Second Battle of St Albans
Encyclopedia
The Second Battle of St Albans was a battle
of the English Wars of the Roses
fought on 17 February, 1461, at St Albans
. The army of the Yorkist
faction under the Earl of Warwick attempted to bar the road to London north of the town. The rival Lancastrian
army used a wide outflanking manoeuvre to take Warwick by surprise, cut him off from London, and drive his army from the field. The victors also released the feeble King Henry
, who had been Warwick's prisoner, from his captivity. However, they ultimately failed to take advantage of their victory.
Richard of York
quarrelled with several of Henry's court during the late 1440s and early 1450s. He was respected as a soldier and administrator, and was believed by his own supporters to have a better claim to the throne than Henry. York and his friends finally openly rebelled in 1455. At the First Battle of St Albans
, York gained a victory, but this did not resolve the causes of the conflict. After several attempts at reconciliation, fighting resumed in 1459. At the Battle of Northampton
in 1460, Richard of York's nephew, the Earl of Warwick, defeated a Lancastrian army and captured King Henry, who had taken no part. York returned to London from exile in Ireland and attempted to claim the throne, but his supporters were not prepared to go so far. Instead, an agreement was reached, the Act of Accord
, by which York or his heirs were to become King after Henry's death.
This agreement disinherited Henry's young son Edward of Westminster
. Henry's Queen, Margaret of Anjou
, refused to accept the Act of Accord and took Edward to Scotland to gain support there. York's rivals and enemies meanwhile raised an army in the north of England. York and his brother in law, the Earl of Salisbury
(Warwick's father), led an army to the north late in 1460 to counter these threats, but they fatally underestimated the Lancastrian forces. At the Battle of Wakefield
, the Yorkist army was destroyed and York, Salisbury and York's second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland
, were killed, or were executed after the battle.
, the Earl of Northumberland
and Lord Clifford
, whose fathers had been killed by York and Warwick at the First Battle of St Albans. The army contained a substantial contingent from the West Country, but many of its men were from the Scottish Borders
or Scotland
, who subsisted largely on plunder in their march south.
The death of Richard of York left his eighteen-year old son Edward, Earl of March
, as the Yorkist claimant for the throne. He led one Yorkist army in the Welsh Marches
, while Warwick led another in London and the south east. Naturally, they intended to combine their forces to face Margaret's army, but Edward was delayed by the need to confront another Lancastrian army from Wales
led by Jasper Tudor. On 2 February, Edward defeated Tudor's army at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross
.
Warwick, with the captive King Henry in his train, meanwhile moved to block Margaret's army's route to London. He took up position north of St Albans
astride the main road from the north (the ancient Roman road known as Watling Street
), where he set up several fixed defences, including cannon and obstacles such as caltrop
s and pavise
s studded with spikes, and partly manned by Burgundian
mercenaries
equipped with handguns. Part of his defences used the ancient Belgic
earthwork known as Beech Bottom Dyke
. Warwick's forces were divided into three "Battles","battaglia" in Rome were an ancestor. In English Civil War "battalia" or battle lines led to the formation in British Army as 'battalion'. as was customary at the time. He himself led the Main Battle in the centre. The Duke of Norfolk
led the Forward (or Vaward) Battle on the right and Warwick's brother John Neville
commanded the Rear Battle on the left.
Although strong, Warwick's lines faced north only. Margaret knew of Warwick's dispositions, probably through Sir Henry Lovelace, the steward of Warwick's own household. Lovelace had been captured by the Lancastrians at Wakefield but had been spared from execution and released, and he believed he had been offered the vacant Earldom of Kent
as reward for betraying Warwick. Late on 16 February, Margaret's army swerved sharply west and captured the town of Dunstable
. About 200 local people under the town butcher tried to resist them, but were easily dispersed. Warwick's "scourers" (scouts and patrols and foraging parties) failed to detect this move.
, the Lancastrian commanders sought another route into the town. This was found and a second attack was launched along the line of Folly Lane and Catherine Street. This second attack met with no opposition and the Yorkist archers in the town were now outflanked. They continued to fight house to house however, and were not finally overcome for several hours.
