Santalum album
Encyclopedia
Santalum album or Indian sandalwood is a small tropical tree, the most commonly known source of sandalwood
. This species has been utilised, cultivated and traded for many years, some cultures placing great significance on its fragrant and medicinal qualities. For these reasons it has been extensively exploited, to the point where the wild population is vulnerable to extinction. It still commands high prices for its essential oil
, but due to lack of sizable trees it is no longer used for fine woodworking
as before. The plant is widely cultivated and long lived, although harvest is viable after 40 years.
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The height of the evergreen tree is between 4 and 9 metres.
They may live to one hundred years of age.
The tree is variable in habit, usually upright to sprawling, and may intertwine with other species.
The plant parasitises the roots of other tree species, with a haustorium
adaptation on its own roots, but without major detriment to its hosts. An individual will form a non-obligate
relationship with a number of other plants.
Up to 300 species (including its own) can host the tree's development - supplying macronutrients phosphorus
, nitrogen
and potassium
, and shade - especially during early phases of development.
It may propagate itself through wood suckering during its early development, establishing small stands.
The reddish or brown bark
can be almost black and is smooth in young trees, becoming cracked with a red reveal.
The heartwood is pale green to white as the common name indicates.
The leaves
are thin, opposite and ovate to lanceolate
in shape. Glabrous surface is shiny and bright green, with a glaucous pale reverse.
Fruit
is produced after three years, viable seeds after five.
These seeds are distributed by birds.
for other "sandalwoods" and the taxonomy of the genus are derived from this species historical and widespread use. Santalum album is included in the family Santalaceae
, and is commonly known as white or East Indian sandalwood. The name, Santalum ovatum, used by Robert Brown
in Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae (1810) was described as a synonym of this species by Alex George
in 1984. The epithet album refers to the 'white' of the heartwood.
The species was the first to be known as sandalwood. Other species in the genus Santalum
, such as the Australian S. spicatum
, are also referred to as true sandalwoods, to distinguish them from trees with similar-smelling wood or oil.
n subcontinent. It is now planted in India
, China
, Sri Lanka
, Indonesia
, Malaysia, the Philippines
and Northwestern Australia
.
up to 700 m elevation. It normally grows in sandy or stony red soils, but a wide range of soil types are inhabited. This habitat has a temperature range from 0 to 38°C and annual rainfall between 500 and 3000 mm.
through altered land use; fire, agriculture and land-clearing are the factors of most concern.
To preserve this vulnerable
resource from over-exploitation, legislation protects the species, and cultivation is researched and developed.
The Indian government has placed a ban on the export of the timber.
S. album has been the primary source of sandalwood and the derived oil. These often hold an important place within the societies of its naturalised distribution range. The high value of the plant has led to attempts at cultivation, this has increased the distribution range of the plant.
The ISO Standard for the accepted characteristics of this essential oil is ISO 3518:2002.
The long maturation period and difficulty in cultivation have been restrictive to extensive planting within the range.
Harvest of the tree involves several curing and processing stages, also adding to the commercial value. These wood and oil have high demand and are an important trade item in the regions of:
India: The use of S. album in India is noted in literature for over two thousand years. It has use as wood and oil in religious practices. It also features as a construction material in temples and elsewhere. The Indian government has banned the export of the species to reduce the threat by over-harvesting. In the southern Indian state of Karnataka, all trees of greater than a specified girth are the property of the state. Cutting of trees, even on private property, is regulated by the Forest Department. The infamous forest bandit Veerappan
was involved in the illegal felling of sandalwood trees from forests.
Sri Lanka: The harvesting of sandalwood is preferred to be of trees that are advanced in age. Saleable wood can, however, be of trees as young as seven years. The entire plant is removed rather than cut to the base, as in coppiced
species. The extensive removal of S. album over the past century led to increased vulnerability to extinction.
Australia:Utilisation of native Australian Santalum species in has been extensive; Santalum spicatum
was extensively harvested and exported from Western Australia
during colonisation, this was used as a less expensive alternative to this species. Commercial Indian sandalwood plantations are now in full operations in Kununurra, Western Australia.
Sandalwood
Sandalwood is the name of a class of fragrant woods from trees in the genus Santalum. The woods are heavy, yellow, and fine-grained, and unlike many other aromatic woods they retain their fragrance for decades. As well as using the harvested and cut wood in-situ, essential oils are also extracted...
