Second Zhili-Fengtian War
Encyclopedia
The Second Zhili–Fengtian War of 1924 was a conflict between the Japanese-backed Fengtian clique
based in Manchuria
, and the more liberal Zhili clique controlling Beijing and backed by Anglo-American business interests. The war is considered the most significant in China's Warlord era
, with the Beijing coup
by Christian warlord Feng Yuxiang
leading to the overall defeat of the Zhili clique. During the war the two cliques fought one large battle near Tianjin
in October 1924, as well as a number of smaller skirmishes and sieges. Afterwards, both Feng and Zhang Zuolin
, the latter being ruler of the Fengtian clique, appointed Duan Qirui
as a figure-head prime minister. In south and central China, more liberal Chinese were dismayed by the Fengtian's advance and by the resulting power vacuum. A wave of protests followed. The war also distracted the northern warlords from the Soviet-backed Nationalists based in the southern province of Guangdong
, allowing unhampered preparation for the Northern Expedition (1926–1928), which united China under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek
.
and supported by the military of Wu Peifu
, controlled much of China proper and its internationally recognized Beiyang government
. The clique had no national rivals left, enjoying the support of both London
and Washington
.
The initial cause of the conflict was over the control of Shanghai
, China's biggest city and port, which was legally a part of Jiangsu
province under the control of Zhili general Qi Xieyuan. However the city was actually administered by Lu Yongxiang
as part of Zhejiang
, the last province under the control of the dying Anhui clique
(technically Anhui-held territories, including Shandong
, were allowed to exist so long as they remained neutral). In September, fighting broke out when Zhejiang authorities refused to cede administration of the city to Qi Xieyuan. Zhang Zuolin and Dr. Sun Yat-sen pledged to defend neutral Zhejiang, expanding the conflict to the far north and far south. Indeed, the Fengtian clique
was eager to avenge its defeat at the hands of the Zhili clique in the last war
and had prepared intensively.
The Zhili clique, on the other hand had overestimated its own strength and it found itself completely ill-prepared for the upcoming Second Zhili–Fengtian War.
concentrated mainly on military reform and upgrading logistics. Zhang Zuolin
simultaneously launched two efforts aimed to improve his military after withdrawing to Northeast China
.
Chief of the general staff Yang Yuting
was named as Inspector-General of the Fengtian Armory, while Wang Yintai (王荫泰) was named as Director of Department of Materials of the Fengtian Armory. The armory was expanded, with annual production output of around 150 artillery pieces (excluding mortars). Machine gun output was more than a thousand annually, and the combined total of repaired/refurbished, and new, rifles averaged more than sixty thousand annually. Output for artillery rounds (including for heavy mortars) totaled more than a hundred thousand, while annual production output for rifles rounds averaged six-hundred thousands. Additionally, a large number of mortars were also produced and put to great use during the upcoming war.
The air force and navy were also strengthened. Zhang's son, Zhang Xueliang
, was named as the Director of the Aviation Office, and assisted by Zhou Peibing (周培炳) and Yao Xijiu (姚锡九). Aircraft from Germany and Italy were added, bringing the total strength to near 300 in four groups. Additional air bases were built in strategic locations. Naval headquarters and a training school were set up in Harbin
. Under the Fengtian Security Headquarters, a Directorate of Navigational Policing was formed, with Shen Honglie (沈鸿烈) named as director. This reformed the Northeast China River Defense Flotilla.
To improve communications, additional water and coal supply stations were built in Suizhong
, Xingcheng
, and Great Coalmine Ditch (Dayaogou, 大窑沟) for rapid deployment of troops by railroad. Additional railroads were built in for evacuation purposes in the event of war. Roads were built for better transportation in areas without rail, and each army had its own wire communications (telephone and telegraph) linked to general headquarters in the rear. Radio communication units were also assigned. To further improve radio communications, radio stations were built in Shenyang
, Harbin
and Jin (锦) county.
In conjunction with improving logistics, the Fengtian clique implemented military reforms. Immediately after the First Zhili-Fengtian War, brigade commander Bao Deshan (鲍德山) and regimental commander Xu Changyou (许昌有) were blamed for the defeat, court-martialed, and executed in the spring of 1923. Advisers in both military and civilian affairs were appointed, with Liang Hongzhi
as secretary, and others including Wang Jitang (王揖唐), Zeng Yuxi (曾毓隽), Li Sihao (李思浩). The Northeast China
inspector’s office (东三省巡阅使署) and Fengtian Viceroy’s office (奉天督军署) left from Qing Dynasty
were combined to form the Northeast China Security Headquarter (东三省保安司令部) for administrative improvement. A Northeast China Army Reorganization Directorate (东三省陆军整理处) was also formed to specifically administer the reform needs of the Fengtian forces, and Jilin
Viceroy Sun Liechen (孙烈臣) was named as inspector-general, while Jiang Dengxuan (姜登选), Han Chuntian (韩田春), Li Jinglin
(李景林) were named as deputy inspector-generals. In the summer of 1923, Xingcheng
–Suizhong army command was established at Suizhong County, with Jiang Dengxuan (姜登选) named as commander, so that once war was broken out the command could be rapidly converted into a front-line headquarters.
The Fengtian army expanded to twenty-seven brigades from its original twenty-five, organized into three armies of three divisions. Each division had three brigades. The cavalry was expanded from three to four divisions, with three brigades forming a division and the rest attached to infantry divisions as cavalry companies. Coupled with the increased output of the Fengtian armory, artillery regiments (equipped with larger pieces) were expanded from four to ten. Each division consisted of three brigades with either an infantry brigade or a combined brigade, and every division had an engineering battalion and a transportation battalion attached. Combined brigades were bolstered with an engineering company and a transportation company, though no such auxiliary formations were assigned to infantry brigades. After thorough reform, the strength of Fengtian army totaled more than a quarter million troops, and its performance was significantly improved. The best troops were found in the 2nd Brigade, commanded by Zhang Xueliang
, and the 6th Brigade, commanded by Guo Songling
, and they were viewed as the model units of the Fengtian army.
to start the war. The next day, Zhang Zuolin
held a conference at his residence. Every Fengtian army officer ranking brigade commander or higher was in attendance. Here, Zhang decided to formally declare war against the Zhili clique, and on September 13 all trains running on the Beijing
-Fengtian Railway stopped.
had been drawing up a detailed strategy since spring 1923. This was prepared by staff officers under Fu Xingpei (傅兴沛) and Yu Guohan (于国翰). They predicted that although Zhili clique enjoyed overall numerical superiority, its forces were dispersed and could not reach the battlefield if a Fengtian victory was achieved quickly by concentrating a 250,000 strong force against pockets of resistance. There were four major objectives of Fengtian clique:
Primarily, to annihilate enemy forces and take Beijing
and Tianjin
. To achieve this, Shanhaiguan
needed to be taken, so a Fengtian strike force had to be in the region of Xujianling (徐家岭) on the western bank of Shi He (石河), as well as the adjacent regions to the north and to the south of Xujianling. Once these regions were secured, Fengtian forces would need to gather near Shanhaiguan and launch an assault to capture it. This task force would consist of the 1st Army and 2nd Army, designated as a Combined Corps. After taking Shanhaiguan, it would continue its push toward Beijing
and Tianjin
.
If Shanhaiguan could not be taken, at least two brigades were needed in the region of Qiansuo (前所), a railroad station 20 km east of Shanhaiguan. After the region was secured, the main force would deploy around Suizhong County for another attempt to take Shanhaiguan.
Next, the 2nd Army would march on Rehe
, Yi (义) county, and Dayaogou (大窑沟), 5 km north of Jin County. This Fengtian task force was to take Chaoyang, Jianping (建平) and Chengde
, reaching west of Lingyuan (凌源), its main target. Most of this responsibility was assigned to Zhang Zongchang
’s 3rd Combined Brigade, with the exception of those taking Chaoyang, which was assigned to Li Jinglin (李景林)’s 1st Division. The latter would launch his offensive from Yi County. After achieving its objectives, the 2nd Task Force would assist the Combined Corps in taking Shanhaiguan
, after which it would enter Lengkouguan (冷口关) and attack Luanzhou (滦州) via Qian’an (迁安) County.
Thirdly, Fengtian cavalry group would attack Rehe
from Zhangwu
via Jianping (建平) and Fuxin
, with the initial target be the capture of Chifeng
. The cavalry group was also to cover the flank of the other Fengtian forces, and mop up any enemy left behind. When the situation permitted, the cavalry would also strike the Zhili force’s flank by entering the Great Wall via Xifengkou (喜峰口) and/or Gubeikou (古北口) passes.
Finally, the Fengtian general reserve would be stationed between Xingcheng
and Suizhong
county, to guard Jinzhou
. The 4th Army was assigned, and supported by the 5th Army , which would come to its aid when needed. The Fengtian Air Force was headquartered at Shenyang
, with three groups mobilized for the war effort. Two of these groups were under the direct command of the Combined Corps of Fengtian army, while the remaining one was deployed to Yi County, under the direct command of Zhang Xueliang's 2nd Army. Additional airfields with depot stations were constructed to support air force operations, which were mainly for reconnaissance and ground support.
All task forces had to ensure uninterrupted communication so they could be coordinated to achieve victory. Although the military plan remained unchanged, portions of it did not materialize due to the rapid victory achieved.
also performed political maneuvers by founding an anti-Zhili clique triple alliance with Dr. Sun Yat-sen in Guangdong
and Anhui
warlord Lu Yongxiang (卢永详) in Zhejiang
. Attempts to fracture Zhili clique from within by convincing Feng Yuxiang
to defect also succeeded, as in the spring of 1923 Zhang Xueliang
personally wrote a letter to Feng and sent his most trusted lieutenant Fu Xingpei (傅兴沛) to Beijing
to secretly meet him. After reaching Beijing
, Fu first met Feng’s chief of staff
Liu Ji (刘骥) at a secluded location on Dajue (大觉) Hutong
. Liu telephoned Fu the next day to tell him Feng was eager to meet. Fu Xingpei (傅兴沛) and Feng Yuxiang
met at Nanyuan, where Feng informed Fu that it was unsafe for the diplomat to stay in Beijing
too long, and asked him to immediately leave.