Having gained the town itself, the Lancastrians turned north towards John Neville's Rear Battle, positioned on Bernards Heath
. It began to snow, and many of the Yorkists' cannon and handguns failed to fire as their powder was dampened. Warwick found it difficult to extricate his other units from their fortifications and turn them about to face the Lancastrians, so that the Yorkist battles straggled into action one by one instead of in coordinated fashion. The Rear Battle, attempting to reinforce the defenders of the town, was engaged and dispersed. The Kentish contingent in the Yorkist army under the traitor Lovelace defected at this point, causing further confusion in the Yorkist ranks.
By late afternoon, the Lancastrians were attacking north-east out of St Albans to engage the Yorkist Main and Vaward battles under Warwick and Norfolk. As dusk set in (which would have been in the very early evening at this time of year and in the poor weather), Warwick realised that his men were outnumbered and increasingly demoralised, and withdrew with his remaining forces (about 4,000 men) to Chipping Norton in Oxfordshire
.
and Sir Thomas Kyriell, a veteran leader of the Hundred Years War) had sworn to let him come to no harm, and remained with him throughout. The next morning Margaret asked her son, the seven year old Edward of Westminster, how, not whether, the two knights were to die. Edward, thus prompted, sent them to be beheaded. John Neville had been captured but was spared execution, as the Duke of Somerset feared that his own younger brother who was in Yorkist hands might be executed in reprisal.
Henry knighted the young Prince Edward, who in turn knighted thirty Lancastrian leaders. One was Andrew Trollope
, an experienced captain who had deserted the Yorkists at the Battle of Ludford Bridge
in 1459 and who was reckoned by many to have planned the Lancastrian victories at Wakefield and Saint Albans. At Saint Albans, he had injured his foot through stepping on one of Warwick's caltrops, but he nevertheless claimed to have killed fifteen Yorkists.
Although Margaret and her army could now march unopposed on to London, they did not do so. The Lancastrian army's reputation for pillage caused the Londoners to bar the gates. This in turn caused Margaret to hesitate, as did the news of Edward of March's victory at Mortimer's Cross. The Lancastrians fell back through Dunstable, losing many Scots and Borderers who deserted and returned home with the plunder they had already gathered. Edward of March and Warwick entered London on 2 March, and Edward was quickly proclaimed King Edward IV of England. Within a few weeks he had confirmed his hold on the throne with a decisive victory at the Battle of Towton
.
Perhaps the most significant person to be killed at the battle of Saint Albans, at least in terms of its dynastic results, was John Grey of Groby
, whose widow Elizabeth Woodville
became the queen of Edward IV in 1464.
, a guided tour of the battlefield, and culminated in a Requiem Mass for the fallen at St Saviours Church conducted by Father Peter Wadsworth.
----
Battle
Generally, a battle is a conceptual component in the hierarchy of combat in warfare between two or more armed forces, or combatants. In a battle, each combatant will seek to defeat the others, with defeat determined by the conditions of a military campaign...
of the English Wars of the Roses
Wars of the Roses
The Wars of the Roses were a series of dynastic civil wars for the throne of England fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the houses of Lancaster and York...
fought on 17 February, 1461, at St Albans
St Albans
St Albans is a city in southern Hertfordshire, England, around north of central London, which forms the main urban area of the City and District of St Albans. It is a historic market town, and is now a sought-after dormitory town within the London commuter belt...
. The army of the Yorkist
House of York
The House of York was a branch of the English royal House of Plantagenet, three members of which became English kings in the late 15th century. The House of York was descended in the paternal line from Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, the fourth surviving son of Edward III, but also represented...
faction under the Earl of Warwick attempted to bar the road to London north of the town. The rival Lancastrian
House of Lancaster
The House of Lancaster was a branch of the royal House of Plantagenet. It was one of the opposing factions involved in the Wars of the Roses, an intermittent civil war which affected England and Wales during the 15th century...
army used a wide outflanking manoeuvre to take Warwick by surprise, cut him off from London, and drive his army from the field. The victors also released the feeble King Henry
Henry VI of England
Henry VI was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. Until 1437, his realm was governed by regents. Contemporaneous accounts described him as peaceful and pious, not suited for the violent dynastic civil wars, known as the Wars...
