Runic inscriptions
Encyclopedia
A runic inscription is an inscription made in one of the various runic alphabet
s. The body of runic inscriptions falls into the three categories of Elder Futhark
(some 350 items, dating to between the 2nd and 8th centuries AD), Anglo-Frisian Futhorc (some 100 items, 5th to 11th c.) and Younger Futhark
(close to 6,000 items, 8th to 12th c.).
The total 350 known inscriptions in the Elder Futhark
script (Fischer 2004:281) fall into two main geographical categories, North Germanic (Scandinavian, ca. 267 items) and Continental or South Germanic ("German"
and Gothic, ca. 81 items).
These inscriptions are on many types of loose objects, but the North Germanic tradition shows a preference for bracteate
s, while the South Germanic one has a preference for fibulae.
The precise figures are debatable because some inscriptions are very short and/or illegible, so that it is uncertain whether they qualify as an inscription at all.
The division into Scandinavian, North Sea (Anglo-Frisian) and South Germanic inscription makes sense from the 5th century. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the Elder Futhark script is still in its early phase of development, with inscriptions concentrated in what is now Denmark
and Northern Germany
.
The tradition of runic literacy continues in Scandinavia into the Viking Age
, developing into the Younger Futhark
script. Close to 6,000 Younger Futhark inscriptions are known, many of them on runestones.
, only 2 bore inscriptions. A similar ratio is estimated for Alemannia, with an estimated 170 excavated graves to every inscription found (Lüthi 2004:323)
Estimates of the total number of inscriptions produced are based on the "minimal runological estimate" of 40,000 (ten individuals making ten inscriptions per year for four centuries). The actual number was probably considerably higher, maybe close to 400,000 in total, so that of the order of 0.1% of the corpus has come down to us), and Fischer (2004:281) estimates a population of several hundred active literati throughout the period, with as many as 1,600 during the Alamannic "runic boom" of the 6th century.
from Romania
and Ukraine
.
Linguistically, the 3rd and 4th centuries correspond to the formation of Proto-Norse, just predating the separation of West Germanic into Anglo-Frisian, Low German
and High German
.
The highest concentration of Elder Futhark inscriptions is in Denmark.
An important Proto-Norse inscription was on one of the Golden horns of Gallehus
(early 5th century).
A total of 133 known inscriptions on bracteates.
The oldest known runestones date to the early 5th century (Einang stone
, Kylver Stone
).
The longest known inscription in the Elder Futhark, and one of the youngest, consists of some 200 characters and is found on the early 8th century Eggjum stone
, and may even contain a stanza of Old Norse poetry
.
The transition to Younger Futhark
begins from the 6th century, with transitional examples like the Björketorp
or Stentoften
stones. In the early 9th century, both the older and the younger futhark were known and used, which is shown on the Rök Runestone
.
By the 10th century, only Younger Futhark remained in use.
The 5th century Undley bracteate
is considered the earliest known Anglo-Frisian inscription.
The 8th-century Franks Casket
, preserved during the Middle Ages in Brioude
, central France, exhibits the longest coherent inscriptions in Anglo-Saxon runes by far, including five alliterating long-lines, qualifying as the oldest preserved Anglo-Saxon poetry.
While the Nordic bracteates are jewelry imitating Roman gold coins, there were a number of actual coins (currency) in Anglo-Saxon England inscribed with runes, notably the coins from Kent, inscribed with pada, æpa and epa (early 7th century).
There are a number of Christian inscriptions from the time of Christianization.
St. Cuthbert's coffin
, dated to 698, even has a runic monogram of Christ, and the Whitby II bone comb (7th c.) has a pious plea for God's help, deus meus, god aluwaldo, helpæ Cy… "my God, almighty God, help Cy…". The Ruthwell Cross
inscription could also be mentioned, but its authenticity is dubious.
Unlike the situation on the continent, the tradition of runic writing does not disappear in England after Christianization but continues for a full three centuries, disappearing after the Norman conquest
. A type of object unique to Christianized Anglo-Saxon England are the six known Anglo-Saxon runic rings of the 9th to 10th centuries.
, loosely scattered along the Oder to south-eastern Poland, as far as the Carpathian Mountains
(e.g. the ring of Pietroassa
in Romania), dating to the 4th and 5th centuries.
The cessation of both the Gothic and Alemannic runic tradition conincides with the Christianization of the respective peoples.
Lüthi (2004:321) identifies a total of about 81 continental inscriptions found south of the "North Germanic Koine". Most of these originate in southern Germany (Baden-Württemberg
and Bavaria
), with a single one found south of the Rhine (Bülach fibula
, found in Bülach
, Switzerland
), and a handful from Eastern Europe (Poland, Romania, Ukraine).
A silver-plated copper disk, originally part of a sword-belt, found at Liebenau, Lower Saxony
with an early 5th century runic inscription (mostly illegible, interpreted as possibly reading rauzwih) is classed as the earliest South Germanic (German) inscription known by the RGA
(vol. 6, p. 576); the location of Liebenau is close to the boundary of the North Sea and South Germanic zones.
