Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick
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Richard Neville KG
, jure uxoris
16th Earl of Warwick and suo jure
6th Earl of Salisbury and 8th and 5th Baron Montacute (22 November 1428 14 April 1471), known as Warwick the Kingmaker, was an English nobleman, administrator, and military commander. The son of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury
, Warwick was the wealthiest and most powerful English peer
of his age, with political connections that went beyond the country's borders. One of the main protagonists in the Wars of the Roses
, he was instrumental in the deposition of two kings, a fact which later earned him his epithet of "Kingmaker".
Through fortunes of marriage and inheritance, Warwick emerged in the 1450s at the centre of English politics. Originally a supporter of King Henry VI
, a territorial dispute with the Duke of Somerset led him to collaborate with Richard, Duke of York
in opposing the king. From this conflict he gained the strategically valuable post of Captain of Calais, a position that benefited him greatly in the years to come. The political conflict later turned into full-scale rebellion, and both York and Warwick's father, Salisbury, fell in battle. York's son, however, later triumphed with Warwick's assistance, and was crowned King Edward IV
. Edward initially ruled with Warwick's support, but the two later fell out over foreign policy and the king's choice of partner in marriage. After a failed plot to crown Edward's brother, George, Duke of Clarence
, Warwick instead restored Henry VI to the throne. The triumph was short-lived however: on 14 April 1471 Warwick was defeated by Edward at the Battle of Barnet
, and killed.
Warwick had no sons. The eldest of his two daughters, Isabel
, married George, Duke of Clarence. His younger daughter Anne
, after a short-lived marriage to King Henry's son Edward
, married King Edward's younger brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, who later became King Richard III
.
Warwick's historical legacy has been a matter of much dispute. Historical opinion has alternated between seeing him as self-centred and rash, and regarding him as a victim of the whims of an ungrateful king. It is generally agreed, however, that in his own time he enjoyed great popularity in all layers of society, and that he was skilled at appealing to popular sentiments for political support.
family who came to prominence in the fourteenth-century wars against the Scots
. In 1397, Ralph Neville had been created Earl of Westmorland
. Ralph's son Richard
, the later Earl of Warwick's father, was a younger son by a second marriage, and not heir to the earldom. He received a favourable settlement, however, and became jure uxoris
Earl of Salisbury
through his marriage to Alice
, daughter and heir of Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury
.
Salisbury's son Richard, the later Earl of Warwick, was born on 22 November 1428; little is known of his childhood. At the age of six, Richard was betrothed to Anne Beauchamp
, daughter of Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick
and his wife Isabel Despenser
. This made him heir not only to the earldom of Salisbury, but also to a substantial part of the Montague, Beauchamp, and Despenser inheritance.
Circumstances were, however, to increase his fortune even further. Beauchamp's son Henry
, who was married to Richard's sister Cecily, died in 1446. When Henry's daughter Anne
died in 1449, Richard also found himself jure uxoris Earl of Warwick. Richard's succession to the estates did not go undisputed, however. A protracted battle over parts of the inheritance ensued, particularly with Edmund Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, who was married to a daughter from Richard Beauchamp's first marriage. The dispute was about land, not about the Warwick title, as Henry's half-sisters were excluded from the succession.
By 1445 Richard had been knighted, probably at Margaret of Anjou
's coronation on 22 April that year. He is visible in the historical record of service of King Henry VI
in 1449, when mention is made of his services in a grant. He performed military service in the north with his father, and might have taken part in the war against Scotland in 1448–9. When Richard, Duke of York
, unsuccessfully rose up against the king in 1452, both Warwick and his father rallied to the side of the king.
– part of the Despenser heritage held by Warwick until then – and open conflict broke out between the two men. Then, in the summer of that year, King Henry fell ill. Somerset was a favourite of the king and Queen Margaret, and with the king incapacitated he was virtually in complete control of government. This put Warwick at a disadvantage in his dispute with Somerset, and drove him into collaboration with York. The political climate, influenced by the military defeat in France, then started turning against Somerset. On 27 March 1454, a group of royal councillors appointed the Duke of York protector of the realm. York could now count on the support not only of Warwick, but also of Warwick's father Salisbury, who had become more deeply involved in disputes with the Percys in the north of England.
York's first protectorate did not last long. Early in 1455 the king rallied sufficiently to return to power, at least nominally, with Somerset again wielding real power. Warwick returned to his estates, as did York and Salisbury, and the three started raising troops. Marching towards London, they encountered the king at St Albans
, where the two forces clashed. The battle
was brief and not particularly bloody, but it was the first instance of armed hostilities between the forces of the Houses of York
and Lancaster
in the conflict known as the Wars of the Roses
. It was also significant because it resulted in the capture of the king, and the death of Somerset.
York's second protectorate that followed was even shorter-lived than the first. At the parliament of February 1456 the king – now under the influence of Queen Margaret – resumed personal government of the realm. By this time Warwick had taken over Salisbury's role as York's main ally, even appearing at that same parliament to protect York from retributions. This conflict was also a pivotal period in Warwick's career, as it was resolved by his appointment as Constable of Calais. The post was to provide him with a vital power base in the following years of conflict. The continental
town of Calais, conquered from France in 1347, was not only of vital strategic importance, it also held what was England's largest standing army
. There were some initial disputes, with the garrison and with the royal wool monopoly known as the staple
, over payments in arrears, but in July Warwick finally took up his post.
After the recent events, Queen Margaret still considered Warwick a threat to the throne, and cut off his supplies. In August 1457, however, a French attack on the English sea port of Sandwich
set off fears of a full-scale French invasion. Warwick was again funded to protect the garrison and patrol the English coast. In disregard of royal authority, he then conducted highly successful acts of piracy, against the Castilian
fleet in May 1458, and against the Hanseatic
fleet a few weeks later. He also used his time on the Continent to establish relations with Charles VII
of France and Philip the Good of Burgundy
. Developing a solid military reputation and with good international connections, he then brought a part of his garrison to England, where he met up with his father and York in the summer of 1459.
In September 1459 Warwick crossed over to England and made his way north to Ludlow
to meet up with Salisbury, fresh from his victory over Lancastrians at the battle of Blore Heath
, and York. At nearby Ludford Bridge
their forces were scattered by the king's army, partly because of the defection of Warwick's Calais contingent under the command of Andrew Trollope
. As it turned out, the majority of the soldiers were still reluctant to raise arms against the king. Forced to flee the country, York left for Dublin, Ireland, while Warwick and Salisbury sailed to Calais, accompanied by the duke's son, Edward, Earl of March
(the future King Edward IV). Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset
was appointed to replace Warwick as Captain of Calais, but the Yorkists managed to hold on to the garrison.
In March 1460 Warwick visited York in Ireland to plan the way ahead, and returned to Calais. Then, on 26 June, he landed at Sandwich with Salisbury and March, and from here the three earls rode north to London. Salisbury was left in control of the Tower of London
, while Warwick took March with him in pursuit of the king. At Northampton
, on 10 July, King Henry was taken captive, while the Duke of Buckingham
and others were killed in battle.
In September York arrived from Ireland, and at the parliament of October that year, the duke walked up to the throne and put his hand on it. The act, signifying usurpation, left the assembly in shock. It is unclear whether Warwick had prior knowledge of York's plans, though it is assumed that this had been agreed upon between the two in Ireland the previous March. It soon became clear, however, that this regime change was unacceptable to the lords in parliament, and a compromise was agreed. The Act of Accord
of 31 October 1460 stated that while Henry VI was allowed to stay on the throne for the remainder of his life, his son Edward, Prince of Wales
, was to be disinherited. Instead, York would succeed the king, and act as protector.
This solution was not ideal to either party, and further conflict was inevitable. On 30 December, at the Battle of Wakefield
, York was killed, as were York's second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland
, and Warwick's younger brother Thomas. Salisbury was executed a day later. Warwick marched north to confront the enemy, but was defeated and forced to flee at the Second Battle of St Albans
. He then joined forces with Prince Edward of York
, the new Yorkist claimant to the crown, who had just won an important victory at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross
.