, who had been Warwick's prisoner, from his captivity. However, they ultimately failed to take advantage of their victory.
Background
The Wars of the Roses were fought between the supporters of the House of Lancaster, represented by the mentally unstable King Henry VI, and those of the rival House of York.Richard of York
Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York
Richard Plantagenêt, 3rd Duke of York, 6th Earl of March, 4th Earl of Cambridge, and 7th Earl of Ulster, conventionally called Richard of York was a leading English magnate, great-grandson of King Edward III...
quarrelled with several of Henry's court during the late 1440s and early 1450s. He was respected as a soldier and administrator, and was believed by his own supporters to have a better claim to the throne than Henry. York and his friends finally openly rebelled in 1455. At the First Battle of St Albans
First Battle of St Albans
The First Battle of St Albans, fought on 22 May 1455 at St Albans, 22 miles north of London, traditionally marks the beginning of the Wars of the Roses. Richard, Duke of York and his ally, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, defeated the Lancastrians under Edmund, Duke of Somerset, who was killed...
, York gained a victory, but this did not resolve the causes of the conflict. After several attempts at reconciliation, fighting resumed in 1459. At the Battle of Northampton
Battle of Northampton (1460)
The Battle of Northampton was a battle in the Wars of the Roses, which took place on 10 July 1460.-Background:The Yorkist cause seemed finished after the previous disaster at Ludford Bridge...
in 1460, Richard of York's nephew, the Earl of Warwick, defeated a Lancastrian army and captured King Henry, who had taken no part. York returned to London from exile in Ireland and attempted to claim the throne, but his supporters were not prepared to go so far. Instead, an agreement was reached, the Act of Accord
Act of Accord
The Act of Accord was passed by the English Parliament on 25 October 1460, fifteen days after Richard, Duke of York had entered the Council Chamber and laid his hand on the empty throne. Under the Act, King Henry VI of England was to retain the crown for life but York and his heirs were to succeed....
, by which York or his heirs were to become King after Henry's death.
This agreement disinherited Henry's young son Edward of Westminster
Edward of Westminster
Edward of Westminster , also known as Edward of Lancaster, was the only son of King Henry VI of England and Margaret of Anjou...
. Henry's Queen, Margaret of Anjou
Margaret of Anjou
Margaret of Anjou was the wife of King Henry VI of England. As such, she was Queen consort of England from 1445 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471; and Queen consort of France from 1445 to 1453...
, refused to accept the Act of Accord and took Edward to Scotland to gain support there. York's rivals and enemies meanwhile raised an army in the north of England. York and his brother in law, the Earl of Salisbury
Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury
Richard Neville, jure uxoris 5th Earl of Salisbury and 7th and 4th Baron Montacute, KG, PC was a Yorkist leader during the early parts of the Wars of the Roses.-Background:...
(Warwick's father), led an army to the north late in 1460 to counter these threats, but they fatally underestimated the Lancastrian forces. At the Battle of Wakefield
Battle of Wakefield
The Battle of Wakefield took place at Sandal Magna near Wakefield, in West Yorkshire in Northern England, on 30 December 1460. It was a major battle of the Wars of the Roses...
, the Yorkist army was destroyed and York, Salisbury and York's second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland
Edmund, Earl of Rutland
Edmund, Earl of Rutland was the fifth child and second surviving son of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York and Cecily Neville...
, were killed, or were executed after the battle.
Campaign
The victorious Lancastrian army began advancing south towards London. It was led by comparatively young nobles such as the Duke of SomersetHenry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset
Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset was an important Lancastrian military commander during the English Wars of the Roses. He is sometimes numbered the 2nd Duke of Somerset, since the title was re-created for his father after his uncle died...
, the Earl of Northumberland
Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland
Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland was the son of Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland and Lady Eleanor Neville, daughter of Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland and his second wife Joan Beaufort.-Family:...
and Lord Clifford
John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford
John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford, also 9th Lord of Skipton was a Lancastrian military leader during the Wars of the Roses...