Siglas Poveiras
in Povoa de Varzim
, Portugal
are also a type of writing based on the viking runes. The siglas were first studied by António de Santos Graça in his book Epopeia dos Humildes ("The Odyssey of the Humble"). Published in 1952, the book contains hundreds of siglas and the history and maritime tragedy of Póvoa. Other works of his are "O Poveiro" (The Poveiro, 1932), "A Crença do Poveiro nas Almas Penadas" (Poveiro Beliefs Regarding Dead Souls, 1933) e "Inscrições Tumulares por Siglas" (Tomb Inscriptions Using Siglas, 1942).
After a visit to the National Museet in Copenhagen, Octávio Lixa Filgueiras, by accident, found objects marked with "home-marks" from Funen in Denmark. Moreover, the complex hereditary mark system of Póvoa de Varzim was also found in Funen.
The Siglas development is at least, partly, attributed to Vikings that settled in the town during the 10th century and 11th century. This form of primitive writing developed within the community of Póvoa de Varzim was kept due to the practice of endogamy. Also, the similarity with the Scandinavian tradition of using specific bomärken ("homestead marks") for signatures and for marking property has also been noted.
n Carpathians
, and two spearheads inscribed with what is probably the weapon's name, one found in the Ukrainian
Carpathians, and the other in eastern Germany, near the Oder
.
The inscription on the spearhead of Kovel, found in Ukraine (now lost) is a special case. Its date is very early (3rd century) and it shows a mixture of runic and Latin
letters, reading
or (the i, r and s letters being identical in the Elder Futhark and Latin scripts), and may thus reflect a stage of development before the runes became fixed as a separate script in its own right.
Most were found in Germany, in the states
of Baden-Württemberg
and Bavaria
. A lesser number originates in Hessen and Rheinland-Pfalz, and outside of Germany there is a single example from Switzerland, and a small number of what are likely Burgundian
inscriptions from easter France.
The precise number of inscriptions is debatable, as some proposed inscriptions consist of a single sign, or a row of signs that may also be "rune-like", in imitation of writing, or purely ornamental. For example, a ring found in Bopfingen
has been interpreted as being inscribed with a single g, i.e. a simple X-shape that may also be ornamental. Most interpretable inscriptions contain personal names, and only ten inscriptions contain more than one interpretable word. Of these, four translate to "(PN) wrote the runes".
The other six "long" interpretable inscriptions are:
Other notable inscriptions:
A small number of inscriptions found in eastern France
may be Burgundian
rather than Alemannic:
, reflecting their early Romanization and Christianization. An important find is the Bergakker inscription
, suggested as recording 5th-century Old Frankish
.
The only other inscription definitely classified as Frankish is the Borgharen buckle, reading bobo (a Frankish personal name).
Runic alphabet
The runic alphabets are a set of related alphabets using letters known as runes to write various Germanic languages before the adoption of the Latin alphabet and for specialized purposes thereafter...
s. The body of runic inscriptions falls into the three categories of Elder Futhark
Elder Futhark
The Elder Futhark is the oldest form of the runic alphabet, used by Germanic tribes for Northwest Germanic and Migration period Germanic dialects of the 2nd to 8th centuries for inscriptions on artifacts such as jewellery, amulets, tools, weapons and runestones...
(some 350 items, dating to between the 2nd and 8th centuries AD), Anglo-Frisian Futhorc (some 100 items, 5th to 11th c.) and Younger Futhark
Younger Futhark
The Younger Futhark, also called Scandinavian runes, is a runic alphabet, a reduced form of the Elder Futhark, consisting of only 16 characters, in use from ca. 800 CE...
(close to 6,000 items, 8th to 12th c.).
The total 350 known inscriptions in the Elder Futhark
Elder Futhark
The Elder Futhark is the oldest form of the runic alphabet, used by Germanic tribes for Northwest Germanic and Migration period Germanic dialects of the 2nd to 8th centuries for inscriptions on artifacts such as jewellery, amulets, tools, weapons and runestones...
script (Fischer 2004:281) fall into two main geographical categories, North Germanic (Scandinavian, ca. 267 items) and Continental or South Germanic ("German"
Old High German
The term Old High German refers to the earliest stage of the German language and it conventionally covers the period from around 500 to 1050. Coherent written texts do not appear until the second half of the 8th century, and some treat the period before 750 as 'prehistoric' and date the start of...
and Gothic, ca. 81 items).
These inscriptions are on many types of loose objects, but the North Germanic tradition shows a preference for bracteate
Bracteate
A bracteate is a flat, thin, single-sided gold medal worn as jewelry that was produced in Northern Europe predominantly during the Migration Period of the Germanic Iron Age...
s, while the South Germanic one has a preference for fibulae.