Although the first meeting was brief, it was successful, paving the way for follow up meetings between Feng Yuxiang
and Fengtian clique
representatives Guo Yingzhou (郭瀛洲) and Ma Bingnan (马炳南). To avoid suspicion, politicians and warlords of the nominally neutral Anhui clique
were enlisted to act as middlemen. For example, Anhui clique warlord Wu Guangxin (吴光新) was a trusted courier for both sides and relayed information by personally traveling between Beijing
and Shenyang
. When the Fengtian clique
gave Feng Yuxiang
two million yen of Japanese bribes for his support and defection, the money was delivered by Anfu Club politician Jian Deyao (贾德耀).
.
's borders and engaged the army of Wu Peifu
, the Zhili clique's greatest strategist. Striking toward Rehe
and Shanhaiguan
, and regrouping in Suizhong
, the 1st and 3rd Fengtian Armies approached Zhili positions east of Yuguan (榆关). On September 18, the opposing armies met, with battle drastically intensifying after September 28. Fengtian assaults on Shanhaiguan
were thrown back as Zhili forces took up defensive positions and enjoyed geographical advantages. Meanwhile, as agreed previously, Dr. Sun Yat-sen
personally led his army north to prevent Sun Chuanfang
from reinforcing his Zhili comrades in the north, but a rebellion by the Canton Merchant Corps and Chen Jiongming
loyalists broke out in Guangzhou
. Sun Yat-sen was forced to turn back to put down this rebellion in his home-territory. While a minor skirmish continued the battle in the north, the southern campaign proved to be the first major conflict fought by cadets and officers trained at the Whampoa Military Academy
. Since Sun Yat-sen retreated, Sun Chuanfang's armies were left available to take both Zhejiang and Shanghai.
In contrast to the bogged-down siege at Shanhaiguan
, the Fengtian army made quick progress on the Rehe
front. The rag-tag Yi (毅) Army led by Mi Zhengbiao (米振标) that the Zhili clique deployed was unable to stop Zhang Zongchang
’s 2nd Army, despite being reinforced by the 13th Division of Wang Huaiqing (王怀庆)’s 2nd Zhili Army. Between September 15 and September 22, vanguards of the 2nd Fengtian Army led by Zhang Zongchang ventured as far as Chaoyang (朝阳), and attacked Lingyuan (凌源). Fengtian cavalry took Fuxing and Jianping (建平) after venturing out from Zhangwu
on September 15, and on October 7 they took Chifeng
. By October 9, regions adjacent to Chifeng
were firmly secure. By now, the Fengtian General Reserve had not joined the fight, and the situation for the Zhili forces were bad enough for Wu Peifu
to personally travel to Shanhaiguan
. Unbeknown to the Zhili forces, the Fengtian clique’s prewar maneuver had paid off: Feng Yuxiang
, commander of the 3rd Zhili Army had already signed a secret treaty with Duan Qirui
and Zhang Zuolin
, and was secretly plotting a coup. When the 2nd Zhili Army under Wang Huaiqing (王怀庆) suffered its initial defeat and requested assistance, Feng refused to help; instead ordering his 3rd Army to stay put at Gubeikou (古北口) pass.
. After October 12, Wu Peifu
personally went to Yuguan Pass (榆关) to take charge, redeploying reinforcements as he went.
Reinforcements of the Zhili Henan
–Shanxi
Army, led by Zhang Fulai (张福来), soon arrived and from October 13 through November 24, they attacked Fengtian positions along Stone Gate Camp (Shimenzhai, 石门寨) in the Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口) sector. Fengtian troops, in turn, reinforced their line with three combined brigades. Jiang Dengxuan (姜登选) and Han Yichun (韩以春), commander and deputy commander respectively of the 1st Fengtian Army, went to the frontline to command personally. Despite additional reinforcement and the advantage of terrain, the Fentian defense was crumbling and many company and battalion commanders were dead or wounded, mostly near Heichuyao (黑出窑) where a regimental commander named An Lun (安伦) was killed, the highest ranking Fengtian officer killed in the war. At the same time, the main Fengtian force at Shanhaiguan
failed to make any progress after two days of continuous attacks on the Zhili defenders.
In the meantime, the Fengtian army received unconfirmed intelligence provided by the Japanese, claiming that the Zhili clique had enlisted the help of thirteen ships of the Zhengji (政记) Shipping Company to transport three to four divisions directly the rear of Fengtian forces via Dagukou (大沽口). However, no intelligence could be obtained on the exact landing spot chosen, though possible sites included Yingkou
and Huludao
. Most Fengtian officers wanted to deploy the General Reserve as a rear-guard, but Fu Xingpei (傅兴沛), the deputy chief-of-general staff, opposed the idea, claiming the urgent situation on the battlefield would not allow a division of forces and the General Reserve had to be sent to the Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口) sector. Yang Yuting
, the Fengtian chief-of-general staff, worried that the geography of the Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口) was too narrow and too restricted to deploy large numbers of troops. Zhang Zuolin
put an end to the debate by ordering the General Reserve, under the command of Zhang Zuoxiang (张作相) to rush to the Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口) and join the battle.
and Guo Songling
decided to secretly redeploy eight infantry regiments and two artillery brigades from Shanhaiguan
sector to Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口). These secretly redeployed troops would be led by Guo Songling
but a personal conflict within the officers’ corps almost cost any chance of a Fengtian victory. The incident began when the artillery battalion commander Yan Zongzhou (阎宗周), a classmate of Guo Songling, was removed from command. Guo Songling originally had command of Yan Zongzhou's (阎宗周) artillery brigade, and only when the war had begun was the artillery brigade temporarily reassigned to the 1st Army. Artillery Regimental Commander Chen Chen (陈琛) subsequently relieved Yan Zongzhou (阎宗周) of his command, with the approval of Jiang Dengxuan (姜登选) and Han Yichun (韩以春), commander and deputy commander of the 1st Army.
Upon hearing his classmate Yan Zongzhou's (阎宗周) complaint, the enraged Guo Songling personally relieved Chen Chen of command and gave it back to Yan. Jiang Dengxuan and Han Yichun were deeply embarrassed at this nepotism, and Han Yichun personally complained to Zhang Zuolin
about Guo’s actions. Zhang ordered both Yan Zongzhou and Chen Chen back to their original commands, but this further enraged Guo Songling. He moved his the 8th Infantry Regiment away from the battlefield and retreated to the rear. Zhang Xueliang
immediately went to look for Guo and his troops once he learnt what had happened: luckily for him, he managed to find the wayward officer and convince him to carry out the original plan. It was fortuitous for the Fengtian army that the incident occurred at night and was not detected by the opposing Zhili army, as the gap left by Guo in could have been easily exploited. Sun Xuchang's (孙旭昌) 10th Fengtian Brigade, with support of the artillery unit, was able to seize Nine Gates and rout the Zhili defenders.
front, the 2nd Fengtian Army begun its offensive on September 22, and succeeded in taking Lingyuan (凌源) and Pingquan
. After a short resupply, Zhang Zongchang renewed his offensive against the Zhili forces by attacking Cold Mouth Pass (Lengkouguan, 冷口). Zhili clique troops were deployed in four divisions: the 20th Division commanded by Yan Zhitang (阎治堂), 9th Division commanded by Dong Zhengguo (董政国), the Shaanxi
1st Division commanded by Hu Jingyi (胡景翼), and the 23rd Division commanded by Wang Chengbin (王承斌). However, the latter two had already made a pact with Feng Yuxiang and did nothing to stop Zhang Zongchang
’s attack. At the same time, the first two units were led by rival officers who refused fight so as to preserve their own strength. When the Fengtian forces attacked, all retreated and abandoned Cold Pass (Lengkou, 冷口关). Seizing the opportunity, Zhang Zongchang pushed deep into enemy territory, with Li Jinglin (李景林) following close behind. As the news of Zhili victory in the First Jiangsu-Zhejiang War reached the battlefield, the likelihood of a stalemate appeared increasingly plausible.
, commander of the 3rd Zhili Army betrayed his superiors by mounting the Beijing coup
against President Cao Kun
. Cao was deposed as president and placed under house arrest for the next two year. Wu Pufei, still at the Shanhaiguan
front, was enraged and pulled his army away rescue Beijing. As a result, up to 8,000 troops from Wu’s 3rd and 26th Divisions were withdrawn on October 26, leaving behind only 4,000 men. Seeing an opening, Zhang ordered his army to pursue Wu. Zhang Zongchang
and Li Jinglin (李景林) led their troops southward along the Luan River
, toward Luanzhou
, where they pushed on toward Tianjin
. On October 18, Zhang Zongchang’s troops took the train station at Luanzhou. Along with the successful capture of the Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口) by Sun Xuchang (孙旭昌)’s 10th Brigade, Zhang Zongchang
’s successful taking of Luanzhou had helped secure the Fengtian clique
's final victory.
With infantry support, Fengtian cavalry took Happy Peak Mouth (Xifengkou, 喜蜂口) Pass, and pushed on. For Zhili troops, their morale was shattered by news of Feng Yuxiang’s betrayal. Guo Songling
, who had caused so many troubles with his nepotism, grasped the chance for an all-out charge on the Zhili troops and successfully gained control of vast regions to the east. Subsequently cutoff and surrounded between Qinhuangdao
and Shanhaiguan
, by October 31, with the exception of a few top ranking Zhili officers who managed to escape by ships leaving Qinhuangdao
, the Zhili forces were surrounded. More than 40,000 of them surrendered to the Fengtian army.
As Wu Peifu retreated to Tianjin
, he concentrated his troops in Yangcun (杨村), and telegraphed Zhili forces in Jiangsu
, Hubei
, Henan
and Zhejiang
for reinforcements. However, the Anhui clique
warlord Zheng Shiqi
(郑士奇) in Shandong
suddenly declared neutrality, and took Cangzhou
and Machang (马厂). In addition, Zheng Shishang’s forces completely destroyed sections of Jinpu railway
at Hanzhuang (韩庄).