While Queen Margaret was hesitating to make her next move, Warwick and Edward hastened to London. The citizens of the capital were scared by the brutal conduct of the Lancastrian forces, and were sympathetic to the House of York. On 4 March the prince was proclaimed King Edward IV, by an assembly that gathered quickly. The new king now headed north to consolidate his title, and met with the Lancastrian forces at Towton
in Yorkshire. Warwick had suffered an injury to the leg the day before, in the Battle of Ferrybridge
, and may have played only a minor part in the battle
that followed. The unusually bloody skirmish resulted in a complete victory for the Yorkist forces, and the death of many important men on the opposing side, such as Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland
and Andrew Trollope. Queen Margaret managed to escape to Scotland
, with Henry and Prince Edward. Edward IV returned to London for his coronation, while Warwick remained to pacify the north.
Warwick's position after the accession of Edward IV was stronger than ever. He had now succeeded to his father's possessions, and in 1462 also inherited his mother's lands and the Salisbury title. Altogether he had an annual income from his lands of over £7,000, far more than any other man in the realm but the king. Edward confirmed Warwick's position as Captain of Calais, and made him Admiral of England and Steward of the Duchy of Lancaster
, along with several other offices. His brothers also benefited: John Neville, Lord Montagu
, was made Warden of the East March in 1463, and the next year created Earl of Northumberland
. George Neville, Bishop of Exeter
, was confirmed in his post as chancellor by King Edward, and in 1465 promoted to the archbishopric of York
.
By late 1461, risings in the north had been put down, and in the summer of 1462, Warwick negotiated a truce with Scotland. In October the same year, Margaret of Anjou
invaded England with troops from France, and managed to take the castles of Alnwick
and Bamburgh
. Warwick had to organise the recapture of the castles, which was accomplished by January 1463. The leaders of the rebellion, including Ralph Percy
, were pardoned and left in charge of the retaken castles. At this point, Warwick felt secure enough to travel south; in February he buried the remains of his father and brother at Bisham Priory
, and in March he attended parliament at Westminster
.
That same spring, however, the north rose up in rebellion once more, when Ralph Percy laid siege to Norham Castle
. Warwick returned to the north and rescued Norham, but the Lancastrians were left in possession of Northumberland
, and the government decided on a diplomatic approach instead. Separate truces were negotiated with Scotland and France, which allowed Warwick to retake the Northumbrian castles held by the Lancastrian rebels. This time no clemency was given, and around thirty of the rebel leaders were executed.
's sister-in-law, Bona, daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy
. This marriage was not to be, however, because in September 1464, Edward revealed that he was already married, to Elizabeth Woodville
. The marriage caused great offence to Warwick: not only due to the fact that his plans had been sabotaged, but also the secrecy with which the king had acted. The marriage – contracted on 1 May of the same year – was not made public before Warwick pressed Edward on the issue at a council meeting, and in the meanwhile Warwick had been unknowingly deceiving the French into believing the king was serious about the marriage proposal. For Edward the marriage may very well have been a love match, but in the long run he sought to build the Woodville family into a powerhouse independent of Warwick's influence.
This was not enough to cause a complete fallout between the two men, though from this point on Warwick increasingly stayed away from court. The promotion of Warwick's brother George to Archbishop of York shows that the earl was still in favour with the king. In July 1465, when Henry VI was once more captured, it was Warwick who escorted the fallen king to his captivity in the Tower.
Then, in the spring of 1466, Warwick was sent to the continent to carry out negotiations with the French and Burgundians. The negotiations centred around a marriage proposal involving Edward's sister Margaret
. Warwick increasingly came to favour French diplomatic connections. Meanwhile, Edward's father-in-law, Richard Woodville, Earl Rivers
, who had been created treasurer
, was in favour of a Burgundian alliance. This set up internal conflict within the English court, which was not alleviated by the fact that Edward had signed a secret treaty in October with Burgundy, while Warwick was forced to carry on sham negotiations with the French. Later, George Neville was dismissed as chancellor, while Edward refused to contemplate a marriage between Warwick's oldest daughter Isabel
, and Edward's brother George, Duke of Clarence
. It became increasingly clear that Warwick's position of dominance at court had been taken over by Rivers.
In the autumn of 1467, there were rumours that Warwick was now sympathetic to the Lancastrian cause, but even though he refused to come to court to answer the charges, the king accepted his denial in writing. In July the same year, it was revealed that Warwick's deputy in Calais, John, Lord Wenlock
, was involved in a Lancastrian conspiracy, and early in 1469 another Lancastrian plot was uncovered, involving John de Vere, Earl of Oxford
. It was becoming clear that the discontent with Edward's reign was widespread, a fact that Warwick could exploit.
". Part of Warwick's plan was winning over Edward's brother Clarence, possibly with the prospect of installing him on the throne. The nineteen-year old Clarence had shown himself to share many of the abilities of his older brother, but was also jealous and overambitious. In July the two sailed over to Calais where Clarence was married to Isabel. From here they returned to England, where they gathered the men of Kent
to join the rebellion in the north. Meanwhile, the king's forces were defeated at Edgecote
, where William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, was killed. The other commander, Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Devon
, was caught in flight and lynched by a mob. Later, Earl Rivers and his son John
were also apprehended and murdered. With his army now defeated, the king was taken under arrest by Archbishop Neville. He was imprisoned in Warwick
, and in August taken north to Middleham Castle
. In the long run, however, it proved impossible to rule without the king, and continuing disorder forced Warwick to release Edward in September 1469.
A modus vivendi had been achieved between Warwick and the king for some months, but the restoration of Henry Percy
to Montagu's earldom of Northumberland prevented any chance of full reconciliation. A trap was set for the king when disturbances in Lincolnshire
led him north, where he could be confronted by Warwick's men. Edward, however, discovered the plot when Richard, Lord Welles
, was routed at Losecote Field
, and gave away the plan.
Warwick soon gave up, and once more fled the country with Clarence. Denied access to Calais, they sought refuge with King Louis XI of France. Louis arranged a reconciliation between Warwick and Margaret of Anjou, and as part of the agreement, Margaret and Henry's son, Edward, Prince of Wales, would marry Warwick's daughter Anne. The objective of the alliance was to restore Henry VI to the throne. Again Warwick staged an uprising in the north, and with the king away, he and Clarence landed at Dartmouth
and Plymouth
on 13 September. Among the many who flocked to Warwick's side was his brother Montagu, who had not taken part in the last rebellion, but was disappointed when his loyalty to the king had not been rewarded with the restoration of his earldom. This time the trap set up for the king worked; as Edward hurried south, Montagu's forces approached from the north, and the king found himself surrounded. On 2 October he fled to the Netherlands
. King Henry was now restored, with Warwick acting as the true ruler in his capacity as lieutenant. At a parliament in November, Edward was attainted
of his lands and titles, and Clarence was awarded the Duchy of York
.
At this point, international affairs intervened. Louis XI declared war on Burgundy, and Duke Charles responded by granting an expeditionary force to Edward IV, in order to reclaim his throne. On 14 March Edward landed at Ravenspurn
in Yorkshire, with the acquiescence of the Earl of Northumberland. Warwick was still waiting for Queen Margaret and her son Edward, who were supposed to bring reinforcements from France, but were kept up on the continent by bad weather. At this point Edward received the support of his brother Clarence, who realised that he had been disadvantaged by the new agreement with the Lancastrians. Clarence's defection weakened Warwick, who nevertheless went in pursuit of Edward. On 14 April the two armies met at Barnet
. Fog and poor visibility on the field led to confusion, and the Lancastrian army ended up attacking its own men. In the face of defeat Warwick attempted to escape the field, but was struck off his horse and killed.
to quell any rumours of their survival. Then they were handed over to Archbishop Neville, to be buried in the family vault at Bisham. On 4 May of the same year, Edward IV defeated the remaining Lancastrian forces of Queen Margaret and Prince Edward at the Battle of Tewkesbury
, where the prince was killed. Soon afterwards, it was reported that King Henry VI had also died in the Tower. With the direct Lancastrian line exterminated, Edward could reign safely until his death in 1483.