, whose fathers had been killed by York and Warwick at the First Battle of St Albans. The army contained a substantial contingent from the West Country, but many of its men were from the Scottish Borders
Scottish Borders
The Scottish Borders is one of 32 local government council areas of Scotland. It is bordered by Dumfries and Galloway in the west, South Lanarkshire and West Lothian in the north west, City of Edinburgh, East Lothian, Midlothian to the north; and the non-metropolitan counties of Northumberland...
or Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
, who subsisted largely on plunder in their march south.
The death of Richard of York left his eighteen-year old son Edward, Earl of March
Edward IV of England
Edward IV was King of England from 4 March 1461 until 3 October 1470, and again from 11 April 1471 until his death. He was the first Yorkist King of England...
, as the Yorkist claimant for the throne. He led one Yorkist army in the Welsh Marches
Welsh Marches
The Welsh Marches is a term which, in modern usage, denotes an imprecisely defined area along and around the border between England and Wales in the United Kingdom. The precise meaning of the term has varied at different periods...
, while Warwick led another in London and the south east. Naturally, they intended to combine their forces to face Margaret's army, but Edward was delayed by the need to confront another Lancastrian army from Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
led by Jasper Tudor. On 2 February, Edward defeated Tudor's army at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross
Battle of Mortimer's Cross
The Battle of Mortimer's Cross was fought on 2 February 1461 near Wigmore, Herefordshire . It was part of the Wars of the Roses....
.
Warwick, with the captive King Henry in his train, meanwhile moved to block Margaret's army's route to London. He took up position north of St Albans
St Albans
St Albans is a city in southern Hertfordshire, England, around north of central London, which forms the main urban area of the City and District of St Albans. It is a historic market town, and is now a sought-after dormitory town within the London commuter belt...
astride the main road from the north (the ancient Roman road known as Watling Street
Watling Street
Watling Street is the name given to an ancient trackway in England and Wales that was first used by the Britons mainly between the modern cities of Canterbury and St Albans. The Romans later paved the route, part of which is identified on the Antonine Itinerary as Iter III: "Item a Londinio ad...
), where he set up several fixed defences, including cannon and obstacles such as caltrop
Caltrop
A caltrop is an antipersonnel weapon made up of two or more sharp nails or spines arranged in such a manner that one of them always points upward from a stable base...
s and pavise
Pavise
A pavise is a large convex shield of European origin used to protect the entire body. The pavise was also made in a smaller version for hand to hand combat and for wearing on the back of men-at-arms. It is characterized by its prominent central ridge...
s studded with spikes, and partly manned by Burgundian
Duchy of Burgundy
The Duchy of Burgundy , was heir to an ancient and prestigious reputation and a large division of the lands of the Second Kingdom of Burgundy and in its own right was one of the geographically larger ducal territories in the emergence of Early Modern Europe from Medieval Europe.Even in that...
mercenaries
Mercenary
A mercenary, is a person who takes part in an armed conflict based on the promise of material compensation rather than having a direct interest in, or a legal obligation to, the conflict itself. A non-conscript professional member of a regular army is not considered to be a mercenary although he...
equipped with handguns. Part of his defences used the ancient Belgic
Belgae
The Belgae were a group of tribes living in northern Gaul, on the west bank of the Rhine, in the 3rd century BC, and later also in Britain, and possibly even Ireland...
earthwork known as Beech Bottom Dyke
Beech Bottom Dyke
Beech Bottom Dyke, is a large ditch running for half a mile at the northern edge of St Albans, Hertfordshire flanked by banks on both sides. It is up to wide, and deep, and it can be followed for half a mile between the "Ancient Briton Crossroads" on the St Albans to Harpenden road until it is...
. Warwick's forces were divided into three "Battles","battaglia" in Rome were an ancestor. In English Civil War "battalia" or battle lines led to the formation in British Army as 'battalion'. as was customary at the time. He himself led the Main Battle in the centre. The Duke of Norfolk
John de Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk
Sir John de Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk KG, Earl Marshal was an important player in the Wars of the Roses.He was the son of John Mowbray, 2nd Duke of Norfolk and Lady Katherine Neville...
led the Forward (or Vaward) Battle on the right and Warwick's brother John Neville
John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu
John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu KG was a Yorkist leader in the Wars of the Roses, best-known for eliminating Lancastrian resistance in the north of England during the early part of the reign of Edward IV of England....
commanded the Rear Battle on the left.