Yan Xishan
ordered his force to take Shijiazhuang
on the same day, severing the railway of the Jinghan railway
. As a result, none of Wu Peifu’s reinforcement could reach him. On November 2, 1924, Feng Yuxiang’s forces took Yangcun (杨村) and Beicang (北仓), forcing Wu Peifu to relocate his headquarter to Junliangcheng
. In the meantime, Fengtian army took Tangshan
and Lutai (芦台). Duan Qirui wrote to Wu Peifu, telling him to leave by sea. Facing an attack from all sides, Wu had no choice but to escape. With his remaining two thousand troops, he boarded the military transporter Huajia (华甲) at 11:00 AM on November 3, 1924 and sailed from Danggu (塘沽) to central China, where Sun Chuanfang
protected him from further Fengtian incursions.
. Fighting continued well into 1925 as part of the First Jiangsu-Zhejiang War when a joint Anhui-Fengtian expedition briefly retook Jiangsu and Shanghai in January. Here, trapped without backup, the Zhili warlord Qi Xieyuan resigned and fled to Japan but not before transferring his armies to Sun Chuanfang. Sun then launched a counterattack and drove Zhang Zongchang
out of Zhejiang. Duan gave Shandong, the last Anhui held province, to Zhang as a token of their alliance. The myth of Zhili invincibility had been entirely shattered.
A new provisional government
with the Anhui clique's Duan Qirui
as figurehead was created to balance the interests of Feng and Zhang. Sun Yatsen was invited north to discuss reunification but the talks failed due to his death from cancer. Within a year, strong differences between the Christian Feng and Japanese-backed Zhang would cause both to solicit their recent Zhili enemies as allies, and by November 1925 the Zhili clique had thrown their support behind Zhang. Feng managed the defection of Guo Songling
(who continued to smart over his treatment during the Nine Gates battle) from the Fengtian clique, sparking the Anti-Fengtian War
that lasted until April 1926. It would lead to the collapse of the provisional government.
The war of 1924 was more destructive than previous warlord turmoil and bankrupted the Beijing government. As more Chinese looked to the KMT and Communist parties for leadership, they began to disparage and delegitimize the northern leaders by calling them junfa (warlords). At this time, the KMT and Communists were allied in the First United Front, which controlled Guangdong Province, and were backed by the Soviets. The weakness of the warlord administration and the victory of the pro-Japanese Zhang Zuolin was one of a multitude of threads that led to a nationalistic backlash called the May Thirtieth Movement.
Fengtian clique
The Fengtian Clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's warlord era. It was named for Fengtian Province and led by Zhang Zuolin...
based in Manchuria
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
, and the more liberal Zhili clique controlling Beijing and backed by Anglo-American business interests. The war is considered the most significant in China's Warlord era
Warlord era
The Chinese Warlord Era was the period in the history of the Republic of China, from 1916 to 1928, when the country was divided among military cliques, a division that continued until the fall of the Nationalist government in the mainland China regions of Sichuan, Shanxi, Qinghai, Ningxia,...
, with the Beijing coup
Beijing coup
The Beijing coup refers to the October 1924 coup d'etat by Feng Yuxiang against Chinese President Cao Kun, leader of the Zhili warlord faction. Feng called it the Capital Revolution . The coup occurred at a crucial moment in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War and allowed the pro-Japanese Fengtian...
by Christian warlord Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang was a warlord and leader in Republican China. He was also known as the Christian General for his zeal to convert his troops and the Betrayal General for his penchant to break with the establishment. In 1911, he was an officer in the ranks of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang Army but joined...
leading to the overall defeat of the Zhili clique. During the war the two cliques fought one large battle near Tianjin
Tianjin
' is a metropolis in northern China and one of the five national central cities of the People's Republic of China. It is governed as a direct-controlled municipality, one of four such designations, and is, thus, under direct administration of the central government...
in October 1924, as well as a number of smaller skirmishes and sieges. Afterwards, both Feng and Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin was the warlord of Manchuria from 1916 to 1928 . He successfully invaded China proper in October 1924 in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War. He gained control of Peking, including China's internationally recognized government, in April 1926...
, the latter being ruler of the Fengtian clique, appointed Duan Qirui
Duan Qirui
Duan Qirui was a Chinese warlord and politician, commander in the Beiyang Army, and the Provisional Chief Executive of Republic of China from November 24, 1924 to April 20, 1926. He was arguably the most powerful man in China from 1916 to 1920.- Early life :Born in Hefei as Duan Qirui , his...
as a figure-head prime minister. In south and central China, more liberal Chinese were dismayed by the Fengtian's advance and by the resulting power vacuum. A wave of protests followed. The war also distracted the northern warlords from the Soviet-backed Nationalists based in the southern province of Guangdong
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
, allowing unhampered preparation for the Northern Expedition (1926–1928), which united China under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek was a political and military leader of 20th century China. He is known as Jiǎng Jièshí or Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng in Mandarin....
.
Cause
By the summer of 1924 the Zhili clique, led by President Cao KunCao Kun
|-...
and supported by the military of Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu or Wu P'ei-fu , was a major figure in the struggles between the warlords who dominated Republican China from 1916 to 1927.- Early career :...
, controlled much of China proper and its internationally recognized Beiyang government
Beiyang Government
The Beiyang government or warlord government collectively refers to a series of military regimes that ruled from Beijing from 1912 to 1928 at Zhongnanhai. It was internationally recognized as the legitimate Government of the Republic of China. The name comes from the Beiyang Army which dominated...
. The clique had no national rivals left, enjoying the support of both London
Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
The diplomatic foreign relations of the United Kingdom are implemented by the United Kingdom's Foreign and Commonwealth Office. The UK was the world's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Throughout history it has wielded significant influence upon other nations via the British...
and Washington
United States Department of State
The United States Department of State , is the United States federal executive department responsible for international relations of the United States, equivalent to the foreign ministries of other countries...
.
The initial cause of the conflict was over the control of Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai is the largest city by population in China and the largest city proper in the world. It is one of the four province-level municipalities in the People's Republic of China, with a total population of over 23 million as of 2010...
, China's biggest city and port, which was legally a part of Jiangsu
Jiangsu
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
province under the control of Zhili general Qi Xieyuan. However the city was actually administered by Lu Yongxiang
Lu Yongxiang (warlord)
Lu Yongxiang, 盧永祥 , Anhui clique warlord, military governor of Zhejiang, Zhili, and Jiangsu.Lu Yongxiang was born October 22, 1867, in Jiyang, Shandong, China. Impoverished as a child he joined the Huai Army in 1890...
as part of Zhejiang
Zhejiang
Zhejiang is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. The word Zhejiang was the old name of the Qiantang River, which passes through Hangzhou, the provincial capital...
, the last province under the control of the dying Anhui clique
Anhui clique
The Anhui clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's Warlord era. It was named after Anhui province because several of its generals including its founder, Duan Qirui, was born in Anhui...
(technically Anhui-held territories, including Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
, were allowed to exist so long as they remained neutral). In September, fighting broke out when Zhejiang authorities refused to cede administration of the city to Qi Xieyuan. Zhang Zuolin and Dr. Sun Yat-sen pledged to defend neutral Zhejiang, expanding the conflict to the far north and far south. Indeed, the Fengtian clique
Fengtian clique
The Fengtian Clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's warlord era. It was named for Fengtian Province and led by Zhang Zuolin...
was eager to avenge its defeat at the hands of the Zhili clique in the last war
First Zhili-Fengtian War
The First Zhili–Fengtian War was a 1922 conflict in the Republic of China's Warlord Era between the Zhili and Fengtian cliques for control of Beijing. The war led to the defeat of the Fengtian clique and the fall of its leader, Zhang Zuolin, from the coalition Zhili-Fengtian government in Beijing...
and had prepared intensively.
The Zhili clique, on the other hand had overestimated its own strength and it found itself completely ill-prepared for the upcoming Second Zhili–Fengtian War.
Fengtian’s preparation for the war
With their previous humiliating defeat at the hands of the Zhili clique on its mind, the Fengtian cliqueFengtian clique
The Fengtian Clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's warlord era. It was named for Fengtian Province and led by Zhang Zuolin...
concentrated mainly on military reform and upgrading logistics. Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin was the warlord of Manchuria from 1916 to 1928 . He successfully invaded China proper in October 1924 in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War. He gained control of Peking, including China's internationally recognized government, in April 1926...
simultaneously launched two efforts aimed to improve his military after withdrawing to Northeast China
Northeast China
Northeast China, historically known in English as Manchuria, is a geographical region of China, consisting of the three provinces of Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang. The region is sometimes called the Three Northeast Provinces...
.
Chief of the general staff Yang Yuting
Yang Yuting
Yang Yuting, , , Fengtien clique warlord and Military governor of Jiangsu from August to November 1925. He was shot by Zhang Xueliang for his collusion with the Japanese, following the Huanggutun Incident.- Source :*...
was named as Inspector-General of the Fengtian Armory, while Wang Yintai (王荫泰) was named as Director of Department of Materials of the Fengtian Armory. The armory was expanded, with annual production output of around 150 artillery pieces (excluding mortars). Machine gun output was more than a thousand annually, and the combined total of repaired/refurbished, and new, rifles averaged more than sixty thousand annually. Output for artillery rounds (including for heavy mortars) totaled more than a hundred thousand, while annual production output for rifles rounds averaged six-hundred thousands. Additionally, a large number of mortars were also produced and put to great use during the upcoming war.
The air force and navy were also strengthened. Zhang's son, Zhang Xueliang
Zhang Xueliang
Zhang Xueliang or Chang Hsüeh-liang , occasionally called Peter Hsueh Liang Chang in English, nicknamed the Young Marshal , was the effective ruler of Manchuria and much of North China after the assassination of his father, Zhang Zuolin, by the Japanese on 4 June 1928...
, was named as the Director of the Aviation Office, and assisted by Zhou Peibing (周培炳) and Yao Xijiu (姚锡九). Aircraft from Germany and Italy were added, bringing the total strength to near 300 in four groups. Additional air bases were built in strategic locations. Naval headquarters and a training school were set up in Harbin
Harbin
Harbin ; Manchu language: , Harbin; Russian: Харби́н Kharbin ), is the capital and largest city of Heilongjiang Province in Northeast China, lying on the southern bank of the Songhua River...
. Under the Fengtian Security Headquarters, a Directorate of Navigational Policing was formed, with Shen Honglie (沈鸿烈) named as director. This reformed the Northeast China River Defense Flotilla.