Warwick's offices were divided between King Edward's brothers Clarence, and Richard, Duke of Gloucester, the future Richard III
. Clarence received the chamberlainship of England
and the lieutenancy of Ireland
, while Gloucester was made Admiral of England
and Warden of the West March
. Clarence also received the earldoms of Warwick and Salisbury. The earl's land had been forfeited and taken into the king's custody. When Gloucester married Warwick's younger daughter Anne in 1472, who had been recently widowed by the death of Prince Edward, a dispute broke out between the two princes over the Beauchamp and Despenser inheritances. A compromise was eventually reached, whereby the land was divided, but Clarence was not pacified. In 1477 he once again plotted against his brother. This time the king could no longer act with lenience, and the next year the Duke of Clarence was executed.
(1559). The other category originates with chronicles commissioned by Edward IV after Warwick's fall, such as the Historie of the arrivall of Edward IV
, and take a more negative view of the earl. The Mirror portrayed Warwick as a great man: beloved by the people, and betrayed by the man he helped raise to the throne. The other perspective can be found in Shakespeare
's Henry VI trilogy: a man driven by pride and egotism, who created and deposed kings at will.
In time, however, it is the latter view that dominated. The Enlightenment
, or Whig
historians of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, decried anyone who impeded the development towards a centralised, constitutional monarchy
, the way Warwick did in his struggles with Edward. David Hume called Warwick "the greatest, as well as the last, of those mighty barons who formerly overawed the crown, and rendered the people incapable of any regular system of civil government." Later writers were split between admiration for some of Warwick's character traits, and condemnation of his political actions. The romantic novelist Lord Lytton
picked up on Hume's theme in his The Last of the Barons
. Though Lytton portrayed Warwick as a tragic hero who embodied the ideals of chivalry, he was nevertheless one whose time was past. The late-nineteenth century military historian Charles Oman
acknowledged the earl's ability to appeal to popular sentiments, yet pointed out his deficiencies as a military commander. Oman found Warwick a traditional strategist, "not attaining the heights of military genius displayed by his pupil Edward." Paul Murray Kendall
's popular biography from 1957 took a sympathetic view of Warwick, but concluded that he had ultimately fallen victim to his own overreaching ambition.
More recent historians, such as Michael Hicks
and A. J. Pollard
, have tried to see Warwick in light of the standards of his own age, rather than holding him up to contemporary constitutional ideals. The insults Warwick suffered at the hands of King Edward – including Edward's secret marriage, and the refusal of the French diplomatic channel – were significant. His claim to prominence in national affairs was not a product of illusions of grandeur; it was confirmed by the high standing he enjoyed among the princes on the continent. Furthermore, Warwick's cause was not considered unjust by his contemporaries, which can be seen by the earl's popularity exceeding that of the king at the time of his first rebellion in 1469. On the other hand, while Warwick could not easily suffer his treatment by the king, it was equally impossible for Edward to accept the earl's presence on the political scene. As long as Warwick remained as powerful and influential as he was, Edward could not fully assert his royal authority, and eventual confrontation became inevitable.
The coat of arms of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, pictured at right, uses almost all typical forms of heraldry in England: The first quarter consists of his father-in-law, Richard Beauchamp
, who bore with an escutcheon of De Clare quartering Despenser, now shown in Neville's fourth quarter. The second quarter shows the arms of the Montacutes (Montagu). The third quarter shows the arms of Neville
differenced by a label for Lancaster
.
Order of the Garter
The Most Noble Order of the Garter, founded in 1348, is the highest order of chivalry, or knighthood, existing in England. The order is dedicated to the image and arms of St...
, jure uxoris
Jure uxoris
Jure uxoris is a Latin term that means "by right of his wife" or "in right of a wife". It is commonly used to refer to a title held by a man whose wife holds it in her own right. In other words, he acquired the title simply by being her husband....
16th Earl of Warwick and suo jure
Suo jure
Suo jure is a Latin phrase meaning "in her [or his] own right".It is commonly encountered in the context of titles of nobility, especially in cases where a wife may hold a title in her own right rather than through her marriage....
6th Earl of Salisbury and 8th and 5th Baron Montacute (22 November 1428 14 April 1471), known as Warwick the Kingmaker, was an English nobleman, administrator, and military commander. The son of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury
Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury
Richard Neville, jure uxoris 5th Earl of Salisbury and 7th and 4th Baron Montacute, KG, PC was a Yorkist leader during the early parts of the Wars of the Roses.-Background:...
, Warwick was the wealthiest and most powerful English peer
Peerage
The Peerage is a legal system of largely hereditary titles in the United Kingdom, which constitute the ranks of British nobility and is part of the British honours system...
of his age, with political connections that went beyond the country's borders. One of the main protagonists in the Wars of the Roses
Wars of the Roses
The Wars of the Roses were a series of dynastic civil wars for the throne of England fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the houses of Lancaster and York...
, he was instrumental in the deposition of two kings, a fact which later earned him his epithet of "Kingmaker".
Through fortunes of marriage and inheritance, Warwick emerged in the 1450s at the centre of English politics. Originally a supporter of King Henry VI
Henry VI of England
Henry VI was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. Until 1437, his realm was governed by regents. Contemporaneous accounts described him as peaceful and pious, not suited for the violent dynastic civil wars, known as the Wars...
, a territorial dispute with the Duke of Somerset led him to collaborate with Richard, Duke of York
Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York
Richard Plantagenêt, 3rd Duke of York, 6th Earl of March, 4th Earl of Cambridge, and 7th Earl of Ulster, conventionally called Richard of York was a leading English magnate, great-grandson of King Edward III...
in opposing the king. From this conflict he gained the strategically valuable post of Captain of Calais, a position that benefited him greatly in the years to come. The political conflict later turned into full-scale rebellion, and both York and Warwick's father, Salisbury, fell in battle. York's son, however, later triumphed with Warwick's assistance, and was crowned King Edward IV
Edward IV of England
Edward IV was King of England from 4 March 1461 until 3 October 1470, and again from 11 April 1471 until his death. He was the first Yorkist King of England...
. Edward initially ruled with Warwick's support, but the two later fell out over foreign policy and the king's choice of partner in marriage. After a failed plot to crown Edward's brother, George, Duke of Clarence
George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence
George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, 1st Earl of Salisbury, 1st Earl of Warwick, KG was the third son of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, and the brother of kings Edward IV and Richard III. He played an important role in the dynastic struggle known as the Wars of the...
, Warwick instead restored Henry VI to the throne. The triumph was short-lived however: on 14 April 1471 Warwick was defeated by Edward at the Battle of Barnet
Battle of Barnet
The Battle of Barnet was a decisive engagement in the Wars of the Roses, a dynastic conflict of 15th-century England. The military action, along with the subsequent Battle of Tewkesbury, secured the throne for Edward IV...
, and killed.
Warwick had no sons. The eldest of his two daughters, Isabel
Isabella Plantagenet, Duchess of Clarence
Lady Isabel Neville was the elder daughter of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, the Kingmaker of the Wars of the Roses, and Anne de Beauchamp, 16th Countess of Warwick. She was the wife of George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence...
, married George, Duke of Clarence. His younger daughter Anne
Anne Neville
Lady Anne Neville was Princess of Wales as the wife of Edward of Westminster and Queen of England as the consort of King Richard III. She held the latter title for less than two years, from 26 June 1483 until her death in March 1485...
, after a short-lived marriage to King Henry's son Edward
Edward of Westminster
Edward of Westminster , also known as Edward of Lancaster, was the only son of King Henry VI of England and Margaret of Anjou...
, married King Edward's younger brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, who later became King Richard III
Richard III of England
Richard III was King of England for two years, from 1483 until his death in 1485 during the Battle of Bosworth Field. He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty...
.
Warwick's historical legacy has been a matter of much dispute. Historical opinion has alternated between seeing him as self-centred and rash, and regarding him as a victim of the whims of an ungrateful king. It is generally agreed, however, that in his own time he enjoyed great popularity in all layers of society, and that he was skilled at appealing to popular sentiments for political support.
Becoming Warwick
The Nevilles were an ancient DurhamCounty Durham
County Durham is a ceremonial county and unitary district in north east England. The county town is Durham. The largest settlement in the ceremonial county is the town of Darlington...
family who came to prominence in the fourteenth-century wars against the Scots
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
. In 1397, Ralph Neville had been created Earl of Westmorland
Earl of Westmorland
Earl of Westmorland is a title that has been created twice in the Peerage of England. The title was first created in 1397 for Ralph Neville. It was forfeited in 1571 by Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland for leading the Rising of the North. It was revived in 1624 in favour of Sir Francis...