The precise figures are debatable because some inscriptions are very short and/or illegible, so that it is uncertain whether they qualify as an inscription at all.
The division into Scandinavian, North Sea (Anglo-Frisian) and South Germanic inscription makes sense from the 5th century. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the Elder Futhark script is still in its early phase of development, with inscriptions concentrated in what is now Denmark
Denmark
Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark...
and Northern Germany
Northern Germany
- Geography :The key terrain features of North Germany are the marshes along the coastline of the North Sea and Baltic Sea, and the geest and heaths inland. Also prominent are the low hills of the Baltic Uplands, the ground moraines, end moraines, sandur, glacial valleys, bogs, and Luch...
.
The tradition of runic literacy continues in Scandinavia into the Viking Age
Viking Age
Viking Age is the term for the period in European history, especially Northern European and Scandinavian history, spanning the late 8th to 11th centuries. Scandinavian Vikings explored Europe by its oceans and rivers through trade and warfare. The Vikings also reached Iceland, Greenland,...
, developing into the Younger Futhark
Younger Futhark
The Younger Futhark, also called Scandinavian runes, is a runic alphabet, a reduced form of the Elder Futhark, consisting of only 16 characters, in use from ca. 800 CE...
script. Close to 6,000 Younger Futhark inscriptions are known, many of them on runestones.
Number of known inscriptions
The following table lists the number of known inscriptions (in any alphabet variant) by geographical region:| Area | Number of runic inscriptions |
|---|---|
| Sweden Sweden Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund.... |
3,432 |
| Norway Norway Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million... |
1,552 |
| Denmark Denmark Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark... |
844 |
| Scandinavian total | 5,826 |
| Continental Europe except Scandinavia and Frisia | 80 |
| Frisia Frisia Frisia is a coastal region along the southeastern corner of the North Sea, i.e. the German Bight. Frisia is the traditional homeland of the Frisians, a Germanic people who speak Frisian, a language group closely related to the English language... |
20 |
| The British Isles except Ireland | > 200 |
| Greenland Greenland Greenland is an autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark, located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe for... |
> 100 |
| Iceland Iceland Iceland , described as the Republic of Iceland, is a Nordic and European island country in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Iceland also refers to the main island of the country, which contains almost all the population and almost all the land area. The country has a population... |
< 100 |
| Ireland Ireland Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth... |
16 |
| Faroes | 9 |
| Non-Scandinavian total | > 500 |
| Total | > 6,400 |
Estimates of total number of inscriptions produced
Elder Futhark inscriptions were rare, with very few active literati, in relation to the total population, at any time, so that knowledge of the runes was probably an actual "secret" throughout the Migration period. Of 366 lances excavated at IllerupIllerup Ådal
Illerup Ådal is an archeological site located near Skanderborg, Denmark.The first findings at the river valley Illerup Ådal were revealed in 1950, during the drainage works. The area was excavated from 1950 till 1956 and again in 1975-1985. During the excavations more than 15,000 items, mainly Iron...
, only 2 bore inscriptions. A similar ratio is estimated for Alemannia, with an estimated 170 excavated graves to every inscription found (Lüthi 2004:323)
Estimates of the total number of inscriptions produced are based on the "minimal runological estimate" of 40,000 (ten individuals making ten inscriptions per year for four centuries). The actual number was probably considerably higher, maybe close to 400,000 in total, so that of the order of 0.1% of the corpus has come down to us), and Fischer (2004:281) estimates a population of several hundred active literati throughout the period, with as many as 1,600 during the Alamannic "runic boom" of the 6th century.
Types of inscribed objects
Especially the earliest inscriptions are found on all types of everyday objects. Later, a preference for valuable or prestigious objects (jewelry or weapons) seems to develop, inscriptions often indicating ownership.- jewelry
- bracteateBracteateA bracteate is a flat, thin, single-sided gold medal worn as jewelry that was produced in Northern Europe predominantly during the Migration Period of the Germanic Iron Age...
s: some 133 Elder Futhark inscriptions, popular during the Scandinavian Germanic Iron AgeGermanic Iron AgeThe Germanic Iron Age is the name given to the period 400–800 in Northern Europe and it is part of the continental Age of Migrations.-Germanic Iron :...
/ Vendel eraVendel eraIn Swedish prehistory, the Vendel era is the name given to a part of the Germanic Iron Age .... - fibulae: some 50 Elder Futhark inscriptions, popular in 6th to 7th century Alemannia
- brooches: Boarley (Kent), Harford (Norfolk) brooch, West Heslerton (North Yorkshire), Wakerley (Northamptonshire), Dover (Kent)
- belt parts (plaques, buckles, strap.ends): Vimose buckle, Pforzen bucklePforzen buckleThe Pforzen buckle is a silver belt buckle found in Pforzen, Ostallgäu in 1992. The Alemannic grave in which it was found dates to the end of the 6th century and was presumably that of a warrior, as it also contained a lance, spatha, seax and shield...