To improve communications, additional water and coal supply stations were built in Suizhong
Suizhong
Suizhong County is a county of the city of Huludao, Liaoning province, People's Republic of China. It is located on the northern coast of the Bohai Sea and lies in the southwest part of the province, on the northeastern border of Hebei. The county has an area of , a population of 630,000, and is...
, Xingcheng
Xingcheng
Xingcheng , former name Ningyuan , is a county-level city of Northeast China with a population of approximately 140,000 urban inhabitants, and is located in southwest Liaoning on the northern coast of the Bohai Sea...
, and Great Coalmine Ditch (Dayaogou, 大窑沟) for rapid deployment of troops by railroad. Additional railroads were built in for evacuation purposes in the event of war. Roads were built for better transportation in areas without rail, and each army had its own wire communications (telephone and telegraph) linked to general headquarters in the rear. Radio communication units were also assigned. To further improve radio communications, radio stations were built in Shenyang
Shenyang
Shenyang , or Mukden , is the capital and largest city of Liaoning Province in Northeast China. Currently holding sub-provincial administrative status, the city was once known as Shengjing or Fengtianfu...
, Harbin
Harbin
Harbin ; Manchu language: , Harbin; Russian: Харби́н Kharbin ), is the capital and largest city of Heilongjiang Province in Northeast China, lying on the southern bank of the Songhua River...
and Jin (锦) county.
In conjunction with improving logistics, the Fengtian clique implemented military reforms. Immediately after the First Zhili-Fengtian War, brigade commander Bao Deshan (鲍德山) and regimental commander Xu Changyou (许昌有) were blamed for the defeat, court-martialed, and executed in the spring of 1923. Advisers in both military and civilian affairs were appointed, with Liang Hongzhi
Liang Hongzhi
Liang Hongzhi; was a leading official in the Anhui clique of the Beiyang Government, later noted for his role as in the collaborationist Reformed Government of the Republic of China during World War II.-Biography:...
as secretary, and others including Wang Jitang (王揖唐), Zeng Yuxi (曾毓隽), Li Sihao (李思浩). The Northeast China
Northeast China
Northeast China, historically known in English as Manchuria, is a geographical region of China, consisting of the three provinces of Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang. The region is sometimes called the Three Northeast Provinces...
inspector’s office (东三省巡阅使署) and Fengtian Viceroy’s office (奉天督军署) left from Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
were combined to form the Northeast China Security Headquarter (东三省保安司令部) for administrative improvement. A Northeast China Army Reorganization Directorate (东三省陆军整理处) was also formed to specifically administer the reform needs of the Fengtian forces, and Jilin
Jilin
Jilin , is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. Jilin borders North Korea and Russia to the east, Heilongjiang to the north, Liaoning to the south, and Inner Mongolia to the west...
Viceroy Sun Liechen (孙烈臣) was named as inspector-general, while Jiang Dengxuan (姜登选), Han Chuntian (韩田春), Li Jinglin
Li Jinglin
Li Jinglin Li Jinglin (also known as Li Fangchen) Li Jinglin (also known as Li Fangchen) ((李景林, 1885 - 1931) was a deputy inspector-general and later army general for the Fengtian clique during the Chinese warlord era. He hailed from Zaoqiang County, Hebei province, China. After his military...
(李景林) were named as deputy inspector-generals. In the summer of 1923, Xingcheng
Xingcheng
Xingcheng , former name Ningyuan , is a county-level city of Northeast China with a population of approximately 140,000 urban inhabitants, and is located in southwest Liaoning on the northern coast of the Bohai Sea...
–Suizhong army command was established at Suizhong County, with Jiang Dengxuan (姜登选) named as commander, so that once war was broken out the command could be rapidly converted into a front-line headquarters.
The Fengtian army expanded to twenty-seven brigades from its original twenty-five, organized into three armies of three divisions. Each division had three brigades. The cavalry was expanded from three to four divisions, with three brigades forming a division and the rest attached to infantry divisions as cavalry companies. Coupled with the increased output of the Fengtian armory, artillery regiments (equipped with larger pieces) were expanded from four to ten. Each division consisted of three brigades with either an infantry brigade or a combined brigade, and every division had an engineering battalion and a transportation battalion attached. Combined brigades were bolstered with an engineering company and a transportation company, though no such auxiliary formations were assigned to infantry brigades. After thorough reform, the strength of Fengtian army totaled more than a quarter million troops, and its performance was significantly improved. The best troops were found in the 2nd Brigade, commanded by Zhang Xueliang
Zhang Xueliang
Zhang Xueliang or Chang Hsüeh-liang , occasionally called Peter Hsueh Liang Chang in English, nicknamed the Young Marshal , was the effective ruler of Manchuria and much of North China after the assassination of his father, Zhang Zuolin, by the Japanese on 4 June 1928...
, and the 6th Brigade, commanded by Guo Songling
Guo Songling
Guo Songling was a Manchurian general who led a three month rebellion against his commanding warlord - Zhang Zuolin....
, and they were viewed as the model units of the Fengtian army.
Prelude
The prelude of the Second Zhili–Fengtian War was the First Jiangsu-Zhejiang War, which broke on September 3, 1924, and provided a direct excuse for the Fengtian cliqueFengtian clique
The Fengtian Clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's warlord era. It was named for Fengtian Province and led by Zhang Zuolin...
to start the war. The next day, Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin was the warlord of Manchuria from 1916 to 1928 . He successfully invaded China proper in October 1924 in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War. He gained control of Peking, including China's internationally recognized government, in April 1926...
held a conference at his residence. Every Fengtian army officer ranking brigade commander or higher was in attendance. Here, Zhang decided to formally declare war against the Zhili clique, and on September 13 all trains running on the Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
-Fengtian Railway stopped.
Military plans
In contrast to the Zhili clique, which failed to make adequate preparation, the Fengtian cliqueFengtian clique
The Fengtian Clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's warlord era. It was named for Fengtian Province and led by Zhang Zuolin...
had been drawing up a detailed strategy since spring 1923. This was prepared by staff officers under Fu Xingpei (傅兴沛) and Yu Guohan (于国翰). They predicted that although Zhili clique enjoyed overall numerical superiority, its forces were dispersed and could not reach the battlefield if a Fengtian victory was achieved quickly by concentrating a 250,000 strong force against pockets of resistance. There were four major objectives of Fengtian clique:
Primarily, to annihilate enemy forces and take Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
and Tianjin
Tianjin
' is a metropolis in northern China and one of the five national central cities of the People's Republic of China. It is governed as a direct-controlled municipality, one of four such designations, and is, thus, under direct administration of the central government...
. To achieve this, Shanhaiguan
Shanhaiguan District
Shanhaiguan District is a district of the city of Qinhuangdao, Hebei province, People's Republic of China, named after the pass of the Great Wall within the district, Shanhai Pass...
needed to be taken, so a Fengtian strike force had to be in the region of Xujianling (徐家岭) on the western bank of Shi He (石河), as well as the adjacent regions to the north and to the south of Xujianling. Once these regions were secured, Fengtian forces would need to gather near Shanhaiguan and launch an assault to capture it. This task force would consist of the 1st Army and 2nd Army, designated as a Combined Corps. After taking Shanhaiguan, it would continue its push toward Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
and Tianjin
Tianjin
' is a metropolis in northern China and one of the five national central cities of the People's Republic of China. It is governed as a direct-controlled municipality, one of four such designations, and is, thus, under direct administration of the central government...
.
If Shanhaiguan could not be taken, at least two brigades were needed in the region of Qiansuo (前所), a railroad station 20 km east of Shanhaiguan. After the region was secured, the main force would deploy around Suizhong County for another attempt to take Shanhaiguan.
Next, the 2nd Army would march on Rehe
Rehe
Rehe , also known as Jehol, is a defunct Chinese Special administrative district and later province.-Administration:Rehe was located north of the Great Wall, west of Manchuria, and east of Mongolia. The capital of Rehe was the city of Chengde. The second largest city in the province was Chaoyang,...
, Yi (义) county, and Dayaogou (大窑沟), 5 km north of Jin County. This Fengtian task force was to take Chaoyang, Jianping (建平) and Chengde
Chengde
Chengde , previously known as Jehol or Re He , is a prefecture-level city in Hebei province, People's Republic of China, situated northeast of Beijing. It is best known as the site of the Mountain Resort, a vast imperial garden and palace formerly used by the Qing emperors as summer residence...
, reaching west of Lingyuan (凌源), its main target. Most of this responsibility was assigned to Zhang Zongchang
Zhang Zongchang
Zhang Zongchang , nicknamed the "Dogmeat General" and "72-Cannon Chang" , was a Chinese warlord in Shandong in the early 20th century...
’s 3rd Combined Brigade, with the exception of those taking Chaoyang, which was assigned to Li Jinglin (李景林)’s 1st Division. The latter would launch his offensive from Yi County. After achieving its objectives, the 2nd Task Force would assist the Combined Corps in taking Shanhaiguan
Shanhaiguan District
Shanhaiguan District is a district of the city of Qinhuangdao, Hebei province, People's Republic of China, named after the pass of the Great Wall within the district, Shanhai Pass...
, after which it would enter Lengkouguan (冷口关) and attack Luanzhou (滦州) via Qian’an (迁安) County.
Thirdly, Fengtian cavalry group would attack Rehe
Rehe
Rehe , also known as Jehol, is a defunct Chinese Special administrative district and later province.-Administration:Rehe was located north of the Great Wall, west of Manchuria, and east of Mongolia. The capital of Rehe was the city of Chengde. The second largest city in the province was Chaoyang,...
from Zhangwu
Zhangwu County
Zhangwu County is a county in the north of Liaoning Province in Northeast China. It is under the administration of Fuxin City, which lies to the southwest.-Geography:...
via Jianping (建平) and Fuxin
Fuxin
-Economy:Fuxin is a mining center in an agricultural region.The city suffers from the over-mining of coal, which is low in supply while fundamental in Fuxin's economy. As the coal mines run dry, Fuxin is trying to find other industries to keep its economy going...
, with the initial target be the capture of Chifeng
Chifeng
Chifeng , also known as Ulanhad, is a prefecture-level city in southeastern Inner Mongolia, People's Republic of China. It borders Xilin Gol to the north and west, Tongliao to the northeast, Chaoyang prefecture of Liaoning province to the southeast, and Chengde prefecture of Hebei province to the...