. Ralph's son Richard
Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury
Richard Neville, jure uxoris 5th Earl of Salisbury and 7th and 4th Baron Montacute, KG, PC was a Yorkist leader during the early parts of the Wars of the Roses.-Background:...
, the later Earl of Warwick's father, was a younger son by a second marriage, and not heir to the earldom. He received a favourable settlement, however, and became jure uxoris
Jure uxoris
Jure uxoris is a Latin term that means "by right of his wife" or "in right of a wife". It is commonly used to refer to a title held by a man whose wife holds it in her own right. In other words, he acquired the title simply by being her husband....
Earl of Salisbury
Earl of Salisbury
Earl of Salisbury is a title that has been created several times in British history. It has a complex history, being first created for Patrick de Salisbury in the middle twelfth century. It was eventually inherited by Alice, wife of Thomas, Earl of Lancaster...
through his marriage to Alice
Alice Neville, 5th Countess of Salisbury
Alice Montacute was an English noblewoman and the suo jure 5th Countess of Salisbury, 6th Baroness Monthermer, and 7th and 4th Baroness Montacute having succeeded to the titles in 1428...
, daughter and heir of Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury
Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury
Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, 6th and 3rd Baron Montacute, 5th Baron Monthermer, and Count of Perche, KG was an English nobleman...
.
Salisbury's son Richard, the later Earl of Warwick, was born on 22 November 1428; little is known of his childhood. At the age of six, Richard was betrothed to Anne Beauchamp
Anne Neville, 16th Countess of Warwick
Anne de Beauchamp, 16th Countess of Warwick was the daughter of Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, and his second wife Isabel le Despenser. Isabel was a daughter of Thomas le Despenser Anne de Beauchamp, 16th Countess of Warwick (13 July 1426 – 20 September 1492) was the daughter of...
, daughter of Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick
Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick
Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, Count of Aumale, KG was an English medieval nobleman and military commander.-Early Life:...
and his wife Isabel Despenser
Isabel le Despenser
Isabel le Despenser was the name of several women of the aristocratic family of Despenser during the Middle Ages.*Isabel le Despenser, Countess of Arundel *Isabel le Despenser, Countess of Worcester and Warwick...
. This made him heir not only to the earldom of Salisbury, but also to a substantial part of the Montague, Beauchamp, and Despenser inheritance.
Circumstances were, however, to increase his fortune even further. Beauchamp's son Henry
Henry de Beauchamp, 1st Duke of Warwick
Henry de Beauchamp, 1st Duke of Warwick was an English nobleman.He was the son of Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick and Isabel le Despenser...
, who was married to Richard's sister Cecily, died in 1446. When Henry's daughter Anne
Anne de Beauchamp, 15th Countess of Warwick
Anne Beauchamp, 15th Countess of Warwick was born in Cardiff, the only child of Henry de Beauchamp, 1st Duke of Warwick and Lady Cecily Neville. Her maternal grandparents were Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury and Alice Montagu, Countess of Salisbury...
died in 1449, Richard also found himself jure uxoris Earl of Warwick. Richard's succession to the estates did not go undisputed, however. A protracted battle over parts of the inheritance ensued, particularly with Edmund Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, who was married to a daughter from Richard Beauchamp's first marriage. The dispute was about land, not about the Warwick title, as Henry's half-sisters were excluded from the succession.
By 1445 Richard had been knighted, probably at Margaret of Anjou
Margaret of Anjou
Margaret of Anjou was the wife of King Henry VI of England. As such, she was Queen consort of England from 1445 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471; and Queen consort of France from 1445 to 1453...
's coronation on 22 April that year. He is visible in the historical record of service of King Henry VI
Henry VI of England
Henry VI was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. Until 1437, his realm was governed by regents. Contemporaneous accounts described him as peaceful and pious, not suited for the violent dynastic civil wars, known as the Wars...
in 1449, when mention is made of his services in a grant. He performed military service in the north with his father, and might have taken part in the war against Scotland in 1448–9. When Richard, Duke of York
Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York
Richard Plantagenêt, 3rd Duke of York, 6th Earl of March, 4th Earl of Cambridge, and 7th Earl of Ulster, conventionally called Richard of York was a leading English magnate, great-grandson of King Edward III...
, unsuccessfully rose up against the king in 1452, both Warwick and his father rallied to the side of the king.
Civil War
In June 1453, Somerset was granted custody of the lordship of GlamorganGlamorgan
Glamorgan or Glamorganshire is one of the thirteen historic counties and a former administrative county of Wales. It was originally an early medieval kingdom of varying boundaries known as Glywysing until taken over by the Normans as a lordship. Glamorgan is latterly represented by the three...
– part of the Despenser heritage held by Warwick until then – and open conflict broke out between the two men. Then, in the summer of that year, King Henry fell ill. Somerset was a favourite of the king and Queen Margaret, and with the king incapacitated he was virtually in complete control of government. This put Warwick at a disadvantage in his dispute with Somerset, and drove him into collaboration with York. The political climate, influenced by the military defeat in France, then started turning against Somerset. On 27 March 1454, a group of royal councillors appointed the Duke of York protector of the realm. York could now count on the support not only of Warwick, but also of Warwick's father Salisbury, who had become more deeply involved in disputes with the Percys in the north of England.
York's first protectorate did not last long. Early in 1455 the king rallied sufficiently to return to power, at least nominally, with Somerset again wielding real power. Warwick returned to his estates, as did York and Salisbury, and the three started raising troops. Marching towards London, they encountered the king at St Albans
St Albans
St Albans is a city in southern Hertfordshire, England, around north of central London, which forms the main urban area of the City and District of St Albans. It is a historic market town, and is now a sought-after dormitory town within the London commuter belt...
, where the two forces clashed. The battle
First Battle of St Albans
The First Battle of St Albans, fought on 22 May 1455 at St Albans, 22 miles north of London, traditionally marks the beginning of the Wars of the Roses. Richard, Duke of York and his ally, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, defeated the Lancastrians under Edmund, Duke of Somerset, who was killed...
was brief and not particularly bloody, but it was the first instance of armed hostilities between the forces of the Houses of York
House of York
The House of York was a branch of the English royal House of Plantagenet, three members of which became English kings in the late 15th century. The House of York was descended in the paternal line from Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, the fourth surviving son of Edward III, but also represented...
and Lancaster
House of Lancaster
The House of Lancaster was a branch of the royal House of Plantagenet. It was one of the opposing factions involved in the Wars of the Roses, an intermittent civil war which affected England and Wales during the 15th century...
in the conflict known as the Wars of the Roses
Wars of the Roses
The Wars of the Roses were a series of dynastic civil wars for the throne of England fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the houses of Lancaster and York...
. It was also significant because it resulted in the capture of the king, and the death of Somerset.
York's second protectorate that followed was even shorter-lived than the first. At the parliament of February 1456 the king – now under the influence of Queen Margaret – resumed personal government of the realm. By this time Warwick had taken over Salisbury's role as York's main ally, even appearing at that same parliament to protect York from retributions. This conflict was also a pivotal period in Warwick's career, as it was resolved by his appointment as Constable of Calais. The post was to provide him with a vital power base in the following years of conflict. The continental
Continental Europe
Continental Europe, also referred to as mainland Europe or simply the Continent, is the continent of Europe, explicitly excluding European islands....
town of Calais, conquered from France in 1347, was not only of vital strategic importance, it also held what was England's largest standing army
Standing army
A standing army is a professional permanent army. It is composed of full-time career soldiers and is not disbanded during times of peace. It differs from army reserves, who are activated only during wars or natural disasters...
. There were some initial disputes, with the garrison and with the royal wool monopoly known as the staple
The staple
The Staple in English historiography, refers to the entire medieval system of trade and its taxation. Under this system, the government or King required that all overseas trade in certain goods be transacted at specific designated market towns or ports, referred to as the 'staple ports'...
, over payments in arrears, but in July Warwick finally took up his post.