, Heilbronn-Böckingen, Szabadbattyan - rings: six known Anglo-Saxon runic rings, a few examples from Alemannia (Vörstetten-Schupfholz, Pforzen, Aalen neck-ring)
- amber: Weingarten amber-pearl
- bracteate
- Weapon parts
- seaxSeaxSeax in Old English means knife or cutting tool. The name of the roofer's tool, the zax, is a development from this word...
es: Thames scramasax, Steindorf, Hailfingen - spearheadsMigration Period spearThe spear together with the sword, the longsax and the shield was the main equipment of the Germanic warriors during the Migration period and the Early Middle Ages.-Terminology:...
: Vimose, Kovel, Dahmsdorf-Müncheberg, Wurmlingen - swordsMigration Period swordSwords of the Migration Period show a transition from the Roman era Spatha to the "Viking sword" types of the Early Middle Ages....
and sword-sheaths Vimose chape, Vimose sheathplate, Thorsberg chapeThorsberg chapeThe Thorsberg chape , is an archeological find from the Thorsberg moor, Germany, that appears to have been deposited as a votive offering...
, Schretzheim ring-sword, Ash Gilton (Kent) gilt silver sword pommel, Chessel Down II (Isle of Wight) silver plate (attached to the scabbard mouthpiece of a ring-sword), Sæbø swordSæbø swordThe Sæbø sword is an early 9th-century Viking sword, found in a barrow at Sæbø, Vik, Sogn, Norway in 1825. It is now held at the Bergen Museum in Bergen, Norway. The sword has an enigmatic inscription on its blade, which has been identified as a runic inscription incorporating a swastika symbol...
- seax
- coins: Skanomody solidus, Harlingen solidus, Schweindorf solidus, Folkestone tremissis, Midlum sceat, Kent II coins (some 30 items), Kent III, IV silver sceattas, Suffolk gold shillings (three items), Upper Thames Valley gold coins (four items)
- boxes or containers: Franks CasketFranks CasketThe Franks Casket is a small Anglo-Saxon whalebone chest from the seventh century, now in the British Museum. The casket is densely decorated with knife-cut narrative scenes in flat two-dimensional low-relief and with inscriptions mostly in Anglo-Saxon runes...
, Schretzheim capsule, Gammertingen case, Ferwerd combcase, Kantens combcase - runestones: from about AD 400, very popular for Viking AgeViking AgeViking Age is the term for the period in European history, especially Northern European and Scandinavian history, spanning the late 8th to 11th centuries. Scandinavian Vikings explored Europe by its oceans and rivers through trade and warfare. The Vikings also reached Iceland, Greenland,...
Younger FutharkYounger FutharkThe Younger Futhark, also called Scandinavian runes, is a runic alphabet, a reduced form of the Elder Futhark, consisting of only 16 characters, in use from ca. 800 CE...
inscriptions - bone: Caistor-by-Norwich astragalusCaistor-by-Norwich astragalusThe Caistor-by-Norwich astralagus is a roe deer astragalus found in an urn at Caistor St. Edmund, Norfolk, England. The astralagus is inscribed with a 5th-century Elder Futhark inscription, reading ' "roe"...
, Rasquert swordhandle (whalebone handle of a symbolic sword), Hantum whalebone plate, Bernsterburen whalebone staff, Hamwick horse knucklebone, Wijnaldum A antler piece - pieces of wood: Vimose woodplane, Neudingen/Baar, Arum sword (a yew-wood miniature sword), Westeremden yew-stickWesteremden yew-stickThe Westeremden yew-stick is a yew-wood stick found in Westeremden B in the Groningen province of the Netherlands in 1917 that bears an Old Frisian Futhorc inscription.* , a Spiegelrune of , similar to a variant of stan, transliterated as B below...
- cremation urns: Loveden Hill (Lincolnshire), Spong Hill (Norfolk)
- the Kleines Schulerloch inscriptionKleines Schulerloch inscriptionThe runic inscription found in the Kleines Schulerloch cave, Altmühltal, near Essing, Bavaria was discovered in 1937. It readsprobably meaning "Birg, beloved of Selbrad", next to a drawing of an ibex or stag. From the 1950s the inscription had been considered a hoax by many scholars...
is a singular example of an inscription on a cave wall
Early period (2nd to 4th c.)
The earliest period of Elder Futhark (2nd to 4th centuries) predates the division in regional script variants, and linguistically essentially still reflect the Common Germanic stage. Their distribution is mostly limited to southern Scandinavia, northern Germany and Frisia (the "North Sea Germanic runic Koine"), with stray finds associated with the GothsGothic runic inscriptions
Very few Elder Futhark inscriptions in the Gothic language have been found in the territory historically settled by the Goths...
from Romania
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
and Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
.