Although strong, Warwick's lines faced north only. Margaret knew of Warwick's dispositions, probably through Sir Henry Lovelace, the steward of Warwick's own household. Lovelace had been captured by the Lancastrians at Wakefield but had been spared from execution and released, and he believed he had been offered the vacant Earldom of Kent
Earl of Kent
The peerage title Earl of Kent has been created eight times in the Peerage of England and once in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.See also Kingdom of Kent, Duke of Kent.-Earls of Kent, first creation :*Godwin, Earl of Wessex...
as reward for betraying Warwick. Late on 16 February, Margaret's army swerved sharply west and captured the town of Dunstable
Dunstable
Dunstable is a market town and civil parish located in Bedfordshire, England. It lies on the eastward tail spurs of the Chiltern Hills, 30 miles north of London. These geographical features form several steep chalk escarpments most noticeable when approaching Dunstable from the north.-Etymology:In...
. About 200 local people under the town butcher tried to resist them, but were easily dispersed. Warwick's "scourers" (scouts and patrols and foraging parties) failed to detect this move.
Battle
From Dunstable, Margaret's forces moved south-east at night, towards St Albans. The leading Lancastrian forces attacked the town shortly after dawn. Storming up the hill past the Abbey, they were confronted by Yorkist archers in the town centre who shot at them from the house windows. This first attack was repulsed. As they regrouped at the ford across the River VerRiver Ver
The Ver is a river in Hertfordshire, England. The river begins in the grounds of Markyate Cell, and flows south for 12 miles alongside Watling Street through Flamstead, Redbourn, St Albans and Park Street, and joins the River Colne at Bricket Wood....
, the Lancastrian commanders sought another route into the town. This was found and a second attack was launched along the line of Folly Lane and Catherine Street. This second attack met with no opposition and the Yorkist archers in the town were now outflanked. They continued to fight house to house however, and were not finally overcome for several hours.
Having gained the town itself, the Lancastrians turned north towards John Neville's Rear Battle, positioned on Bernards Heath
Bernards Heath
Bernards Heath is a heathland in St. Albans, Hertfordshire, the site of the Second Battle of St Albans in 1461 during the Wars of the Roses.In the 19th century it was the Hertfordshire County cricket ground.-External links:*...
. It began to snow, and many of the Yorkists' cannon and handguns failed to fire as their powder was dampened. Warwick found it difficult to extricate his other units from their fortifications and turn them about to face the Lancastrians, so that the Yorkist battles straggled into action one by one instead of in coordinated fashion. The Rear Battle, attempting to reinforce the defenders of the town, was engaged and dispersed. The Kentish contingent in the Yorkist army under the traitor Lovelace defected at this point, causing further confusion in the Yorkist ranks.
By late afternoon, the Lancastrians were attacking north-east out of St Albans to engage the Yorkist Main and Vaward battles under Warwick and Norfolk. As dusk set in (which would have been in the very early evening at this time of year and in the poor weather), Warwick realised that his men were outnumbered and increasingly demoralised, and withdrew with his remaining forces (about 4,000 men) to Chipping Norton in Oxfordshire
Oxfordshire
Oxfordshire is a county in the South East region of England, bordering on Warwickshire and Northamptonshire , Buckinghamshire , Berkshire , Wiltshire and Gloucestershire ....
.
Aftermath
As the Yorkists retreated, they left behind the bemused King Henry, who is supposed to have spent the battle sitting under a tree, singing. Two knights (Lord BonvilleWilliam Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville
William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville, KG was an English nobleman, soldier, and administrator. He was a staunch Yorkist supporter during the Wars of the Roses, and he was executed following the Yorkist defeat at the Second Battle of St Albans, by the orders of Queen consort Margaret of Anjou...
and Sir Thomas Kyriell, a veteran leader of the Hundred Years War) had sworn to let him come to no harm, and remained with him throughout. The next morning Margaret asked her son, the seven year old Edward of Westminster, how, not whether, the two knights were to die. Edward, thus prompted, sent them to be beheaded. John Neville had been captured but was spared execution, as the Duke of Somerset feared that his own younger brother who was in Yorkist hands might be executed in reprisal.
