent (grammar)
In linguistics, a grammatical agent is the cause or initiator of an event. Agent is the name of the thematic role...
(actor) and patient (acted on), as in "The man washed himself".
Mathematics
In mathematics, the absent referent can be seen with the symbol for zero, "0" or the empty set, "{ }".A reference point in Geometry
Geometry
Geometry arose as the field of knowledge dealing with spatial relationships. Geometry was one of the two fields of pre-modern mathematics, the other being the study of numbers ....
is a location used to describe another point, by giving the relative position. Similarly there is the concept of frame of reference
Frame of reference
A frame of reference in physics, may refer to a coordinate system or set of axes within which to measure the position, orientation, and other properties of objects in it, or it may refer to an observational reference frame tied to the state of motion of an observer.It may also refer to both an...
(both in physics and figuratively) and benchmark
Benchmark (surveying)
The term bench mark, or benchmark, originates from the chiseled horizontal marks that surveyors made in stone structures, into which an angle-iron could be placed to form a "bench" for a leveling rod, thus ensuring that a leveling rod could be accurately repositioned in the same place in the future...
(in surveying and figuratively).
Business
In business administration terms of referenceTerms of reference
Terms of reference describe the purpose and structure of a project, committee, meeting, negotiation, or any similar collection of people who have agreed to work together to accomplish a shared goal. The terms of reference of a project are often referred to as the project charter.- Terms of...
describe the purpose and structure of a project
Project
A project in business and science is typically defined as a collaborative enterprise, frequently involving research or design, that is carefully planned to achieve a particular aim. Projects can be further defined as temporary rather than permanent social systems that are constituted by teams...
, committee
Committee
A committee is a type of small deliberative assembly that is usually intended to remain subordinate to another, larger deliberative assembly—which when organized so that action on committee requires a vote by all its entitled members, is called the "Committee of the Whole"...
, meeting
Meeting
In a meeting, two or more people come together to discuss one or more topics, often in a formal setting.- Definitions :An act or process of coming together as an assembly for a common purpose....
, negotiation
Negotiation
Negotiation is a dialogue between two or more people or parties, intended to reach an understanding, resolve point of difference, or gain advantage in outcome of dialogue, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, to craft outcomes to satisfy...
, or any similar collection of people who have agreed to work together to accomplish a shared goal. The terms of reference of a project are often referred to as the project charter
Project charter
In project management, a project charter or project definition is a statement of the scope, objectives and participants in a project. It provides a preliminary delineation of roles and responsibilities, outlines the project objectives, identifies the main stakeholders, and defines the authority of...
.
Engineering
In engineering a reference designReference design
Reference design refers to a technical blueprint of a system that is intended for others to copy. It contains the essential elements of the system; however, third parties may enhance or modify the design as required....
is often used during the pre-production phase of design development to test design features against original specifications.
The Arts
In ArtArt
Art is the product or process of deliberately arranging items in a way that influences and affects one or more of the senses, emotions, and intellect....
, a reference is an item from which a work is based. This may include:
- an existing artwork,
- a reproduction (i.e., photo),
- directly observed object (i.e., person), or
- the artist's memory.
Another example of reference is samples
Sampling (music)
In music, sampling is the act of taking a portion, or sample, of one sound recording and reusing it as an instrument or a different sound recording of a song or piece. Sampling was originally developed by experimental musicians working with musique concrète and electroacoustic music, who physically...
of various musical works being incorporated into a new one.
Literature and rhetoric
In academic literature, a reference is a previously published written work within academic publishingAcademic publishing
Academic publishing describes the subfield of publishing which distributes academic research and scholarship. Most academic work is published in journal article, book or thesis form. The part of academic written output that is not formally published but merely printed up or posted is often called...
that has been used as a source for theory or claims referred to that are used in the text. References contain complete bibliographic information so the interested reader can find them in a library. References can be added either at the end of the publication or as footnote
Footnote
A note is a string of text placed at the bottom of a page in a book or document or at the end of a text. The note can provide an author's comments on the main text or citations of a reference work in support of the text, or both...
s.
In publishing, a reference is citation
Citation
Broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source . More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression Broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source (not always the original source). More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated...
of a work, in a footnote, from which an idea was taken.
See also
- Antecedent (grammar)Antecedent (grammar)In grammar, an antecedent is a noun, noun phrase, or clause to which an anaphor refers in a coreference. For example, in the passage "I did not see John because he wasn't there", "John" is the antecedent of the anaphor "he"; together "John" and "he" are called a coreference because they both refer...
- ExemplificationExemplificationExemplification is a mode of symbolization characterized by the relation between a sample and what it refers to.- Description :Unlike ostension, which is the act of showing or pointing to a sample, exemplification is possession of a property plus reference to its label...
- Generic antecedentGeneric antecedentGeneric antecedents are representatives of classes, referred to in ordinary language by another word , in a situation in which gender is typically unknown or irrelevant. These mostly arise in generalizations and are particularly common in abstract, theoretical or strategic discourse...
- HyperlinkHyperlinkIn computing, a hyperlink is a reference to data that the reader can directly follow, or that is followed automatically. A hyperlink points to a whole document or to a specific element within a document. Hypertext is text with hyperlinks...
- ISO 690ISO 690ISO 690 is an ISO standard for bibliographic referencing in documents of all sorts. It includes electronic documents, and specifies the elements to be included in references to published documents, and the order in which the elements of the reference should be stated...
External links
- Reference.com – a multi-source encyclopedia search service, and language reference products provider
- References.net – a directory of multidisciplinary reference resources on the web
- Reference Resources – reference related websites in the Yahoo! Directory
- Refmuseum.com - The online museum of references