Linguistically, the 3rd and 4th centuries correspond to the formation of Proto-Norse, just predating the separation of West Germanic into Anglo-Frisian, Low German
Old Saxon
Old Saxon, also known as Old Low German, is the earliest recorded form of Low German, documented from the 8th century until the 12th century, when it evolved into Middle Low German. It was spoken on the north-west coast of Germany and in the Netherlands by Saxon peoples...
and High German
Old High German
The term Old High German refers to the earliest stage of the German language and it conventionally covers the period from around 500 to 1050. Coherent written texts do not appear until the second half of the 8th century, and some treat the period before 750 as 'prehistoric' and date the start of...
.
- Vimose inscriptionsVimose inscriptionsFinds from Vimose, Funen, Denmark, include some of the very oldest datable Elder Futhark runic inscriptions in late Proto-Germanic or early Proto-Norse from the 2nd to 3rd centuries AD....
(6 objects, AD 160-300) - Gotland spearhead (ca. 180), gaois
- Ovre Stabu spearhead (ca. 180), raunijaz
- Thorsberg chapeThorsberg chapeThe Thorsberg chape , is an archeological find from the Thorsberg moor, Germany, that appears to have been deposited as a votive offering...
(AD 200) - Nydam axe-handle (4th century): wagagastiz / alu:??hgusikijaz:aiþalataz
- Caistor-by-Norwich astragalusCaistor-by-Norwich astragalusThe Caistor-by-Norwich astralagus is a roe deer astragalus found in an urn at Caistor St. Edmund, Norfolk, England. The astralagus is inscribed with a 5th-century Elder Futhark inscription, reading ' "roe"...
(AD 400) - Illerup inscriptions (9 objects)
Scandinavian
About 260 items in Elder Futhark, and close to 6,000 items (mostly runestones) in Younger Futhark.The highest concentration of Elder Futhark inscriptions is in Denmark.
An important Proto-Norse inscription was on one of the Golden horns of Gallehus
Golden horns of Gallehus
The Golden Horns of Gallehus were two horns made of sheet gold, discovered in Gallehus, north of Møgeltønder in South Jutland, Denmark.The horns date to the early 5th century, i.e. the beginning of the Germanic Iron Age....
(early 5th century).
A total of 133 known inscriptions on bracteates.
The oldest known runestones date to the early 5th century (Einang stone
Einang stone
The Einang stone is a runestone located near Fagernes, Norway, notable for the age of its runic inscription.-Description:The Einang stone bears an Elder Futhark inscription in Proto-Norse that has been dated to the 4th century...
, Kylver Stone
Kylver Stone
The Kylver stone, listed in the Rundata catalog as runic inscription G 88, is a Swedish runestone which dates from about 400 CE notable for its listing of each of the runes in the elder futhark.-Description:...
).
The longest known inscription in the Elder Futhark, and one of the youngest, consists of some 200 characters and is found on the early 8th century Eggjum stone
Eggjum stone
The Eggja stone , listed as N KJ101 in the Rundata catalog, is a grave stone with a runic inscription that was ploughed up in 1917 on the farm Eggja in Sogndal, Sogn og Fjordane county, Norway.-Description:...
, and may even contain a stanza of Old Norse poetry
Old Norse poetry
Old Norse poetry encompasses a range of verse forms written in Old Norse, during the period from the 8th century to as late as the far end of the 13th century...
.
The transition to Younger Futhark
Younger Futhark
The Younger Futhark, also called Scandinavian runes, is a runic alphabet, a reduced form of the Elder Futhark, consisting of only 16 characters, in use from ca. 800 CE...
begins from the 6th century, with transitional examples like the Björketorp
Björketorp Runestone
The Björketorp Runestone in Blekinge, Sweden, is part of a grave field which includes menhirs, both solitary and forming stone circles....
or Stentoften
Stentoften Runestone
The Stentoften Runestone, listed in the Rundata catalog as DR 357, is a runestone which contains a curse in Proto-Norse that was discovered in Stentoften, Blekinge, Sweden....
stones. In the early 9th century, both the older and the younger futhark were known and used, which is shown on the Rök Runestone
Rök Runestone
The Rök Runestone is one of the most famous runestones, featuring the longest known runic inscription in stone. It can now be seen by the church in Rök , Östergötland, Sweden...
.
By the 10th century, only Younger Futhark remained in use.
Anglo-Frisian
Some 100 items spanning the 5th to 11th centuries.The 5th century Undley bracteate
Undley bracteate
The Undley bracteate is a 5th century bracteate found in Undley Common, near Lakenheath, Suffolk. It bears the earliest known inscription that can be argued to be in Anglo-Frisian Futhorc ....
is considered the earliest known Anglo-Frisian inscription.
The 8th-century Franks Casket
Franks Casket
The Franks Casket is a small Anglo-Saxon whalebone chest from the seventh century, now in the British Museum. The casket is densely decorated with knife-cut narrative scenes in flat two-dimensional low-relief and with inscriptions mostly in Anglo-Saxon runes...