. This species has been utilised, cultivated and traded for many years, some cultures placing great significance on its fragrant and medicinal qualities. For these reasons it has been extensively exploited, to the point where the wild population is vulnerable to extinction. It still commands high prices for its essential oil
Essential oil
An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils or aetherolea, or simply as the "oil of" the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove...
, but due to lack of sizable trees it is no longer used for fine woodworking
Woodworking
Woodworking is the process of building, making or carving something using wood.-History:Along with stone, mud, and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans. Microwear analysis of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood...
as before. The plant is widely cultivated and long lived, although harvest is viable after 40 years.
Description
They may live to one hundred years of age.
The tree is variable in habit, usually upright to sprawling, and may intertwine with other species.
The plant parasitises the roots of other tree species, with a haustorium
Haustorium
In botany, a haustorium is the appendage or portion of a parasitic fungus or of the root of a parasitic plant that penetrates the host's tissue and draws nutrients from it. Haustoria do not penetrate the host's cell membranes.Fungi in all major divisions form haustoria...
adaptation on its own roots, but without major detriment to its hosts. An individual will form a non-obligate
Obligate parasite
An obligate parasite is a parasitic organism that cannot complete its life cycle without dependence on its host.-See also:*Obligate intracellular parasite*Parasitism*Parasitic plant*Facultative parasite...
relationship with a number of other plants.
Up to 300 species (including its own) can host the tree's development - supplying macronutrients phosphorus
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the chemical element that has the symbol P and atomic number 15. A multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus as a mineral is almost always present in its maximally oxidized state, as inorganic phosphate rocks...
, nitrogen
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere...
and potassium
Potassium
Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K and atomic number 19. Elemental potassium is a soft silvery-white alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air and is very reactive with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite the hydrogen emitted in the reaction.Potassium and sodium are...
, and shade - especially during early phases of development.
It may propagate itself through wood suckering during its early development, establishing small stands.
The reddish or brown bark
Bark
Bark is the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees, woody vines and shrubs. Bark refers to all the tissues outside of the vascular cambium and is a nontechnical term. It overlays the wood and consists of the inner bark and the outer bark. The inner...
can be almost black and is smooth in young trees, becoming cracked with a red reveal.
The heartwood is pale green to white as the common name indicates.
The leaves
Leaves
-History:Vocalist Arnar Gudjonsson was formerly the guitarist with Mower, and he was joined by Hallur Hallsson , Arnar Ólafsson , Bjarni Grímsson , and Andri Ásgrímsson . Late in 2001 they played with Emiliana Torrini and drew early praise from the New York Times...
are thin, opposite and ovate to lanceolate
Leaf shape
In botany, leaf shape is characterised with the following terms :* Acicular : Slender and pointed, needle-like* Acuminate : Tapering to a long point...
in shape. Glabrous surface is shiny and bright green, with a glaucous pale reverse.
Fruit
Fruit
In broad terms, a fruit is a structure of a plant that contains its seeds.The term has different meanings dependent on context. In non-technical usage, such as food preparation, fruit normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of certain plants that are sweet and edible in the raw state,...
is produced after three years, viable seeds after five.
These seeds are distributed by birds.
Nomenclature
The nomenclatureNomenclature
Nomenclature is a term that applies to either a list of names or terms, or to the system of principles, procedures and terms related to naming - which is the assigning of a word or phrase to a particular object or property...
for other "sandalwoods" and the taxonomy of the genus are derived from this species historical and widespread use. Santalum album is included in the family Santalaceae
Santalaceae
Santalaceae is a widely distributed family of flowering plants which, like other members of Santalales, are partially parasitic on other plants...
, and is commonly known as white or East Indian sandalwood. The name, Santalum ovatum, used by Robert Brown
Robert Brown (botanist)
Robert Brown was a Scottish botanist and palaeobotanist who made important contributions to botany largely through his pioneering use of the microscope...
in Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae (1810) was described as a synonym of this species by Alex George
Alex George
Alexander Segger George is a Western Australian botanist. He is the authority on the plant genera Banksia and Dryandra...
in 1984. The epithet album refers to the 'white' of the heartwood.
The species was the first to be known as sandalwood. Other species in the genus Santalum
Santalum
Santalum is a genus of woody flowering plants, the best known and commercially valuable of which is the Indian Sandalwood tree, S. album. Members of the genus are trees or shrubs. Most are root parasites which photosynthesize their own food but tap the roots of other species for water and...
