Septic shock
Encyclopedia
Septic shock is a medical
emergency caused by decreased tissue perfusion
and oxygen delivery as a result of severe infection
and sepsis
, though the microbe may be systemic or localized to a particular site. It can cause multiple organ dysfunction syndrome
(formerly known as multiple organ failure) and death
. Its most common victims are children, immunocompromised
individuals, and the elderly, as their immune system
s cannot deal with the infection as effectively as those of healthy adults. Frequently, patients suffering from septic shock are cared for in intensive care units. The mortality rate
from septic shock is approximately 25–50%.
and organ dysfunction. Cytokines released in a large scale inflammatory response results in massive vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, decreased systemic vascular resistance, and hypotension. Hypotension reduces tissue perfusion pressure causing tissue hypoxia. Finally, in an attempt to offset decreased blood pressure, ventricular dilatation and myocardial dysfunction will occur.
or viremia
. If the organisms are particularly virulent, or the host is immunocompromised, then the host organism may develop a condition known as systemic inflammatory response syndrome
(or SIRS). Sepsis is by definition bacteremia, combined with SIRS. If sepsis worsens to the point of end-organ dysfunction (renal failure, liver dysfunction, altered mental status, or heart damage), then the condition is called severe sepsis. Once severe sepsis worsens to the point where blood pressure can no longer be maintained with intravenous fluids alone, then the criteria have been met for septic shock. The precipitating infections which may lead to septic shock if severe enough include appendicitis
, pneumonia
, bacteremia
, diverticulitis
, pyelonephritis
, meningitis
, pancreatitis
, and necrotizing fasciitis
.
s are bacterial wall lipopolysaccharide
s (LPS) consisting of a toxic fatty acid (lipid A) core common to all Gram-negative bacteria, and a complex polysaccharide coat (including O antigen) unique for each species. Analogous molecules in the walls of Gram-positive bacteria and fungi can also elicit septic shock.
Free LPS attaches to a circulating LPS-binding protein, and the complex then binds to a specific receptor (CD14) on monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils. Engagement of CD14 (even at doses as minute as 10 pg/mL) results in intracellular signaling via an associated "Toll-like receptor" protein 4 (TLR-4), resulting in profound activation of mononuclear cells and production of potent effector cytokines such as IL-1 and TNF-α. These cytokines act on endothelial cells and have a variety of effects including reduced synthesis of anticoagulation factors such as tissue factor pathway inhibitor and thrombomodulin. The effects of the cytokines may be amplified by TLR-4 engagement on endothelial cells.
TLR-mediated activation helps to trigger the innate immune system to efficiently eradicate invading microbes.
At high levels of LPS, the syndrome of septic shock supervenes; the same cytokine and secondary mediators, now at high levels, result in systemic vasodilation (hypotension), diminished myocardial contractility, widespread endothelial injury and activation, causing systemic leukocyte adhesion and diffuse alveolar capillary damage in the lung activation of the coagulation system, culminating in disseminated intravascular coagulation
(DIC).
The hypoperfusion resulting from the combined effects of widespread vasodilation, myocardial pump failure, and DIC causes multiorgan system failure that affects the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system, among others. Unless the underlying infection (and LPS overload) is rapidly brought under control, the patient usually dies.
Among the choices for vasopressors, norepinephrine
is superior to dopamine
in septic shock. Both however are still listed as first line in guidelines.
Antimediator agents may be of some limited use in severe clinical situations however are controversial:
According to the US CDC, septic shock is the 13th leading cause of death in the United States, and the #1 cause of deaths in intensive care units. There has been an increase in the rate of septic shock deaths in recent decades, which is attributed to an increases in invasive medical devices and procedures, increases in immunocompromised patients, and an overall increase in elderly patients. Tertiary care centers (such as hospice
care facilities) have 2-4 times the rate of bacteremia than primary care centers, 75% of which are nosocomial infections.
The process of infection by bacteria or fungi can result in systemic signs and symptoms that are variously described. Approximately 70% of septic shock cases were once traceable to Gram staining gram-negative bacilli
that produce endotoxins; however, with the emergence of MRSA and the increased use of arterial and venous catheters, Gram-positive cocci are implicated approximately as commonly as bacilli
. In rough order of increasing severity, these are bacteremia or fungemic; septicemia; sepsis, severe sepsis or sepsis syndrome; septic shock; refractory septic shock; multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, and death.
35% of septic shock cases derive from urinary tract infections, 15% from the respiratory tract, 15% from skin catheters (such as IVs
); over 30% of all cases are idiopathic
in origin.
The mortality rate from sepsis is approximately 40% in adults, and 25% in children, and is significantly greater when left untreated for more than 7 days.