, preserved during the Middle Ages in Brioude
Brioude
Brioude is a commune in the Haute-Loire department in the Auvergne region in south-central France. It lies on the banks of the River Allier, a tributary of the Loire.-History:...
, central France, exhibits the longest coherent inscriptions in Anglo-Saxon runes by far, including five alliterating long-lines, qualifying as the oldest preserved Anglo-Saxon poetry.
While the Nordic bracteates are jewelry imitating Roman gold coins, there were a number of actual coins (currency) in Anglo-Saxon England inscribed with runes, notably the coins from Kent, inscribed with pada, æpa and epa (early 7th century).
There are a number of Christian inscriptions from the time of Christianization.
St. Cuthbert's coffin
St. Cuthbert's coffin
St. Cuthbert's coffin is an oak coffin in Durham Cathedral which between AD 698 and 1827 contained the remains of Saint Cuthbert, who died in 687. The coffin also contained the Stonyhurst Gospel and the best surviving examples of Anglo-Saxon embroidery or opus Anglicanum, a stole and maniple...
, dated to 698, even has a runic monogram of Christ, and the Whitby II bone comb (7th c.) has a pious plea for God's help, deus meus, god aluwaldo, helpæ Cy… "my God, almighty God, help Cy…". The Ruthwell Cross
Ruthwell Cross
The Ruthwell Cross is a stone Anglo-Saxon cross probably dating from the 8th century, when Ruthwell was part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria; it is now in Scotland. Anglo-Saxon crosses are closely related to the contemporary Irish high crosses, and both are part of the Insular art tradition...
inscription could also be mentioned, but its authenticity is dubious.
Unlike the situation on the continent, the tradition of runic writing does not disappear in England after Christianization but continues for a full three centuries, disappearing after the Norman conquest
Norman conquest of England
The Norman conquest of England began on 28 September 1066 with the invasion of England by William, Duke of Normandy. William became known as William the Conqueror after his victory at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, defeating King Harold II of England...
. A type of object unique to Christianized Anglo-Saxon England are the six known Anglo-Saxon runic rings of the 9th to 10th centuries.
Continental
Apart from the earliest inscriptions found on the continent along the North Sea coast (the "North Germanic Koine", Martin 2004:173), continental inscriptions can be divided in those of the "Alemannic runic province" (Martin 2004), with a few dozen examples dating to the 6th and 7th centuries, and those associated with the GothsGoths
The Goths were an East Germanic tribe of Scandinavian origin whose two branches, the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths, played an important role in the fall of the Roman Empire and the emergence of Medieval Europe....
, loosely scattered along the Oder to south-eastern Poland, as far as the Carpathian Mountains
Carpathian Mountains
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a range of mountains forming an arc roughly long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe...
(e.g. the ring of Pietroassa
Ring of Pietroassa
The Ring of Pietroassa is a gold Torc-like necklace found in a ring barrow in Pietroassa , Buzău County, southern Romania , in 1837. It formed part of a large gold Hoard dated to between 250 and 400 CE...
in Romania), dating to the 4th and 5th centuries.
The cessation of both the Gothic and Alemannic runic tradition conincides with the Christianization of the respective peoples.
Lüthi (2004:321) identifies a total of about 81 continental inscriptions found south of the "North Germanic Koine". Most of these originate in southern Germany (Baden-Württemberg
Baden-Württemberg
Baden-Württemberg is one of the 16 states of Germany. Baden-Württemberg is in the southwestern part of the country to the east of the Upper Rhine, and is the third largest in both area and population of Germany's sixteen states, with an area of and 10.7 million inhabitants...
and Bavaria
Bavaria
Bavaria, formally the Free State of Bavaria is a state of Germany, located in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the largest state by area, forming almost 20% of the total land area of Germany...
), with a single one found south of the Rhine (Bülach fibula
Bülach fibula
The Bülach fibula is a silver disk-type fibula with almandine inlay found in Bülach, Canton Zürich in 1927. The Alemannic grave in which it was found dates to 6th century and contained the remains of an adult woman...
, found in Bülach
Bülach
Bülach is a municipality in Switzerland in the canton of Zurich, located in the district of the same name, and belongs to the Glatt Valley .-History:Bülach is first mentioned in 811 as Pulacha...
, Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
), and a handful from Eastern Europe (Poland, Romania, Ukraine).
A silver-plated copper disk, originally part of a sword-belt, found at Liebenau, Lower Saxony
Liebenau, Lower Saxony
Liebenau is a municipality in the district of Nienburg, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated on the left bank of the Weser, approx. 10 km southwest of Nienburg, and 40 km northeast of Minden....
with an early 5th century runic inscription (mostly illegible, interpreted as possibly reading rauzwih) is classed as the earliest South Germanic (German) inscription known by the RGA
Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde
The Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde is an important German-language encyclopedia treating the history of the Germanic peoples from antiquity to the middle ages...
(vol. 6, p. 576); the location of Liebenau is close to the boundary of the North Sea and South Germanic zones.