, such as the Australian S. spicatum
Santalum spicatum
Santalum spicatum, a species known as Australian sandalwood, is a tree native to semi-arid areas at the edge of Southwest Australia. It is traded as sandalwood and its valuable oil has been used as an aromatic, a medicine and a food source. S...
, are also referred to as true sandalwoods, to distinguish them from trees with similar-smelling wood or oil.
Distribution
It is a hemiparasitic tree, native to semi-arid areas of the IndiaIndia
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
n subcontinent. It is now planted in India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Known until 1972 as Ceylon , Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the...
, Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
, Malaysia, the Philippines
Philippines
The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
and Northwestern Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
.
Habitat
S. album occurs from coastal dry forestsTropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests
The tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forest biome, also known as tropical dry forest, is located at tropical and subtropical latitudes. Though these forests occur in climates that are warm year-round, and may receive several hundred centimeters of rain per year, they have long dry seasons...
up to 700 m elevation. It normally grows in sandy or stony red soils, but a wide range of soil types are inhabited. This habitat has a temperature range from 0 to 38°C and annual rainfall between 500 and 3000 mm.
Conservation
The species is threatened by over-exploitation and degradation to habitatHabitat (ecology)
A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant or other type of organism...
through altered land use; fire, agriculture and land-clearing are the factors of most concern.
To preserve this vulnerable
Vulnerable species
On 30 January 2010, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species identified 9694 Vulnerable species, subspecies and varieties, stocks and sub-populations.-References:...
resource from over-exploitation, legislation protects the species, and cultivation is researched and developed.
The Indian government has placed a ban on the export of the timber.
Uses
The ISO Standard for the accepted characteristics of this essential oil is ISO 3518:2002.
The long maturation period and difficulty in cultivation have been restrictive to extensive planting within the range.
Harvest of the tree involves several curing and processing stages, also adding to the commercial value. These wood and oil have high demand and are an important trade item in the regions of:
India: The use of S. album in India is noted in literature for over two thousand years. It has use as wood and oil in religious practices. It also features as a construction material in temples and elsewhere. The Indian government has banned the export of the species to reduce the threat by over-harvesting. In the southern Indian state of Karnataka, all trees of greater than a specified girth are the property of the state. Cutting of trees, even on private property, is regulated by the Forest Department. The infamous forest bandit Veerappan
Veerappan
Koose Muniswamy Veerappan commonly known as Veerappan, was a notorious dacoit, or robber bandit, of India. He was active for a period of years in a broad swath of land covering 6,000 km² in the states of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu...
was involved in the illegal felling of sandalwood trees from forests.
Sri Lanka: The harvesting of sandalwood is preferred to be of trees that are advanced in age. Saleable wood can, however, be of trees as young as seven years. The entire plant is removed rather than cut to the base, as in coppiced
Coppicing
Coppicing is a traditional method of woodland management which takes advantage of the fact that many trees make new growth from the stump or roots if cut down. In a coppiced wood, young tree stems are repeatedly cut down to near ground level...
species. The extensive removal of S. album over the past century led to increased vulnerability to extinction.
Australia:Utilisation of native Australian Santalum species in has been extensive; Santalum spicatum
Santalum spicatum
Santalum spicatum, a species known as Australian sandalwood, is a tree native to semi-arid areas at the edge of Southwest Australia. It is traded as sandalwood and its valuable oil has been used as an aromatic, a medicine and a food source. S...
was extensively harvested and exported from Western Australia
Western Australia
Western Australia is a state of Australia, occupying the entire western third of the Australian continent. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Great Australian Bight and Indian Ocean to the south, the Northern Territory to the north-east and South Australia to the south-east...
during colonisation, this was used as a less expensive alternative to this species. Commercial Indian sandalwood plantations are now in full operations in Kununurra, Western Australia.
External links
- Article abstract The anatomy of Santalum album (Sandalwood) haustoria.
- Database developed at IIT Kharagpur, India, highlighting all major research activities and achievements involving Sandalwood http://sandalwoodbiotech.in/
- Homepage of Professor Satyahari Dey, at Department of Biotechnology, IIT Kharagpur, India: Working on Indian Sandalwood since 20 years http://www.facweb.iitkgp.ernet.in/~shdey/
- Homepage of Dr. B. B. Misra, who graduated in Sandalwood Research at Professor Dey's Laboratory in 2010 https://sites.google.com/site/bbmisranow/ Contains a detailed monograph on Santalum album (Chandana) as well as a discussion of health benefits and usage in clinical practice. Available online at http://www.toddcaldecott.com/index.php/herbs/learning-herbs/379-chandana