. The cavalry group was also to cover the flank of the other Fengtian forces, and mop up any enemy left behind. When the situation permitted, the cavalry would also strike the Zhili force’s flank by entering the Great Wall via Xifengkou (喜峰口) and/or Gubeikou (古北口) passes.
Finally, the Fengtian general reserve would be stationed between Xingcheng
Xingcheng
Xingcheng , former name Ningyuan , is a county-level city of Northeast China with a population of approximately 140,000 urban inhabitants, and is located in southwest Liaoning on the northern coast of the Bohai Sea...
and Suizhong
Suizhong
Suizhong County is a county of the city of Huludao, Liaoning province, People's Republic of China. It is located on the northern coast of the Bohai Sea and lies in the southwest part of the province, on the northeastern border of Hebei. The county has an area of , a population of 630,000, and is...
county, to guard Jinzhou
Jinzhou
Jinzhou , is a prefecture-level city of Liaoning province, China. It is a geographically strategic city located in the "Liaoxi Corridor" , which connects land transportation between North China and Northeast China. Jinzhou is China's northernmost seaport and the coastal economic center of West...
. The 4th Army was assigned, and supported by the 5th Army , which would come to its aid when needed. The Fengtian Air Force was headquartered at Shenyang
Shenyang
Shenyang , or Mukden , is the capital and largest city of Liaoning Province in Northeast China. Currently holding sub-provincial administrative status, the city was once known as Shengjing or Fengtianfu...
, with three groups mobilized for the war effort. Two of these groups were under the direct command of the Combined Corps of Fengtian army, while the remaining one was deployed to Yi County, under the direct command of Zhang Xueliang's 2nd Army. Additional airfields with depot stations were constructed to support air force operations, which were mainly for reconnaissance and ground support.
All task forces had to ensure uninterrupted communication so they could be coordinated to achieve victory. Although the military plan remained unchanged, portions of it did not materialize due to the rapid victory achieved.
Political maneuvers
In addition to military planning, the Fengtian cliqueFengtian clique
The Fengtian Clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's warlord era. It was named for Fengtian Province and led by Zhang Zuolin...
also performed political maneuvers by founding an anti-Zhili clique triple alliance with Dr. Sun Yat-sen in Guangdong
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
and Anhui
Anhui clique
The Anhui clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's Warlord era. It was named after Anhui province because several of its generals including its founder, Duan Qirui, was born in Anhui...
warlord Lu Yongxiang (卢永详) in Zhejiang
Zhejiang
Zhejiang is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. The word Zhejiang was the old name of the Qiantang River, which passes through Hangzhou, the provincial capital...
. Attempts to fracture Zhili clique from within by convincing Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang was a warlord and leader in Republican China. He was also known as the Christian General for his zeal to convert his troops and the Betrayal General for his penchant to break with the establishment. In 1911, he was an officer in the ranks of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang Army but joined...
to defect also succeeded, as in the spring of 1923 Zhang Xueliang
Zhang Xueliang
Zhang Xueliang or Chang Hsüeh-liang , occasionally called Peter Hsueh Liang Chang in English, nicknamed the Young Marshal , was the effective ruler of Manchuria and much of North China after the assassination of his father, Zhang Zuolin, by the Japanese on 4 June 1928...
personally wrote a letter to Feng and sent his most trusted lieutenant Fu Xingpei (傅兴沛) to Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
to secretly meet him. After reaching Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
, Fu first met Feng’s chief of staff
Chief of Staff
The title, chief of staff, identifies the leader of a complex organization, institution, or body of persons and it also may identify a Principal Staff Officer , who is the coordinator of the supporting staff or a primary aide to an important individual, such as a president.In general, a chief of...
Liu Ji (刘骥) at a secluded location on Dajue (大觉) Hutong
Hutong
Hutongs are a type of narrow streets or alleys, most commonly associated with Beijing, China.In Beijing, hutongs are alleys formed by lines of siheyuan, traditional courtyard residences. Many neighbourhoods were formed by joining one siheyuan to another to form a hutong, and then joining one...
. Liu telephoned Fu the next day to tell him Feng was eager to meet. Fu Xingpei (傅兴沛) and Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang was a warlord and leader in Republican China. He was also known as the Christian General for his zeal to convert his troops and the Betrayal General for his penchant to break with the establishment. In 1911, he was an officer in the ranks of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang Army but joined...
met at Nanyuan, where Feng informed Fu that it was unsafe for the diplomat to stay in Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
too long, and asked him to immediately leave.
Although the first meeting was brief, it was successful, paving the way for follow up meetings between Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang was a warlord and leader in Republican China. He was also known as the Christian General for his zeal to convert his troops and the Betrayal General for his penchant to break with the establishment. In 1911, he was an officer in the ranks of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang Army but joined...
and Fengtian clique
Fengtian clique
The Fengtian Clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's warlord era. It was named for Fengtian Province and led by Zhang Zuolin...
representatives Guo Yingzhou (郭瀛洲) and Ma Bingnan (马炳南). To avoid suspicion, politicians and warlords of the nominally neutral Anhui clique
Anhui clique
The Anhui clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's Warlord era. It was named after Anhui province because several of its generals including its founder, Duan Qirui, was born in Anhui...
were enlisted to act as middlemen. For example, Anhui clique warlord Wu Guangxin (吴光新) was a trusted courier for both sides and relayed information by personally traveling between Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
and Shenyang
Shenyang
Shenyang , or Mukden , is the capital and largest city of Liaoning Province in Northeast China. Currently holding sub-provincial administrative status, the city was once known as Shengjing or Fengtianfu...
. When the Fengtian clique
Fengtian clique
The Fengtian Clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's warlord era. It was named for Fengtian Province and led by Zhang Zuolin...
gave Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang was a warlord and leader in Republican China. He was also known as the Christian General for his zeal to convert his troops and the Betrayal General for his penchant to break with the establishment. In 1911, he was an officer in the ranks of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang Army but joined...
two million yen of Japanese bribes for his support and defection, the money was delivered by Anfu Club politician Jian Deyao (贾德耀).
Order of battle
Around half a million troops were mobilized in total, with two hundred thousand in the Zhili clique, and a quarter million in the Fengtian cliqueFengtian clique
The Fengtian Clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's warlord era. It was named for Fengtian Province and led by Zhang Zuolin...
.
Order of battle of Fengtian clique
Commander-in-chief: Zhang ZuolinZhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin was the warlord of Manchuria from 1916 to 1928 . He successfully invaded China proper in October 1924 in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War. He gained control of Peking, including China's internationally recognized government, in April 1926...
- Chief of general staff: Yang YutingYang YutingYang Yuting, , , Fengtien clique warlord and Military governor of Jiangsu from August to November 1925. He was shot by Zhang Xueliang for his collusion with the Japanese, following the Huanggutun Incident.- Source :*...
- Deputy chief of general staff: Fu Xingpei (傅兴沛)
- 1st Army commanded by Jiang Dengxuan (姜登选), with deputy commander Han Yichun (韩以春), including:
- 10th Combined Brigade commanded by Sun Xuchang (孙旭昌).
- 2nd Army commanded by Zhang XueliangZhang XueliangZhang Xueliang or Chang Hsüeh-liang , occasionally called Peter Hsueh Liang Chang in English, nicknamed the Young Marshal , was the effective ruler of Manchuria and much of North China after the assassination of his father, Zhang Zuolin, by the Japanese on 4 June 1928...
, with deputy commander Guo SonglingGuo SonglingGuo Songling was a Manchurian general who led a three month rebellion against his commanding warlord - Zhang Zuolin.... - 3rd Army commanded by Li JinglinLi JinglinLi Jinglin Li Jinglin (also known as Li Fangchen) Li Jinglin (also known as Li Fangchen) ((李景林, 1885 - 1931) was a deputy inspector-general and later army general for the Fengtian clique during the Chinese warlord era. He hailed from Zaoqiang County, Hebei province, China. After his military...
(李景林), with deputy commander Zhang ZongchangZhang ZongchangZhang Zongchang , nicknamed the "Dogmeat General" and "72-Cannon Chang" , was a Chinese warlord in Shandong in the early 20th century... - 4th Army commanded by JilinJilinJilin , is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. Jilin borders North Korea and Russia to the east, Heilongjiang to the north, Liaoning to the south, and Inner Mongolia to the west...
ViceroyViceroyA viceroy is a royal official who runs a country, colony, or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roi, meaning king. A viceroy's province or larger territory is called a viceroyalty...
Zhang ZuoxiangZhang ZuoxiangZhang Zuoxiang, was an important member of the Fengtien warlord clique.Zhang Zuoxiang was born in 1881, in Jinzhou, western Fengtian , China. A loyal follower of Zhang Zuolin he was the commander of the 27th Regiment, 27th Division, of the Fengtian Defence Force from 1911 to 1916 as Zhang Zuolin...
, designated as the general reserve - 5th Army commanded by HeilongjiangHeilongjiangFor the river known in Mandarin as Heilong Jiang, see Amur River' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. "Heilongjiang" literally means Black Dragon River, which is the Chinese name for the Amur. The one-character abbreviation is 黑...
ViceroyViceroyA viceroy is a royal official who runs a country, colony, or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roi, meaning king. A viceroy's province or larger territory is called a viceroyalty...
Wu JunshengWu JunshengWu Junsheng, or Wu Tsi-cheng, 吳俊陞, General of the Fengtian clique and its cavalry commander.Wu Junsheng was born in a peasant family in Changtu, Fengtien province , on November 23, 1863. He joined a cavalry troop in 1880, crushed the Manchu independence plan in 1912...
, including:- 29th Division
- Two combined brigades
Order of battle of Zhili clique
Commander-in-chief: Wu PeifuWu Peifu
Wu Peifu or Wu P'ei-fu , was a major figure in the struggles between the warlords who dominated Republican China from 1916 to 1927.- Early career :...