Siglas Poveiras
Siglas poveiras
The siglas poveiras is a proto-writing system that has been used by the local community of Póvoa de Varzim in Portugal for many generations. The siglas were primarily used as a signature for family coat-of-arms in order to mark family belongings...
in Povoa de Varzim
Póvoa de Varzim
Póvoa de Varzim is a Portuguese city in the Norte Region and sub-region of Greater Porto, with a 2011 estimated population of 63,364. According to the 2001 census, there were 63,470 inhabitants with 42,396 living in the city proper. The urban area expanded, southwards, to Vila do Conde, and there...
, Portugal
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
are also a type of writing based on the viking runes. The siglas were first studied by António de Santos Graça in his book Epopeia dos Humildes ("The Odyssey of the Humble"). Published in 1952, the book contains hundreds of siglas and the history and maritime tragedy of Póvoa. Other works of his are "O Poveiro" (The Poveiro, 1932), "A Crença do Poveiro nas Almas Penadas" (Poveiro Beliefs Regarding Dead Souls, 1933) e "Inscrições Tumulares por Siglas" (Tomb Inscriptions Using Siglas, 1942).
After a visit to the National Museet in Copenhagen, Octávio Lixa Filgueiras, by accident, found objects marked with "home-marks" from Funen in Denmark. Moreover, the complex hereditary mark system of Póvoa de Varzim was also found in Funen.
The Siglas development is at least, partly, attributed to Vikings that settled in the town during the 10th century and 11th century. This form of primitive writing developed within the community of Póvoa de Varzim was kept due to the practice of endogamy. Also, the similarity with the Scandinavian tradition of using specific bomärken ("homestead marks") for signatures and for marking property has also been noted.
Gothic
Out of about a dozen candidate inscriptions, only three are widely accepted to be of Gothic origin: the gold ring of Pietroassa, bearing a votive inscription, part of a larger treasure found in the RomaniaRomania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
n Carpathians
Carpathian Mountains
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a range of mountains forming an arc roughly long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe...
, and two spearheads inscribed with what is probably the weapon's name, one found in the Ukrainian
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
Carpathians, and the other in eastern Germany, near the Oder
Oder
The Oder is a river in Central Europe. It rises in the Czech Republic and flows through western Poland, later forming of the border between Poland and Germany, part of the Oder-Neisse line...
.
The inscription on the spearhead of Kovel, found in Ukraine (now lost) is a special case. Its date is very early (3rd century) and it shows a mixture of runic and Latin
Latin alphabet
The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most recognized alphabet used in the world today. It evolved from a western variety of the Greek alphabet called the Cumaean alphabet, which was adopted and modified by the Etruscans who ruled early Rome...
letters, reading
Alemannic
The known inscriptions from Alemannia mostly date to the century between AD 520 and 620. There are some 70 inscriptions in total, about half of them on fibulae. Some are explicitly dedications among lovers, containing leub "beloved", or in the case of the Bülach fibula fridil "lover".Most were found in Germany, in the states
States of Germany
Germany is made up of sixteen which are partly sovereign constituent states of the Federal Republic of Germany. Land literally translates as "country", and constitutionally speaking, they are constituent countries...
of Baden-Württemberg
Baden-Württemberg
Baden-Württemberg is one of the 16 states of Germany. Baden-Württemberg is in the southwestern part of the country to the east of the Upper Rhine, and is the third largest in both area and population of Germany's sixteen states, with an area of and 10.7 million inhabitants...
and Bavaria
Bavaria
Bavaria, formally the Free State of Bavaria is a state of Germany, located in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the largest state by area, forming almost 20% of the total land area of Germany...
. A lesser number originates in Hessen and Rheinland-Pfalz, and outside of Germany there is a single example from Switzerland, and a small number of what are likely Burgundian
Burgundians
The Burgundians were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose old form in Old Norse still was Burgundarholmr , and from there to mainland Europe...
inscriptions from easter France.
The precise number of inscriptions is debatable, as some proposed inscriptions consist of a single sign, or a row of signs that may also be "rune-like", in imitation of writing, or purely ornamental. For example, a ring found in Bopfingen
Bopfingen
Bopfingen is a small city in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is situated in the Ostalbkreis, between Aalen and Nördlingen. It consists of the city Bopfingen itself and its suburbs Aufhausen, Baldern, Flochberg, Kerkingen, Oberdorf, Schloßberg, Trochtelfingen, and Unterriffingen.Bopfingen is famous...
has been interpreted as being inscribed with a single g, i.e. a simple X-shape that may also be ornamental. Most interpretable inscriptions contain personal names, and only ten inscriptions contain more than one interpretable word. Of these, four translate to "(PN) wrote the runes".
The other six "long" interpretable inscriptions are:
- Pforzen bucklePforzen buckleThe Pforzen buckle is a silver belt buckle found in Pforzen, Ostallgäu in 1992. The Alemannic grave in which it was found dates to the end of the 6th century and was presumably that of a warrior, as it also contained a lance, spatha, seax and shield...