After the recent events, Queen Margaret still considered Warwick a threat to the throne, and cut off his supplies. In August 1457, however, a French attack on the English sea port of Sandwich
Sandwich, Kent
Sandwich is a historic town and civil parish on the River Stour in the Non-metropolitan district of Dover, within the ceremonial county of Kent, south-east England. It has a population of 6,800....
set off fears of a full-scale French invasion. Warwick was again funded to protect the garrison and patrol the English coast. In disregard of royal authority, he then conducted highly successful acts of piracy, against the Castilian
Kingdom of Castile
Kingdom of Castile was one of the medieval kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. It emerged as a political autonomous entity in the 9th century. It was called County of Castile and was held in vassalage from the Kingdom of León. Its name comes from the host of castles constructed in the region...
fleet in May 1458, and against the Hanseatic
Hanseatic League
The Hanseatic League was an economic alliance of trading cities and their merchant guilds that dominated trade along the coast of Northern Europe...
fleet a few weeks later. He also used his time on the Continent to establish relations with Charles VII
Charles VII of France
Charles VII , called the Victorious or the Well-Served , was King of France from 1422 to his death, though he was initially opposed by Henry VI of England, whose Regent, the Duke of Bedford, ruled much of France including the capital, Paris...
of France and Philip the Good of Burgundy
Duchy of Burgundy
The Duchy of Burgundy , was heir to an ancient and prestigious reputation and a large division of the lands of the Second Kingdom of Burgundy and in its own right was one of the geographically larger ducal territories in the emergence of Early Modern Europe from Medieval Europe.Even in that...
. Developing a solid military reputation and with good international connections, he then brought a part of his garrison to England, where he met up with his father and York in the summer of 1459.
House of York triumphant
Ludlow
Ludlow is a market town in Shropshire, England close to the Welsh border and in the Welsh Marches. It lies within a bend of the River Teme, on its eastern bank, forming an area of and centred on a small hill. Atop this hill is the site of Ludlow Castle and the market place...
to meet up with Salisbury, fresh from his victory over Lancastrians at the battle of Blore Heath
Battle of Blore Heath
The Battle of Blore Heath was the first major battle in the English Wars of the Roses. It was fought on 23 September 1459, at Blore Heath in Staffordshire, two miles east of the town of Market Drayton in Shropshire, England.- Background :...
, and York. At nearby Ludford Bridge
Battle of Ludford Bridge
The Battle of Ludford Bridge was a largely bloodless battle fought in the early years of the Wars of the Roses. It took place on 12 October 1459, and resulted in a disastrous defeat for the Yorkists.-Background:...
their forces were scattered by the king's army, partly because of the defection of Warwick's Calais contingent under the command of Andrew Trollope
Andrew Trollope
Sir Andrew Trollope was an English soldier during the later stages of the Hundred Years War and at the time of the Wars of the Roses. Born into a family of Durham dyers, Trollope began his long military career in France in the 1420s as a man at arms, serving under Sir John Fastolf and later John...
. As it turned out, the majority of the soldiers were still reluctant to raise arms against the king. Forced to flee the country, York left for Dublin, Ireland, while Warwick and Salisbury sailed to Calais, accompanied by the duke's son, Edward, Earl of March
Edward IV of England
Edward IV was King of England from 4 March 1461 until 3 October 1470, and again from 11 April 1471 until his death. He was the first Yorkist King of England...
(the future King Edward IV). Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset
Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset
Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset was an important Lancastrian military commander during the English Wars of the Roses. He is sometimes numbered the 2nd Duke of Somerset, since the title was re-created for his father after his uncle died...
was appointed to replace Warwick as Captain of Calais, but the Yorkists managed to hold on to the garrison.
In March 1460 Warwick visited York in Ireland to plan the way ahead, and returned to Calais. Then, on 26 June, he landed at Sandwich with Salisbury and March, and from here the three earls rode north to London. Salisbury was left in control of the Tower of London
Tower of London
Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, more commonly known as the Tower of London, is a historic castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London, England. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the eastern edge of the City of London by the open space...
, while Warwick took March with him in pursuit of the king. At Northampton
Battle of Northampton (1460)
The Battle of Northampton was a battle in the Wars of the Roses, which took place on 10 July 1460.-Background:The Yorkist cause seemed finished after the previous disaster at Ludford Bridge...
, on 10 July, King Henry was taken captive, while the Duke of Buckingham
Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham
Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham KG , an English nobleman, great grandson of King Edward III on his mother's side, was best known as a military commander in the Hundred Years' War and in the Wars of the Roses....
and others were killed in battle.
In September York arrived from Ireland, and at the parliament of October that year, the duke walked up to the throne and put his hand on it. The act, signifying usurpation, left the assembly in shock. It is unclear whether Warwick had prior knowledge of York's plans, though it is assumed that this had been agreed upon between the two in Ireland the previous March. It soon became clear, however, that this regime change was unacceptable to the lords in parliament, and a compromise was agreed. The Act of Accord
Act of Accord
The Act of Accord was passed by the English Parliament on 25 October 1460, fifteen days after Richard, Duke of York had entered the Council Chamber and laid his hand on the empty throne. Under the Act, King Henry VI of England was to retain the crown for life but York and his heirs were to succeed....
of 31 October 1460 stated that while Henry VI was allowed to stay on the throne for the remainder of his life, his son Edward, Prince of Wales
Edward of Westminster
Edward of Westminster , also known as Edward of Lancaster, was the only son of King Henry VI of England and Margaret of Anjou...
, was to be disinherited. Instead, York would succeed the king, and act as protector.
This solution was not ideal to either party, and further conflict was inevitable. On 30 December, at the Battle of Wakefield
Battle of Wakefield
The Battle of Wakefield took place at Sandal Magna near Wakefield, in West Yorkshire in Northern England, on 30 December 1460. It was a major battle of the Wars of the Roses...
, York was killed, as were York's second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland
Edmund, Earl of Rutland
Edmund, Earl of Rutland was the fifth child and second surviving son of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York and Cecily Neville...
, and Warwick's younger brother Thomas. Salisbury was executed a day later. Warwick marched north to confront the enemy, but was defeated and forced to flee at the Second Battle of St Albans
Second Battle of St Albans
The Second Battle of St Albans was a battle of the English Wars of the Roses fought on 17 February, 1461, at St Albans. The army of the Yorkist faction under the Earl of Warwick attempted to bar the road to London north of the town. The rival Lancastrian army used a wide outflanking manoeuvre to...
. He then joined forces with Prince Edward of York
Edward IV of England
Edward IV was King of England from 4 March 1461 until 3 October 1470, and again from 11 April 1471 until his death. He was the first Yorkist King of England...
, the new Yorkist claimant to the crown, who had just won an important victory at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross
Battle of Mortimer's Cross
The Battle of Mortimer's Cross was fought on 2 February 1461 near Wigmore, Herefordshire . It was part of the Wars of the Roses....
.
While Queen Margaret was hesitating to make her next move, Warwick and Edward hastened to London. The citizens of the capital were scared by the brutal conduct of the Lancastrian forces, and were sympathetic to the House of York. On 4 March the prince was proclaimed King Edward IV, by an assembly that gathered quickly. The new king now headed north to consolidate his title, and met with the Lancastrian forces at Towton
Towton
Towton is a small village and civil parish in the Selby district of North Yorkshire, England.The village is best known for the Battle of Towton, fought in 1461, during the Wars of the Roses....
in Yorkshire. Warwick had suffered an injury to the leg the day before, in the Battle of Ferrybridge
Battle of Ferrybridge
The Battle of Ferrybridge, 28 March 1461, was a small engagement between the houses of York and Lancaster before the larger battle of Towton, during the period known as the Wars of the Roses....
, and may have played only a minor part in the battle
Battle of Towton
In 1461, England was in the sixth year of the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars between the Houses of York and Lancaster over the English throne. The Lancastrians backed the reigning King of England, Henry VI, an indecisive man who suffered bouts of madness...
that followed. The unusually bloody skirmish resulted in a complete victory for the Yorkist forces, and the death of many important men on the opposing side, such as Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland
Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland
Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland was the son of Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland and Lady Eleanor Neville, daughter of Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland and his second wife Joan Beaufort.-Family:...
and Andrew Trollope. Queen Margaret managed to escape to Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
, with Henry and Prince Edward. Edward IV returned to London for his coronation, while Warwick remained to pacify the north.
Warwick's apex
Duchy of Lancaster
The Duchy of Lancaster is one of the two royal duchies in England, the other being the Duchy of Cornwall. It is held in trust for the Sovereign, and is used to provide income for the use of the British monarch...