- 1st Army commanded by Peng Shouhua (彭寿华), including:
- 13th Combined brigade commanded by Feng Yurong (冯玉荣)
- 2nd Army commanded by Wang Huaiqing (王怀庆), including
- Yi (毅) Army commanded by Mi Zhengbiao (米振标)
- 13th Division
- 3rd Army commanded by Feng YuxiangFeng YuxiangFeng Yuxiang was a warlord and leader in Republican China. He was also known as the Christian General for his zeal to convert his troops and the Betrayal General for his penchant to break with the establishment. In 1911, he was an officer in the ranks of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang Army but joined...
(did not fight Fengtian cliqueFengtian cliqueThe Fengtian Clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's warlord era. It was named for Fengtian Province and led by Zhang Zuolin...
, and later defected to Fengtian side) - HenanHenanHenan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
– ShanxiShanxi' is a province in Northern China. Its one-character abbreviation is "晋" , after the state of Jin that existed here during the Spring and Autumn Period....
Army commanded by Zhang Fulai (张福来)
Initial stage
On September 15, 1924, Zhang Zuolin led his Fengtian army to ManchuriaManchuria
Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
's borders and engaged the army of Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu or Wu P'ei-fu , was a major figure in the struggles between the warlords who dominated Republican China from 1916 to 1927.- Early career :...
, the Zhili clique's greatest strategist. Striking toward Rehe
Rehe
Rehe , also known as Jehol, is a defunct Chinese Special administrative district and later province.-Administration:Rehe was located north of the Great Wall, west of Manchuria, and east of Mongolia. The capital of Rehe was the city of Chengde. The second largest city in the province was Chaoyang,...
and Shanhaiguan
Shanhaiguan District
Shanhaiguan District is a district of the city of Qinhuangdao, Hebei province, People's Republic of China, named after the pass of the Great Wall within the district, Shanhai Pass...
, and regrouping in Suizhong
Suizhong
Suizhong County is a county of the city of Huludao, Liaoning province, People's Republic of China. It is located on the northern coast of the Bohai Sea and lies in the southwest part of the province, on the northeastern border of Hebei. The county has an area of , a population of 630,000, and is...
, the 1st and 3rd Fengtian Armies approached Zhili positions east of Yuguan (榆关). On September 18, the opposing armies met, with battle drastically intensifying after September 28. Fengtian assaults on Shanhaiguan
Shanhaiguan District
Shanhaiguan District is a district of the city of Qinhuangdao, Hebei province, People's Republic of China, named after the pass of the Great Wall within the district, Shanhai Pass...
were thrown back as Zhili forces took up defensive positions and enjoyed geographical advantages. Meanwhile, as agreed previously, Dr. Sun Yat-sen
Sun Yat-sen
Sun Yat-sen was a Chinese doctor, revolutionary and political leader. As the foremost pioneer of Nationalist China, Sun is frequently referred to as the "Father of the Nation" , a view agreed upon by both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China...
personally led his army north to prevent Sun Chuanfang
Sun Chuanfang
Sun Chuanfang aka the "Nanking Warlord" or leader of the "League of Five Provinces" was a Zhili clique warlord and protege of the "Jade Marshal" Wu Peifu .- Biography :Sun Chuanfang was born in Lichen, Shandong...
from reinforcing his Zhili comrades in the north, but a rebellion by the Canton Merchant Corps and Chen Jiongming
Chen Jiongming
Chen Jiongming was a revolutionary figure in the early periods of the Republic of China. Chen Jiongming was born in 1878 at Haifeng, Guangdong, China....
loyalists broke out in Guangzhou
Guangzhou
Guangzhou , known historically as Canton or Kwangchow, is the capital and largest city of the Guangdong province in the People's Republic of China. Located in southern China on the Pearl River, about north-northwest of Hong Kong, Guangzhou is a key national transportation hub and trading port...
. Sun Yat-sen was forced to turn back to put down this rebellion in his home-territory. While a minor skirmish continued the battle in the north, the southern campaign proved to be the first major conflict fought by cadets and officers trained at the Whampoa Military Academy
Whampoa Military Academy
The Nationalist Party of China Army Officer Academy , commonly known as the Whampoa Military Academy , was a military academy in the Republic of China that produced many prestigious commanders who fought in many of China's conflicts in the 20th century, notably the Northern Expedition, the Second...
. Since Sun Yat-sen retreated, Sun Chuanfang's armies were left available to take both Zhejiang and Shanghai.
In contrast to the bogged-down siege at Shanhaiguan
Shanhaiguan District
Shanhaiguan District is a district of the city of Qinhuangdao, Hebei province, People's Republic of China, named after the pass of the Great Wall within the district, Shanhai Pass...
, the Fengtian army made quick progress on the Rehe
Rehe
Rehe , also known as Jehol, is a defunct Chinese Special administrative district and later province.-Administration:Rehe was located north of the Great Wall, west of Manchuria, and east of Mongolia. The capital of Rehe was the city of Chengde. The second largest city in the province was Chaoyang,...
front. The rag-tag Yi (毅) Army led by Mi Zhengbiao (米振标) that the Zhili clique deployed was unable to stop Zhang Zongchang
Zhang Zongchang
Zhang Zongchang , nicknamed the "Dogmeat General" and "72-Cannon Chang" , was a Chinese warlord in Shandong in the early 20th century...
’s 2nd Army, despite being reinforced by the 13th Division of Wang Huaiqing (王怀庆)’s 2nd Zhili Army. Between September 15 and September 22, vanguards of the 2nd Fengtian Army led by Zhang Zongchang ventured as far as Chaoyang (朝阳), and attacked Lingyuan (凌源). Fengtian cavalry took Fuxing and Jianping (建平) after venturing out from Zhangwu
Zhangwu County
Zhangwu County is a county in the north of Liaoning Province in Northeast China. It is under the administration of Fuxin City, which lies to the southwest.-Geography:...
on September 15, and on October 7 they took Chifeng
Chifeng
Chifeng , also known as Ulanhad, is a prefecture-level city in southeastern Inner Mongolia, People's Republic of China. It borders Xilin Gol to the north and west, Tongliao to the northeast, Chaoyang prefecture of Liaoning province to the southeast, and Chengde prefecture of Hebei province to the...
. By October 9, regions adjacent to Chifeng
Chifeng
Chifeng , also known as Ulanhad, is a prefecture-level city in southeastern Inner Mongolia, People's Republic of China. It borders Xilin Gol to the north and west, Tongliao to the northeast, Chaoyang prefecture of Liaoning province to the southeast, and Chengde prefecture of Hebei province to the...
were firmly secure. By now, the Fengtian General Reserve had not joined the fight, and the situation for the Zhili forces were bad enough for Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu or Wu P'ei-fu , was a major figure in the struggles between the warlords who dominated Republican China from 1916 to 1927.- Early career :...
to personally travel to Shanhaiguan
Shanhaiguan District
Shanhaiguan District is a district of the city of Qinhuangdao, Hebei province, People's Republic of China, named after the pass of the Great Wall within the district, Shanhai Pass...
. Unbeknown to the Zhili forces, the Fengtian clique’s prewar maneuver had paid off: Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang was a warlord and leader in Republican China. He was also known as the Christian General for his zeal to convert his troops and the Betrayal General for his penchant to break with the establishment. In 1911, he was an officer in the ranks of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang Army but joined...
, commander of the 3rd Zhili Army had already signed a secret treaty with Duan Qirui
Duan Qirui
Duan Qirui was a Chinese warlord and politician, commander in the Beiyang Army, and the Provisional Chief Executive of Republic of China from November 24, 1924 to April 20, 1926. He was arguably the most powerful man in China from 1916 to 1920.- Early life :Born in Hefei as Duan Qirui , his...
and Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin was the warlord of Manchuria from 1916 to 1928 . He successfully invaded China proper in October 1924 in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War. He gained control of Peking, including China's internationally recognized government, in April 1926...
, and was secretly plotting a coup. When the 2nd Zhili Army under Wang Huaiqing (王怀庆) suffered its initial defeat and requested assistance, Feng refused to help; instead ordering his 3rd Army to stay put at Gubeikou (古北口) pass.
Shanhaiguan front
The Shanhaiguan front consisted of two major sectors: the Shanhaiguan sector and the Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口) sector. The 1st and 3rd Fengtian Armies deployed in the Shanhaiguan sector did not make any progress because it faced crack troops enjoying the advantage of terrain. The stalemate was not broken until October 7, when the Fengtian army made progress in the Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口) sector. Here Sun Xuchang (孙旭昌), a Fengtian commander, led his 10th Combined Brigade to victory. Feng Yurong (冯玉荣), commander of the 13th Combined Zhili Brigade facing them, committed suicide. The victorious Fengtian army continued to press the attack, taking the commanding heights near the region of Stone Gate Camp (Shimenzhai, 石门寨), and threatening the rear of the Zhili army from its left flank. Realizing its danger, Zhili troops counterattacked, spearheaded by the 14the Division of Jin YunpengJin Yunpeng
Jin Yunpeng was a Chinese General and politician of the Warlord Era of the Republic of China. He served as both Minister of War and then Premier of China several times....
. After October 12, Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu or Wu P'ei-fu , was a major figure in the struggles between the warlords who dominated Republican China from 1916 to 1927.- Early career :...
personally went to Yuguan Pass (榆关) to take charge, redeploying reinforcements as he went.
Reinforcements of the Zhili Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
–Shanxi
Shanxi
' is a province in Northern China. Its one-character abbreviation is "晋" , after the state of Jin that existed here during the Spring and Autumn Period....
Army, led by Zhang Fulai (张福来), soon arrived and from October 13 through November 24, they attacked Fengtian positions along Stone Gate Camp (Shimenzhai, 石门寨) in the Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口) sector. Fengtian troops, in turn, reinforced their line with three combined brigades. Jiang Dengxuan (姜登选) and Han Yichun (韩以春), commander and deputy commander respectively of the 1st Fengtian Army, went to the frontline to command personally. Despite additional reinforcement and the advantage of terrain, the Fentian defense was crumbling and many company and battalion commanders were dead or wounded, mostly near Heichuyao (黑出窑) where a regimental commander named An Lun (安伦) was killed, the highest ranking Fengtian officer killed in the war. At the same time, the main Fengtian force at Shanhaiguan
Shanhaiguan District
Shanhaiguan District is a district of the city of Qinhuangdao, Hebei province, People's Republic of China, named after the pass of the Great Wall within the district, Shanhai Pass...
failed to make any progress after two days of continuous attacks on the Zhili defenders.