Henry knighted the young Prince Edward, who in turn knighted thirty Lancastrian leaders. One was Andrew Trollope
Andrew Trollope
Sir Andrew Trollope was an English soldier during the later stages of the Hundred Years War and at the time of the Wars of the Roses. Born into a family of Durham dyers, Trollope began his long military career in France in the 1420s as a man at arms, serving under Sir John Fastolf and later John...
, an experienced captain who had deserted the Yorkists at the Battle of Ludford Bridge
Battle of Ludford Bridge
The Battle of Ludford Bridge was a largely bloodless battle fought in the early years of the Wars of the Roses. It took place on 12 October 1459, and resulted in a disastrous defeat for the Yorkists.-Background:...
in 1459 and who was reckoned by many to have planned the Lancastrian victories at Wakefield and Saint Albans. At Saint Albans, he had injured his foot through stepping on one of Warwick's caltrops, but he nevertheless claimed to have killed fifteen Yorkists.
Although Margaret and her army could now march unopposed on to London, they did not do so. The Lancastrian army's reputation for pillage caused the Londoners to bar the gates. This in turn caused Margaret to hesitate, as did the news of Edward of March's victory at Mortimer's Cross. The Lancastrians fell back through Dunstable, losing many Scots and Borderers who deserted and returned home with the plunder they had already gathered. Edward of March and Warwick entered London on 2 March, and Edward was quickly proclaimed King Edward IV of England. Within a few weeks he had confirmed his hold on the throne with a decisive victory at the Battle of Towton
Battle of Towton
In 1461, England was in the sixth year of the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars between the Houses of York and Lancaster over the English throne. The Lancastrians backed the reigning King of England, Henry VI, an indecisive man who suffered bouts of madness...
.
Perhaps the most significant person to be killed at the battle of Saint Albans, at least in terms of its dynastic results, was John Grey of Groby
John Grey of Groby
Sir John Grey, of Groby, Leicestershire was a Lancastrian knight, the great-great-grandfather of Lady Jane Grey.-Titles:...
, whose widow Elizabeth Woodville
Elizabeth Woodville
Elizabeth Woodville was Queen consort of England as the spouse of King Edward IV from 1464 until his death in 1483. Elizabeth was a key figure in the series of dynastic civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses. Her first husband, Sir John Grey of Groby was killed at the Second Battle of St Albans...
became the queen of Edward IV in 1464.
550th Anniversary commemoration
On 26th & 27th February 2011 to commemorate the 550th anniversary year of the battle the Battlefields Trust hosted a conference on the battle, close to the battle site. This featured authentic recreations from The Medieval Siege SocietyMedieval Siege Society
The Medieval Siege Society is a British Living history and Combat reenactment association dedicated to costumed reenactment of Siege warfare, Combat reenactment and events surrounding the history known as the Hundred Years War and the Wars of the Roses...
, a guided tour of the battlefield, and culminated in a Requiem Mass for the fallen at St Saviours Church conducted by Father Peter Wadsworth.
See also
- History of St AlbansHistory of St AlbansSt Albans is in southern Hertfordshire, England, around 22 miles north of London, beside the site of a Catuvellauni settlement and the Roman town of Verulamium and on the River Ver...
- First Battle of St AlbansFirst Battle of St AlbansThe First Battle of St Albans, fought on 22 May 1455 at St Albans, 22 miles north of London, traditionally marks the beginning of the Wars of the Roses. Richard, Duke of York and his ally, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, defeated the Lancastrians under Edmund, Duke of Somerset, who was killed...
- Medieval Siege SocietyMedieval Siege SocietyThe Medieval Siege Society is a British Living history and Combat reenactment association dedicated to costumed reenactment of Siege warfare, Combat reenactment and events surrounding the history known as the Hundred Years War and the Wars of the Roses...
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Printed sources
- Winston Churchill, A History of the English speaking peoples, Vol. 1, Cassell and co. 1956, ISBN 0304295000
- Philip Warner, British Battlefields: the South, Fontana, 1975
- Burley, Elliott & Watson, The Battles of St Albans, Pen & Sword, 2007, ISBN 9781844155699