, along with several other offices. His brothers also benefited: John Neville, Lord Montagu
John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu
John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu KG was a Yorkist leader in the Wars of the Roses, best-known for eliminating Lancastrian resistance in the north of England during the early part of the reign of Edward IV of England....
, was made Warden of the East March in 1463, and the next year created Earl of Northumberland
Earl of Northumberland
The title of Earl of Northumberland was created several times in the Peerages of England and Great Britain, succeeding the title Earl of Northumbria. Its most famous holders were the House of Percy , who were the most powerful noble family in Northern England for much of the Middle Ages...
. George Neville, Bishop of Exeter
Bishop of Exeter
The Bishop of Exeter is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Exeter in the Province of Canterbury. The incumbent usually signs his name as Exon or incorporates this in his signature....
, was confirmed in his post as chancellor by King Edward, and in 1465 promoted to the archbishopric of York
Archbishop of York
The Archbishop of York is a high-ranking cleric in the Church of England, second only to the Archbishop of Canterbury. He is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of York and metropolitan of the Province of York, which covers the northern portion of England as well as the Isle of Man...
.
By late 1461, risings in the north had been put down, and in the summer of 1462, Warwick negotiated a truce with Scotland. In October the same year, Margaret of Anjou
Margaret of Anjou
Margaret of Anjou was the wife of King Henry VI of England. As such, she was Queen consort of England from 1445 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471; and Queen consort of France from 1445 to 1453...
invaded England with troops from France, and managed to take the castles of Alnwick
Alnwick Castle
Alnwick Castle is a castle and stately home in the town of the same name in the English county of Northumberland. It is the residence of the Duke of Northumberland, built following the Norman conquest, and renovated and remodelled a number of times. It is a Grade I listed building.-History:Alnwick...
and Bamburgh
Bamburgh Castle
Bamburgh Castle is an imposing castle located on the coast at Bamburgh in Northumberland, England. It is a Grade I listed building.-History:...
. Warwick had to organise the recapture of the castles, which was accomplished by January 1463. The leaders of the rebellion, including Ralph Percy
Ralph Percy
Sir Ralph Percy was a knight, a Governor of Bamburgh Castle and a supporter of the Lancastrian side in the Wars of the Roses. Percy was the grandson of Sir Harry Percy.Percy married, firstly, Eleanor Acton and they had four children:...
, were pardoned and left in charge of the retaken castles. At this point, Warwick felt secure enough to travel south; in February he buried the remains of his father and brother at Bisham Priory
Bisham Abbey
Bisham Abbey is a Grade I listed manor house at Bisham in the English county of Berkshire. The name is taken from the now lost monastery which once stood alongside. Bisham Abbey was previously named Bisham Priory, and was the traditional resting place of many Earls of Salisbury...
, and in March he attended parliament at Westminster
Westminster
Westminster is an area of central London, within the City of Westminster, England. It lies on the north bank of the River Thames, southwest of the City of London and southwest of Charing Cross...
.
That same spring, however, the north rose up in rebellion once more, when Ralph Percy laid siege to Norham Castle
Norham Castle
Norham Castle is a partly ruined castle in Northumberland, England, overlooking the River Tweed, on the border between England and Scotland. It is a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled Ancient Monument...
. Warwick returned to the north and rescued Norham, but the Lancastrians were left in possession of Northumberland
Northumberland
Northumberland is the northernmost ceremonial county and a unitary district in North East England. For Eurostat purposes Northumberland is a NUTS 3 region and is one of three boroughs or unitary districts that comprise the "Northumberland and Tyne and Wear" NUTS 2 region...
, and the government decided on a diplomatic approach instead. Separate truces were negotiated with Scotland and France, which allowed Warwick to retake the Northumbrian castles held by the Lancastrian rebels. This time no clemency was given, and around thirty of the rebel leaders were executed.
Early tensions
At the negotiations with the French, Warwick had intimated that King Edward was interested in a marriage arrangement with the French crown, the intended bride being Louis XILouis XI of France
Louis XI , called the Prudent , was the King of France from 1461 to 1483. He was the son of Charles VII of France and Mary of Anjou, a member of the House of Valois....
's sister-in-law, Bona, daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy
Louis, Duke of Savoy
Louis I was Duke of Savoy from 1440 until his death.-Life:...
. This marriage was not to be, however, because in September 1464, Edward revealed that he was already married, to Elizabeth Woodville
Elizabeth Woodville
Elizabeth Woodville was Queen consort of England as the spouse of King Edward IV from 1464 until his death in 1483. Elizabeth was a key figure in the series of dynastic civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses. Her first husband, Sir John Grey of Groby was killed at the Second Battle of St Albans...
. The marriage caused great offence to Warwick: not only due to the fact that his plans had been sabotaged, but also the secrecy with which the king had acted. The marriage – contracted on 1 May of the same year – was not made public before Warwick pressed Edward on the issue at a council meeting, and in the meanwhile Warwick had been unknowingly deceiving the French into believing the king was serious about the marriage proposal. For Edward the marriage may very well have been a love match, but in the long run he sought to build the Woodville family into a powerhouse independent of Warwick's influence.
This was not enough to cause a complete fallout between the two men, though from this point on Warwick increasingly stayed away from court. The promotion of Warwick's brother George to Archbishop of York shows that the earl was still in favour with the king. In July 1465, when Henry VI was once more captured, it was Warwick who escorted the fallen king to his captivity in the Tower.
Then, in the spring of 1466, Warwick was sent to the continent to carry out negotiations with the French and Burgundians. The negotiations centred around a marriage proposal involving Edward's sister Margaret
Margaret of York
Margaret of York – also by marriage known as Margaret of Burgundy – was Duchess of Burgundy as the third wife of Charles the Bold and acted as a protector of the Duchy after his death. She was a daughter of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, and the sister of...
. Warwick increasingly came to favour French diplomatic connections. Meanwhile, Edward's father-in-law, Richard Woodville, Earl Rivers
Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers
Richard Woodville , 1st Earl Rivers, KG was an English nobleman, best remembered as the father of Elizabeth Woodville, wife of Edward IV....
, who had been created treasurer
Lord High Treasurer
The post of Lord High Treasurer or Lord Treasurer was an English government position and has been a British government position since the Act of Union of 1707. A holder of the post would be the third highest ranked Great Officer of State, below the Lord High Chancellor and above the Lord President...
, was in favour of a Burgundian alliance. This set up internal conflict within the English court, which was not alleviated by the fact that Edward had signed a secret treaty in October with Burgundy, while Warwick was forced to carry on sham negotiations with the French. Later, George Neville was dismissed as chancellor, while Edward refused to contemplate a marriage between Warwick's oldest daughter Isabel
Isabella Plantagenet, Duchess of Clarence
Lady Isabel Neville was the elder daughter of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, the Kingmaker of the Wars of the Roses, and Anne de Beauchamp, 16th Countess of Warwick. She was the wife of George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence...
, and Edward's brother George, Duke of Clarence
George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence
George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, 1st Earl of Salisbury, 1st Earl of Warwick, KG was the third son of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, and the brother of kings Edward IV and Richard III. He played an important role in the dynastic struggle known as the Wars of the...
. It became increasingly clear that Warwick's position of dominance at court had been taken over by Rivers.
In the autumn of 1467, there were rumours that Warwick was now sympathetic to the Lancastrian cause, but even though he refused to come to court to answer the charges, the king accepted his denial in writing. In July the same year, it was revealed that Warwick's deputy in Calais, John, Lord Wenlock
John Wenlock, 1st Baron Wenlock
Sir John Wenlock KG was an English soldier, courtier and politician. He fought on the side of both the Yorkists and the Lancastrians in the Wars of the Roses...
, was involved in a Lancastrian conspiracy, and early in 1469 another Lancastrian plot was uncovered, involving John de Vere, Earl of Oxford
John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford
John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford , the second son of John de Vere, 12th Earl of Oxford, and Elizabeth Howard, was one of the principal Lancastrian commanders during the English Wars of the Roses...
. It was becoming clear that the discontent with Edward's reign was widespread, a fact that Warwick could exploit.