In the meantime, the Fengtian army received unconfirmed intelligence provided by the Japanese, claiming that the Zhili clique had enlisted the help of thirteen ships of the Zhengji (政记) Shipping Company to transport three to four divisions directly the rear of Fengtian forces via Dagukou (大沽口). However, no intelligence could be obtained on the exact landing spot chosen, though possible sites included Yingkou
Yingkou
Yingkou is located in the northwestern portion of the Liaodong Peninsula, and on the left bank of the Daliao River, which enters the sea in the city. To the west is the Liaodong Bay of the Bohai Gulf, and the city thus looks across to Jinzhou and Huludao...
and Huludao
Huludao
Huludao is a prefecture-level city in southwestern Liaoning Province, China. It is one of the two principal cities in the Liaoxi Corridor . Known as Jinxi until 1994, Huludao has a total area of 10,415 square kilometers and a population of 2.87 million, of which some 531,000 live in the city proper...
. Most Fengtian officers wanted to deploy the General Reserve as a rear-guard, but Fu Xingpei (傅兴沛), the deputy chief-of-general staff, opposed the idea, claiming the urgent situation on the battlefield would not allow a division of forces and the General Reserve had to be sent to the Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口) sector. Yang Yuting
Yang Yuting
Yang Yuting, , , Fengtien clique warlord and Military governor of Jiangsu from August to November 1925. He was shot by Zhang Xueliang for his collusion with the Japanese, following the Huanggutun Incident.- Source :*...
, the Fengtian chief-of-general staff, worried that the geography of the Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口) was too narrow and too restricted to deploy large numbers of troops. Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin was the warlord of Manchuria from 1916 to 1928 . He successfully invaded China proper in October 1924 in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War. He gained control of Peking, including China's internationally recognized government, in April 1926...
put an end to the debate by ordering the General Reserve, under the command of Zhang Zuoxiang (张作相) to rush to the Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口) and join the battle.
Critical moment
Despite committing the General Reserve, the Fengtian army was unable to defeat its enemy. Zhang XueliangZhang Xueliang
Zhang Xueliang or Chang Hsüeh-liang , occasionally called Peter Hsueh Liang Chang in English, nicknamed the Young Marshal , was the effective ruler of Manchuria and much of North China after the assassination of his father, Zhang Zuolin, by the Japanese on 4 June 1928...
and Guo Songling
Guo Songling
Guo Songling was a Manchurian general who led a three month rebellion against his commanding warlord - Zhang Zuolin....
decided to secretly redeploy eight infantry regiments and two artillery brigades from Shanhaiguan
Shanhaiguan District
Shanhaiguan District is a district of the city of Qinhuangdao, Hebei province, People's Republic of China, named after the pass of the Great Wall within the district, Shanhai Pass...
sector to Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口). These secretly redeployed troops would be led by Guo Songling
Guo Songling
Guo Songling was a Manchurian general who led a three month rebellion against his commanding warlord - Zhang Zuolin....
but a personal conflict within the officers’ corps almost cost any chance of a Fengtian victory. The incident began when the artillery battalion commander Yan Zongzhou (阎宗周), a classmate of Guo Songling, was removed from command. Guo Songling originally had command of Yan Zongzhou's (阎宗周) artillery brigade, and only when the war had begun was the artillery brigade temporarily reassigned to the 1st Army. Artillery Regimental Commander Chen Chen (陈琛) subsequently relieved Yan Zongzhou (阎宗周) of his command, with the approval of Jiang Dengxuan (姜登选) and Han Yichun (韩以春), commander and deputy commander of the 1st Army.
Upon hearing his classmate Yan Zongzhou's (阎宗周) complaint, the enraged Guo Songling personally relieved Chen Chen of command and gave it back to Yan. Jiang Dengxuan and Han Yichun were deeply embarrassed at this nepotism, and Han Yichun personally complained to Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin was the warlord of Manchuria from 1916 to 1928 . He successfully invaded China proper in October 1924 in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War. He gained control of Peking, including China's internationally recognized government, in April 1926...
about Guo’s actions. Zhang ordered both Yan Zongzhou and Chen Chen back to their original commands, but this further enraged Guo Songling. He moved his the 8th Infantry Regiment away from the battlefield and retreated to the rear. Zhang Xueliang
Zhang Xueliang
Zhang Xueliang or Chang Hsüeh-liang , occasionally called Peter Hsueh Liang Chang in English, nicknamed the Young Marshal , was the effective ruler of Manchuria and much of North China after the assassination of his father, Zhang Zuolin, by the Japanese on 4 June 1928...
immediately went to look for Guo and his troops once he learnt what had happened: luckily for him, he managed to find the wayward officer and convince him to carry out the original plan. It was fortuitous for the Fengtian army that the incident occurred at night and was not detected by the opposing Zhili army, as the gap left by Guo in could have been easily exploited. Sun Xuchang's (孙旭昌) 10th Fengtian Brigade, with support of the artillery unit, was able to seize Nine Gates and rout the Zhili defenders.
Rehe front
On the ReheRehe
Rehe , also known as Jehol, is a defunct Chinese Special administrative district and later province.-Administration:Rehe was located north of the Great Wall, west of Manchuria, and east of Mongolia. The capital of Rehe was the city of Chengde. The second largest city in the province was Chaoyang,...
front, the 2nd Fengtian Army begun its offensive on September 22, and succeeded in taking Lingyuan (凌源) and Pingquan
Pingquan
Pingquan is a county in Hebei Province, China. It is a centre of trade and business, and gold and silver are mined nearby.The local infrastructure includes:* Pingquan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine of Chengde* Pingquan Normal College...
. After a short resupply, Zhang Zongchang renewed his offensive against the Zhili forces by attacking Cold Mouth Pass (Lengkouguan, 冷口). Zhili clique troops were deployed in four divisions: the 20th Division commanded by Yan Zhitang (阎治堂), 9th Division commanded by Dong Zhengguo (董政国), the Shaanxi
Shaanxi
' is a province in the central part of Mainland China, and it includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River in addition to the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of this province...
1st Division commanded by Hu Jingyi (胡景翼), and the 23rd Division commanded by Wang Chengbin (王承斌). However, the latter two had already made a pact with Feng Yuxiang and did nothing to stop Zhang Zongchang
Zhang Zongchang
Zhang Zongchang , nicknamed the "Dogmeat General" and "72-Cannon Chang" , was a Chinese warlord in Shandong in the early 20th century...
’s attack. At the same time, the first two units were led by rival officers who refused fight so as to preserve their own strength. When the Fengtian forces attacked, all retreated and abandoned Cold Pass (Lengkou, 冷口关). Seizing the opportunity, Zhang Zongchang pushed deep into enemy territory, with Li Jinglin (李景林) following close behind. As the news of Zhili victory in the First Jiangsu-Zhejiang War reached the battlefield, the likelihood of a stalemate appeared increasingly plausible.
Unexpected End
On October 22, Feng YuxiangFeng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang was a warlord and leader in Republican China. He was also known as the Christian General for his zeal to convert his troops and the Betrayal General for his penchant to break with the establishment. In 1911, he was an officer in the ranks of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang Army but joined...
, commander of the 3rd Zhili Army betrayed his superiors by mounting the Beijing coup
Beijing coup
The Beijing coup refers to the October 1924 coup d'etat by Feng Yuxiang against Chinese President Cao Kun, leader of the Zhili warlord faction. Feng called it the Capital Revolution . The coup occurred at a crucial moment in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War and allowed the pro-Japanese Fengtian...
against President Cao Kun
Cao Kun
|-...
. Cao was deposed as president and placed under house arrest for the next two year. Wu Pufei, still at the Shanhaiguan
Shanhaiguan District
Shanhaiguan District is a district of the city of Qinhuangdao, Hebei province, People's Republic of China, named after the pass of the Great Wall within the district, Shanhai Pass...
front, was enraged and pulled his army away rescue Beijing. As a result, up to 8,000 troops from Wu’s 3rd and 26th Divisions were withdrawn on October 26, leaving behind only 4,000 men. Seeing an opening, Zhang ordered his army to pursue Wu. Zhang Zongchang
Zhang Zongchang
Zhang Zongchang , nicknamed the "Dogmeat General" and "72-Cannon Chang" , was a Chinese warlord in Shandong in the early 20th century...
and Li Jinglin (李景林) led their troops southward along the Luan River
Luan River
The Luan River is a river in China. It flows northwards from its source in the province of Hebei into the province of Inner Mongolia, and then flows southeast back into Hebei to its mouth on the Bohai Sea. Its length is about 600 km. One subsidiary of the Luan River is the Yixun He, which...
, toward Luanzhou
Luanzhou
Luanzhou is a town in Luan County, Hebei Province, China.It was connected to the China Railway Company's network in 1892 and was involved in the First Zhili–Fengtian War during China's Warlord era....
, where they pushed on toward Tianjin
Tianjin
' is a metropolis in northern China and one of the five national central cities of the People's Republic of China. It is governed as a direct-controlled municipality, one of four such designations, and is, thus, under direct administration of the central government...
. On October 18, Zhang Zongchang’s troops took the train station at Luanzhou. Along with the successful capture of the Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九门口) by Sun Xuchang (孙旭昌)’s 10th Brigade, Zhang Zongchang
Zhang Zongchang
Zhang Zongchang , nicknamed the "Dogmeat General" and "72-Cannon Chang" , was a Chinese warlord in Shandong in the early 20th century...
’s successful taking of Luanzhou had helped secure the Fengtian clique
Fengtian clique
The Fengtian Clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's warlord era. It was named for Fengtian Province and led by Zhang Zuolin...
's final victory.
With infantry support, Fengtian cavalry took Happy Peak Mouth (Xifengkou, 喜蜂口) Pass, and pushed on. For Zhili troops, their morale was shattered by news of Feng Yuxiang’s betrayal. Guo Songling
Guo Songling
Guo Songling was a Manchurian general who led a three month rebellion against his commanding warlord - Zhang Zuolin....