: aigil andi aïlrun / ltahu gasokun ("Aigil and Ailrun fought at the [Ilz River?]") - Nordendorf fibulaNordendorf fibulathumb|300px|right|The Nordendorf II fibulaThe Nordendorf fibulae are two mid 6th to early 7th century Alamannic fibulae found in Nordendorf near Augsburg, Bavaria, Germany....
: logaþorewodanwigiþonar (three theonyms, or "Wodan and Wigi-þonar are magicians/sorcerers") - Schretzheim case: arogisd / alaguþleuba : dedun ("Arogast / Alaguth [and] Leubo (Beloved) made it")
- Schretzheim fibula: siþwagadin leubo ("to the Traveller (Wotan?), [from] Leubo (Beloved)", or perhaps "love to my travel-companion" or similar)
- OsthofenOsthofenOsthofen is a Verband-free town – one belonging to no Verbandsgemeinde, a kind of collective municipality – in the middle of the Wonnegau in the Alzey-Worms district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany...
: madali umbada ("Madali, protection") - Bad EmsBad EmsBad Ems is a town in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is the county seat of the Rhein-Lahn rural district and is well known as a bathing resort on the river Lahn...
fibula: god fura dih deofile ("God for/before you, Theophilus". The inscription is one of the youngest of the Alemannic sphere, dating to between 660 and 690, and clearly reflects a Christianized background.)
Other notable inscriptions:
- Bülach fibulaBülach fibulaThe Bülach fibula is a silver disk-type fibula with almandine inlay found in Bülach, Canton Zürich in 1927. The Alemannic grave in which it was found dates to 6th century and contained the remains of an adult woman...
: frifridil du aftm[... - Wurmlingen spearhead, from an Alemannic grave in WurmlingenWurmlingenWurmlingen is a municipality in the district of Tuttlingen in Baden-Württemberg in Germany....
, inscription read as a personal name (i)dorih ( or ) - Schretzheim ring-sword: the sword blade has four runes arranged so that the staves form a cross. Read as arab by Düwel (1997). Schwab (1998:378) reads abra, interpreting it as abbreviating the magic word AbraxasAbraxasThe word Abrasax was a word of mystic meaning in the system of the Gnostic Basilides, being there applied to the “Great Archon” , the princeps of the 365 spheres...
, suggesting influence of the magic traditionsMagic in the Greco-Roman worldThe study of magic in the Greco-Roman world is a branch of the disciplines of classics, ancient history and religious studies. In the ancient post-hellenistic world of the Greeks and Romans , the public and private rituals associated with religion are accepted by historians and archaeologists to...
of Late Antiquity, and the Christian practice of arranging monograms on the arms of a cross. - Kleines Schulerloch inscriptionKleines Schulerloch inscriptionThe runic inscription found in the Kleines Schulerloch cave, Altmühltal, near Essing, Bavaria was discovered in 1937. It readsprobably meaning "Birg, beloved of Selbrad", next to a drawing of an ibex or stag. From the 1950s the inscription had been considered a hoax by many scholars...
, long suspected as a hoax, now considered genuine due to the discovery of a parallel inscription in Bad KrozingenBad KrozingenBad Krozingen is a spa town in the district Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald, in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is situated 15 km southwest of Freiburg....
. Reads birg : leub : selbrade.
A small number of inscriptions found in eastern France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
may be Burgundian
Burgundians
The Burgundians were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose old form in Old Norse still was Burgundarholmr , and from there to mainland Europe...
rather than Alemannic:
- the Arguel pebble: arbitag | wodan | luïgo[?h]aŋzej | kim |
- the Charnay FibulaCharnay FibulaThe Charnay Fibula is a mid 6th century fibula or brooch which was discovered in Burgundy in 1857. It has a runic inscription consisting of a horizontal partial listing of the first twenty of the twenty-four rune sequence of the elder futhark and two undeciphered vertical lines. The full listing of...
: fuþarkgwhnijïpʀstbem | ' uþf[?]þai ' id | dan ' (l)iano | ïia | [?]r |
Frankish
Very few inscriptions can be associated with the FranksFranks
The Franks were a confederation of Germanic tribes first attested in the third century AD as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. Only the Salian Franks formed a...
, reflecting their early Romanization and Christianization. An important find is the Bergakker inscription
Bergakker inscription
The Bergakker inscription was found in 1996 near the town of Bergakker, near Tiel.It is a 5th-century Elder Futhark inscription on a metal mount for a sword scabbard....
, suggested as recording 5th-century Old Frankish
Old Frankish
Old Frankish is an extinct West Germanic language, once spoken by the Franks. It is the parent language of the Franconian languages, of which Dutch and Afrikaans are the most known descendants...
.
The only other inscription definitely classified as Frankish is the Borgharen buckle, reading bobo (a Frankish personal name).