Rebellion and death
Warwick now orchestrated a rebellion in Yorkshire while he was away, led by a "Robin of RedesdaleRobin of Redesdale
Robin of Redesdale, sometimes called "Robin Mend-All", was the leader of an insurrection against King Edward IV of England. His true identity is unknown, but it is thought he could have been either Sir John Conyers of Hornby or his brother Sir William Conyers of Marske...
". Part of Warwick's plan was winning over Edward's brother Clarence, possibly with the prospect of installing him on the throne. The nineteen-year old Clarence had shown himself to share many of the abilities of his older brother, but was also jealous and overambitious. In July the two sailed over to Calais where Clarence was married to Isabel. From here they returned to England, where they gathered the men of Kent
Kent
Kent is a county in southeast England, and is one of the home counties. It borders East Sussex, Surrey and Greater London and has a defined boundary with Essex in the middle of the Thames Estuary. The ceremonial county boundaries of Kent include the shire county of Kent and the unitary borough of...
to join the rebellion in the north. Meanwhile, the king's forces were defeated at Edgecote
Battle of Edgecote Moor
The Battle of Edgecote Moor took place 6 miles northeast of Banbury , England on 26 July 1469 during the Wars of the Roses. The site of the battle was actually Danes Moor in Northamptonshire, at a crossing of a tributary of the River Cherwell. The battle pitted the forces of Richard Neville, 16th...
, where William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, was killed. The other commander, Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Devon
Humphrey Stafford, 1st Earl of Devon
Humphrey Stafford, 1st Earl of Devon was a dominant magnate in south-western England in the mid-15th century, and a participant in the Wars of the Roses. A distant relative of the earls of Stafford, Humphrey Stafford became the greatest landowner in the county of Dorset through fortunes of...
, was caught in flight and lynched by a mob. Later, Earl Rivers and his son John
John Woodville
Sir John Woodville was the second son, and fourth child, of Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers and Jacquetta of Luxembourg....
were also apprehended and murdered. With his army now defeated, the king was taken under arrest by Archbishop Neville. He was imprisoned in Warwick
Warwick Castle
Warwick Castle is a medieval castle in Warwick, the county town of Warwickshire, England. It sits on a bend on the River Avon. The castle was built by William the Conqueror in 1068 within or adjacent to the Anglo-Saxon burh of Warwick. It was used as a fortification until the early 17th century,...
, and in August taken north to Middleham Castle
Middleham Castle
Middleham Castle in Wensleydale, in the county of North Yorkshire, was built by Robert Fitzrandolph, 3rd Lord of Middleham and Spennithorne, commencing in 1190. It was built near the site of an earlier motte and bailey castle...
. In the long run, however, it proved impossible to rule without the king, and continuing disorder forced Warwick to release Edward in September 1469.
Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland
Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland, KG son of Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland and his wife Eleanor Poynings, daughter of Richard Poynings, Lord Poynings....
to Montagu's earldom of Northumberland prevented any chance of full reconciliation. A trap was set for the king when disturbances in Lincolnshire
Lincolnshire
Lincolnshire is a county in the east of England. It borders Norfolk to the south east, Cambridgeshire to the south, Rutland to the south west, Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire to the west, South Yorkshire to the north west, and the East Riding of Yorkshire to the north. It also borders...
led him north, where he could be confronted by Warwick's men. Edward, however, discovered the plot when Richard, Lord Welles
Robert Welles, 8th Baron Willoughby de Eresby
Robert Welles, 8th Baron Willoughby de Eresby was an English baron. He was the son of Richard Welles, 7th Baron Welles and Joan Willoughby, 7th Baroness Willoughby de Eresby....
, was routed at Losecote Field
Battle of Lose-coat Field
The Battle of Losecoat Field was fought on 12 March 1470, during the Wars of the Roses. Spellings of Losecoat vary with Losecote and Loose-coat also seen.-Background:...
, and gave away the plan.
Warwick soon gave up, and once more fled the country with Clarence. Denied access to Calais, they sought refuge with King Louis XI of France. Louis arranged a reconciliation between Warwick and Margaret of Anjou, and as part of the agreement, Margaret and Henry's son, Edward, Prince of Wales, would marry Warwick's daughter Anne. The objective of the alliance was to restore Henry VI to the throne. Again Warwick staged an uprising in the north, and with the king away, he and Clarence landed at Dartmouth
Dartmouth, Devon
Dartmouth is a town and civil parish in the English county of Devon. It is a tourist destination set on the banks of the estuary of the River Dart, which is a long narrow tidal ria that runs inland as far as Totnes...
and Plymouth
Plymouth
Plymouth is a city and unitary authority area on the coast of Devon, England, about south-west of London. It is built between the mouths of the rivers Plym to the east and Tamar to the west, where they join Plymouth Sound...
on 13 September. Among the many who flocked to Warwick's side was his brother Montagu, who had not taken part in the last rebellion, but was disappointed when his loyalty to the king had not been rewarded with the restoration of his earldom. This time the trap set up for the king worked; as Edward hurried south, Montagu's forces approached from the north, and the king found himself surrounded. On 2 October he fled to the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
. King Henry was now restored, with Warwick acting as the true ruler in his capacity as lieutenant. At a parliament in November, Edward was attainted
Attainder
In English criminal law, attainder or attinctura is the metaphorical 'stain' or 'corruption of blood' which arises from being condemned for a serious capital crime . It entails losing not only one's property and hereditary titles, but typically also the right to pass them on to one's heirs...
of his lands and titles, and Clarence was awarded the Duchy of York
Duke of York
The Duke of York is a title of nobility in the British peerage. Since the 15th century, it has, when granted, usually been given to the second son of the British monarch. The title has been created a remarkable eleven times, eight as "Duke of York" and three as the double-barreled "Duke of York and...
.
At this point, international affairs intervened. Louis XI declared war on Burgundy, and Duke Charles responded by granting an expeditionary force to Edward IV, in order to reclaim his throne. On 14 March Edward landed at Ravenspurn
Ravenspurn
Ravenspurn was a town in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, which was lost due to coastal erosion, one of more than 30 along the Holderness Coast which have been lost to the North Sea since the 19th century. The town was located close to the end of a peninsula near Ravenser Odd, which has also...
in Yorkshire, with the acquiescence of the Earl of Northumberland. Warwick was still waiting for Queen Margaret and her son Edward, who were supposed to bring reinforcements from France, but were kept up on the continent by bad weather. At this point Edward received the support of his brother Clarence, who realised that he had been disadvantaged by the new agreement with the Lancastrians. Clarence's defection weakened Warwick, who nevertheless went in pursuit of Edward. On 14 April the two armies met at Barnet
Battle of Barnet
The Battle of Barnet was a decisive engagement in the Wars of the Roses, a dynastic conflict of 15th-century England. The military action, along with the subsequent Battle of Tewkesbury, secured the throne for Edward IV...
. Fog and poor visibility on the field led to confusion, and the Lancastrian army ended up attacking its own men. In the face of defeat Warwick attempted to escape the field, but was struck off his horse and killed.
Aftermath
Warwick's body – along with that of his brother Montagu, who had also fallen at Barnet – was displayed in London's St Paul's CathedralOld St Paul's Cathedral
Old St Paul's Cathedral is a name used to refer to the medieval cathedral of the City of London which until 1666 stood on the site of the present St Paul's Cathedral. Built between 1087 and 1314 and dedicated to St Paul, the cathedral was the fourth church on the site at Ludgate Hill...
to quell any rumours of their survival. Then they were handed over to Archbishop Neville, to be buried in the family vault at Bisham. On 4 May of the same year, Edward IV defeated the remaining Lancastrian forces of Queen Margaret and Prince Edward at the Battle of Tewkesbury
Battle of Tewkesbury
The Battle of Tewkesbury, which took place on 4 May 1471, was one of the decisive battles of the Wars of the Roses. The forces loyal to the House of Lancaster were completely defeated by those of the rival House of York under their monarch, King Edward IV...
, where the prince was killed. Soon afterwards, it was reported that King Henry VI had also died in the Tower. With the direct Lancastrian line exterminated, Edward could reign safely until his death in 1483.
Warwick's offices were divided between King Edward's brothers Clarence, and Richard, Duke of Gloucester, the future Richard III
Richard III of England
Richard III was King of England for two years, from 1483 until his death in 1485 during the Battle of Bosworth Field. He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty...