, who had caused so many troubles with his nepotism, grasped the chance for an all-out charge on the Zhili troops and successfully gained control of vast regions to the east. Subsequently cutoff and surrounded between Qinhuangdao
Qinhuangdao
Qinhuangdao is a port city in northeastern Hebei province of North China. It is about 300 km east of Beijing, on the Bohai Sea, the innermost gulf of the Yellow Sea....
and Shanhaiguan
Shanhaiguan District
Shanhaiguan District is a district of the city of Qinhuangdao, Hebei province, People's Republic of China, named after the pass of the Great Wall within the district, Shanhai Pass...
, by October 31, with the exception of a few top ranking Zhili officers who managed to escape by ships leaving Qinhuangdao
Qinhuangdao
Qinhuangdao is a port city in northeastern Hebei province of North China. It is about 300 km east of Beijing, on the Bohai Sea, the innermost gulf of the Yellow Sea....
, the Zhili forces were surrounded. More than 40,000 of them surrendered to the Fengtian army.
As Wu Peifu retreated to Tianjin
Tianjin
' is a metropolis in northern China and one of the five national central cities of the People's Republic of China. It is governed as a direct-controlled municipality, one of four such designations, and is, thus, under direct administration of the central government...
, he concentrated his troops in Yangcun (杨村), and telegraphed Zhili forces in Jiangsu
Jiangsu
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
, Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
, Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
and Zhejiang
Zhejiang
Zhejiang is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. The word Zhejiang was the old name of the Qiantang River, which passes through Hangzhou, the provincial capital...
for reinforcements. However, the Anhui clique
Anhui clique
The Anhui clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's Warlord era. It was named after Anhui province because several of its generals including its founder, Duan Qirui, was born in Anhui...
warlord Zheng Shiqi
Zheng Shiqi
Zheng Shiqi , was a Chinese General, military governor of Shandong and Anhui ....
(郑士奇) in Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
suddenly declared neutrality, and took Cangzhou
Cangzhou
Cangzhou is a prefecture-level city in Hebei province, People's Republic of China. Cangzhou's urban center has a population of approximately 514,074 at the 2010 census which correspond to the built up area), while the prefecture-level administrative region in total has a population of 7,134,053...
and Machang (马厂). In addition, Zheng Shishang’s forces completely destroyed sections of Jinpu railway
Jinpu railway
The Tianjin–Pukou or Jinpu Railway runs from Tianjin to Pukou outside Nanjing in Jiangsu province.In September 1898 at a conference in London, British and German capitalists decided to build a railway from Tianjin to Zhenjiang. In May 1899, the Qing government agreed to the financing of the...
at Hanzhuang (韩庄).
Yan Xishan
Yan Xishan
Yan Xishan, was a Chinese warlord who served in the government of the Republic of China. Yan effectively controlled the province of Shanxi from the 1911 Xinhai Revolution to the 1949 Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War...
ordered his force to take Shijiazhuang
Shijiazhuang
Shijiazhuang is the capital and largest city of North China's Hebei province. Administratively a prefecture-level city, it is about south of Beijing...
on the same day, severing the railway of the Jinghan railway
Jinghan railway
The Beijing–Hankou or Jinghan Railway was a railway line extending from the Chinese capital Beijing to Hankou in Hubei province that was finished in 1905. It was originally known as the Peking–Hankow Railway. Across the Yangtze river in Wuchang was another line, the Canton–Hankow...
. As a result, none of Wu Peifu’s reinforcement could reach him. On November 2, 1924, Feng Yuxiang’s forces took Yangcun (杨村) and Beicang (北仓), forcing Wu Peifu to relocate his headquarter to Junliangcheng
Junliangcheng
JunliangchengChinese: t , s , p Jūnliángchéng, w Chun-liang-Cheng, lit. "Army Depot". is a town in the Dongli District of Tianjin in China....
. In the meantime, Fengtian army took Tangshan
Tangshan
"唐山"redirects here. For an alternative name of China, see Names of China#TangTangshan is a largely industrial prefecture-level city in Hebei province, People's Republic of China. It has become known for the 1976 Tangshan earthquake which measured 7.8 on the Richter scale and killed at least...
and Lutai (芦台). Duan Qirui wrote to Wu Peifu, telling him to leave by sea. Facing an attack from all sides, Wu had no choice but to escape. With his remaining two thousand troops, he boarded the military transporter Huajia (华甲) at 11:00 AM on November 3, 1924 and sailed from Danggu (塘沽) to central China, where Sun Chuanfang
Sun Chuanfang
Sun Chuanfang aka the "Nanking Warlord" or leader of the "League of Five Provinces" was a Zhili clique warlord and protege of the "Jade Marshal" Wu Peifu .- Biography :Sun Chuanfang was born in Lichen, Shandong...
protected him from further Fengtian incursions.
Aftermath
After November 3, the war was effectively over with a Zhili loss of all of its northern provinces to Zhang Zuolin and Feng Yuxiang's GuominjunGuominjun
The Guominjun , a.k.a Nationalist Army, KMC, or Northwest Army , refers to the military faction founded by Feng Yuxiang, Hu Jingyi and Sun Yue during China's Warlord Era. It was formed when Feng betrayed the Zhili clique during the Second Zhili-Fengtian War with the Fengtian clique in 1924...
. Fighting continued well into 1925 as part of the First Jiangsu-Zhejiang War when a joint Anhui-Fengtian expedition briefly retook Jiangsu and Shanghai in January. Here, trapped without backup, the Zhili warlord Qi Xieyuan resigned and fled to Japan but not before transferring his armies to Sun Chuanfang. Sun then launched a counterattack and drove Zhang Zongchang
Zhang Zongchang
Zhang Zongchang , nicknamed the "Dogmeat General" and "72-Cannon Chang" , was a Chinese warlord in Shandong in the early 20th century...
out of Zhejiang. Duan gave Shandong, the last Anhui held province, to Zhang as a token of their alliance. The myth of Zhili invincibility had been entirely shattered.
A new provisional government
Provisional government
A provisional government is an emergency or interim government set up when a political void has been created by the collapse of a very large government. The early provisional governments were created to prepare for the return of royal rule...
with the Anhui clique's Duan Qirui
Duan Qirui
Duan Qirui was a Chinese warlord and politician, commander in the Beiyang Army, and the Provisional Chief Executive of Republic of China from November 24, 1924 to April 20, 1926. He was arguably the most powerful man in China from 1916 to 1920.- Early life :Born in Hefei as Duan Qirui , his...
as figurehead was created to balance the interests of Feng and Zhang. Sun Yatsen was invited north to discuss reunification but the talks failed due to his death from cancer. Within a year, strong differences between the Christian Feng and Japanese-backed Zhang would cause both to solicit their recent Zhili enemies as allies, and by November 1925 the Zhili clique had thrown their support behind Zhang. Feng managed the defection of Guo Songling
Guo Songling
Guo Songling was a Manchurian general who led a three month rebellion against his commanding warlord - Zhang Zuolin....
(who continued to smart over his treatment during the Nine Gates battle) from the Fengtian clique, sparking the Anti-Fengtian War
Anti-Fengtian War
The Anti-Fengtian War was the last major civil war within the Republic of China's northern Beiyang government prior to the Northern Expedition. It lasted from November 1925 to April 1926 and was waged by the Guominjun against the Fengtian clique and their Zhili clique allies...
that lasted until April 1926. It would lead to the collapse of the provisional government.
The war of 1924 was more destructive than previous warlord turmoil and bankrupted the Beijing government. As more Chinese looked to the KMT and Communist parties for leadership, they began to disparage and delegitimize the northern leaders by calling them junfa (warlords). At this time, the KMT and Communists were allied in the First United Front, which controlled Guangdong Province, and were backed by the Soviets. The weakness of the warlord administration and the victory of the pro-Japanese Zhang Zuolin was one of a multitude of threads that led to a nationalistic backlash called the May Thirtieth Movement.
See also
- List of battles of the Chinese Civil War
- National Revolutionary ArmyNational Revolutionary ArmyThe National Revolutionary Army , pre-1928 sometimes shortened to 革命軍 or Revolutionary Army and between 1928-1947 as 國軍 or National Army was the Military Arm of the Kuomintang from 1925 until 1947, as well as the national army of the Republic of China during the KMT's period of party rule...
- Chinese Civil WarChinese Civil WarThe Chinese Civil War was a civil war fought between the Kuomintang , the governing party of the Republic of China, and the Communist Party of China , for the control of China which eventually led to China's division into two Chinas, Republic of China and People's Republic of...
- Warlord eraWarlord eraThe Chinese Warlord Era was the period in the history of the Republic of China, from 1916 to 1928, when the country was divided among military cliques, a division that continued until the fall of the Nationalist government in the mainland China regions of Sichuan, Shanxi, Qinghai, Ningxia,...
- First Zhili-Fengtian WarFirst Zhili-Fengtian WarThe First Zhili–Fengtian War was a 1922 conflict in the Republic of China's Warlord Era between the Zhili and Fengtian cliques for control of Beijing. The war led to the defeat of the Fengtian clique and the fall of its leader, Zhang Zuolin, from the coalition Zhili-Fengtian government in Beijing...
- Zhang ZuolinZhang ZuolinZhang Zuolin was the warlord of Manchuria from 1916 to 1928 . He successfully invaded China proper in October 1924 in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War. He gained control of Peking, including China's internationally recognized government, in April 1926...
- Wu PeifuWu PeifuWu Peifu or Wu P'ei-fu , was a major figure in the struggles between the warlords who dominated Republican China from 1916 to 1927.- Early career :...
Further reading
- Zhang, Tongxin History of Wars between Nationalist New Warlords, 1st Edition, published by HeilongjiangHeilongjiangFor the river known in Mandarin as Heilong Jiang, see Amur River' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. "Heilongjiang" literally means Black Dragon River, which is the Chinese name for the Amur. The one-character abbreviation is 黑...
People’s Publishing House in HarbinHarbinHarbin ; Manchu language: , Harbin; Russian: Харби́н Kharbin ), is the capital and largest city of Heilongjiang Province in Northeast China, lying on the southern bank of the Songhua River...
& distributed by New China Bookstore HeilongjiangHeilongjiangFor the river known in Mandarin as Heilong Jiang, see Amur River' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. "Heilongjiang" literally means Black Dragon River, which is the Chinese name for the Amur. The one-character abbreviation is 黑...
branch, 1982.