. Clarence received the chamberlainship of England
Lord Great Chamberlain
The Lord Great Chamberlain of England is the sixth of the Great Officers of State, ranking beneath the Lord Privy Seal and above the Lord High Constable...
and the lieutenancy of Ireland
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland
The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland was the British King's representative and head of the Irish executive during the Lordship of Ireland , the Kingdom of Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland...
, while Gloucester was made Admiral of England
Admiralty
The Admiralty was formerly the authority in the Kingdom of England, and later in the United Kingdom, responsible for the command of the Royal Navy...
and Warden of the West March
Lord Warden of the Marches
The Lord Warden of the Marches was an office in the governments of Scotland and England. The holders were responsible for the security of the border between the two nations, and often took part in military action....
. Clarence also received the earldoms of Warwick and Salisbury. The earl's land had been forfeited and taken into the king's custody. When Gloucester married Warwick's younger daughter Anne in 1472, who had been recently widowed by the death of Prince Edward, a dispute broke out between the two princes over the Beauchamp and Despenser inheritances. A compromise was eventually reached, whereby the land was divided, but Clarence was not pacified. In 1477 he once again plotted against his brother. This time the king could no longer act with lenience, and the next year the Duke of Clarence was executed.
Historical assessment
Early sources on Richard Neville fall into two categories. The first are the sympathetic chronicles of the early Yorkist years, or works based on these, such as the Mirror for MagistratesMirror for Magistrates
Mirror for Magistrates is a collection of English poems from the Tudor period by various authors which retell the lives and the tragic ends of various historical figures.-Background:...
(1559). The other category originates with chronicles commissioned by Edward IV after Warwick's fall, such as the Historie of the arrivall of Edward IV
Historie of the arrivall of Edward IV
The Historie of the Arrivall of Edward IV. in England and the Finall Recouerye of His Kingdomes from Henry VI. A.D. M.CCCC.LXXI is a chronicle from the period of the Wars of the Roses. As the title implies, the main focus of the work is Edward IV's arrival in England in 1471 to reclaim his crown...
, and take a more negative view of the earl. The Mirror portrayed Warwick as a great man: beloved by the people, and betrayed by the man he helped raise to the throne. The other perspective can be found in Shakespeare
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon"...
's Henry VI trilogy: a man driven by pride and egotism, who created and deposed kings at will.
In time, however, it is the latter view that dominated. The Enlightenment
Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted intellectual interchange and opposed intolerance and abuses in church and state...
, or Whig
Whig history
Whig history is the approach to historiography which presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment, culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy. In general, Whig historians stress the rise of constitutional government,...
historians of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, decried anyone who impeded the development towards a centralised, constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the parameters of a constitution, whether it be a written, uncodified or blended constitution...
, the way Warwick did in his struggles with Edward. David Hume called Warwick "the greatest, as well as the last, of those mighty barons who formerly overawed the crown, and rendered the people incapable of any regular system of civil government." Later writers were split between admiration for some of Warwick's character traits, and condemnation of his political actions. The romantic novelist Lord Lytton
Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton
Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton PC , was an English politician, poet, playwright, and novelist. He was immensely popular with the reading public and wrote a stream of bestselling dime-novels which earned him a considerable fortune...
picked up on Hume's theme in his The Last of the Barons
The Last of the Barons
The Last of the Barons is a historical novel by the English author Edward Bulwer-Lytton first published in 1843. Its plot revolves around the power struggle between the English King Edward IV and his powerful minister Earl of Warwick...
. Though Lytton portrayed Warwick as a tragic hero who embodied the ideals of chivalry, he was nevertheless one whose time was past. The late-nineteenth century military historian Charles Oman
Charles Oman
Sir Charles William Chadwick Oman was a British military historian of the early 20th century. His reconstructions of medieval battles from the fragmentary and distorted accounts left by chroniclers were pioneering...
acknowledged the earl's ability to appeal to popular sentiments, yet pointed out his deficiencies as a military commander. Oman found Warwick a traditional strategist, "not attaining the heights of military genius displayed by his pupil Edward." Paul Murray Kendall
Paul Murray Kendall
Paul Murray Kendall was an American academic and historian. He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He graduated from Frankford High School in 1928. In 1932 he received an Bachelor of Arts from the University of Virginia. He received an Master's degree in 1933, also from U of V...
's popular biography from 1957 took a sympathetic view of Warwick, but concluded that he had ultimately fallen victim to his own overreaching ambition.
More recent historians, such as Michael Hicks
Michael Hicks
Michael Hicks is an English historian, specialising on the history of late medieval England, in particular the Wars of the Roses. Hicks studied with C. A. J. Armstrong and Charles Ross while a student at the University of Bristol...
and A. J. Pollard
A. J. Pollard
Anthony James Pollard is a British medieval historian, specialising in North-Eastern England during the Wars of the Roses. He is considered the leading authority on the field. A fellow of the University of Teesside, he is part of the research staff of the "Centre for Regional and Local Historical...
, have tried to see Warwick in light of the standards of his own age, rather than holding him up to contemporary constitutional ideals. The insults Warwick suffered at the hands of King Edward – including Edward's secret marriage, and the refusal of the French diplomatic channel – were significant. His claim to prominence in national affairs was not a product of illusions of grandeur; it was confirmed by the high standing he enjoyed among the princes on the continent. Furthermore, Warwick's cause was not considered unjust by his contemporaries, which can be seen by the earl's popularity exceeding that of the king at the time of his first rebellion in 1469. On the other hand, while Warwick could not easily suffer his treatment by the king, it was equally impossible for Edward to accept the earl's presence on the political scene. As long as Warwick remained as powerful and influential as he was, Edward could not fully assert his royal authority, and eventual confrontation became inevitable.
Coat of Arms
Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick
Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, Count of Aumale, KG was an English medieval nobleman and military commander.-Early Life:...
, who bore with an escutcheon of De Clare quartering Despenser, now shown in Neville's fourth quarter. The second quarter shows the arms of the Montacutes (Montagu). The third quarter shows the arms of Neville
House of Neville
The House of Neville is a noble house of early medieval origin, which was a leading force in English politics in the later middle ages...
differenced by a label for Lancaster
House of Lancaster
The House of Lancaster was a branch of the royal House of Plantagenet. It was one of the opposing factions involved in the Wars of the Roses, an intermittent civil war which affected England and Wales during the 15th century...
.
Neville family tree
The chart below shows, in abbreviated form, the family background of Richard Neville and his family connections with the houses of York and Lancaster. Dashed lines denote marriage and solid lines children. Anne Neville is shown with her two husbands, in order from right to left.Ancestry
External links
- Chronicles from the Richard III SocietyRicardian (Richard III)Ricardian is a term used to describe a person who is interested in rehabilitating the posthumous reputation of Richard III, King of England , seeking to alter the image of Richard which has been popularised by various writers and historians - most famously by the playwright William Shakespeare, who...
:- Text of the Historie of the arrivallHistorie of the arrivall of Edward IVThe Historie of the Arrivall of Edward IV. in England and the Finall Recouerye of His Kingdomes from Henry VI. A.D. M.CCCC.LXXI is a chronicle from the period of the Wars of the Roses. As the title implies, the main focus of the work is Edward IV's arrival in England in 1471 to reclaim his crown...
- Text of the Croyland ChronicleCroyland ChronicleThe Croyland Chronicle is an important, if not always reliable, primary source for English medieval history, in particular the late fifteenth century. It was written at the Benedictine Abbey of Croyland, in Lincolnshire, England, off and on from 655 to 1486, and its first author claimed to be...
- Text of Philippe de Commynes's Mémoires
- Text of WarkworthJohn WarkworthJohn Warkworth DD was a former master of Peterhouse, Cambridge, and a chronicler of Edward IV.-References:...
's chronicle
- Text of the Historie of the arrivall
- Project GutenbergProject GutenbergProject Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks". Founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart, it is the oldest digital library. Most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books...
text of vol. I, part B of David HumeDavid HumeDavid Hume was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism. He was one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment...
's History of England - War of the Roses: Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, 'The Kingmaker' (1428–1471)
- http://nevillfeast.wordpress.com