Medicine
Medicine is the science and art of healing. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness....
emergency caused by decreased tissue perfusion
Perfusion
In physiology, perfusion is the process of nutritive delivery of arterial blood to a capillary bed in the biological tissue. The word is derived from the French verb "perfuser" meaning to "pour over or through."...
and oxygen delivery as a result of severe infection
Infection
An infection is the colonization of a host organism by parasite species. Infecting parasites seek to use the host's resources to reproduce, often resulting in disease...
and sepsis
Sepsis
Sepsis is a potentially deadly medical condition that is characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state and the presence of a known or suspected infection. The body may develop this inflammatory response by the immune system to microbes in the blood, urine, lungs, skin, or other tissues...
, though the microbe may be systemic or localized to a particular site. It can cause multiple organ dysfunction syndrome
Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome
Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome ', previously known as multiple organ failure or multisystem organ failure , is altered organ function in an acutely ill patient requiring medical intervention to achieve homeostasis...
(formerly known as multiple organ failure) and death
Death
Death is the permanent termination of the biological functions that sustain a living organism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include old age, predation, malnutrition, disease, and accidents or trauma resulting in terminal injury....
. Its most common victims are children, immunocompromised
Immunodeficiency
Immunodeficiency is a state in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious disease is compromised or entirely absent. Immunodeficiency may also decrease cancer immunosurveillance. Most cases of immunodeficiency are acquired but some people are born with defects in their immune system,...
individuals, and the elderly, as their immune system
Immune system
An immune system is a system of biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease by identifying and killing pathogens and tumor cells. It detects a wide variety of agents, from viruses to parasitic worms, and needs to distinguish them from the organism's own...
s cannot deal with the infection as effectively as those of healthy adults. Frequently, patients suffering from septic shock are cared for in intensive care units. The mortality rate
Mortality rate
Mortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths in a population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit time...
from septic shock is approximately 25–50%.
Definition
In humans, septic shock has a specific definition requiring several criteria for diagnosis:- First, SIRS (systemic inflammatory response syndrome) must be met by finding at least any two of the following:
- TachypneaTachypneaTachypnea means rapid breathing. Any rate between 12-20 breaths per minute is normal. Tachypnea is a respiration rate greater than 20 breaths per minute. - Distinction from other breathing terms :...
(high respiratory rate) > 20 breaths per minute, or on blood gasBlood gasBlood gas is a term used to describe a laboratory test of blood where the purpose is primarily to measure ventilation and oxygenation. The source is generally noted by an added word to the beginning; arterial blood gases come from arteries, venous blood gases come from veins and capillary blood...
, a PCO2 less than 32 mmHg signifying hyperventilation. - White blood cellWhite blood cellWhite blood cells, or leukocytes , are cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Five different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a...
count either significantly low, < 4000 cells/mm³ or elevated > 12000 cells/mm³. - Heart rateHeart rateHeart rate is the number of heartbeats per unit of time, typically expressed as beats per minute . Heart rate can vary as the body's need to absorb oxygen and excrete carbon dioxide changes, such as during exercise or sleep....
> 90 beats per minute - TemperatureNormal human body temperatureNormal human body temperature, also known as normothermia or euthermia, is a concept that depends upon the place in the body at which the measurement is made, and the time of day and level of activity of the person...
: FeverFeverFever is a common medical sign characterized by an elevation of temperature above the normal range of due to an increase in the body temperature regulatory set-point. This increase in set-point triggers increased muscle tone and shivering.As a person's temperature increases, there is, in...
> 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) or hypothermia < 35 °C (95 °F)- Second, there must be sepsis and not an alternative form cause of SIRS. Sepsis requires evidence of infection, which may include positive blood cultureBlood cultureBlood culture is a microbiological culture of blood. It is employed to detect infections that are spreading through the bloodstream...
, signs of pneumoniaPneumoniaPneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung—especially affecting the microscopic air sacs —associated with fever, chest symptoms, and a lack of air space on a chest X-ray. Pneumonia is typically caused by an infection but there are a number of other causes...
on chest x-ray, or other radiologic or laboratory evidence of infection - Third, signs of end-organ dysfunction are required such as renal failureRenal failureRenal failure or kidney failure describes a medical condition in which the kidneys fail to adequately filter toxins and waste products from the blood...
, liver dysfunction, changes in mental status, or elevated serum lactateLactateLactate may refer to:*The act of lactation*The conjugate base of lactic acid...
. - Finally, septic shock is diagnosed if there is refractory hypotensionHypotensionIn physiology and medicine, hypotension is abnormally low blood pressure, especially in the arteries of the systemic circulation. It is best understood as a physiologic state, rather than a disease. It is often associated with shock, though not necessarily indicative of it. Hypotension is the...
(low blood pressure that does not respond to treatment). This signifies that intravenous fluid administration alone is insufficient to maintain a patient's blood pressure from becoming hypotensive.
- Second, there must be sepsis and not an alternative form cause of SIRS. Sepsis requires evidence of infection, which may include positive blood culture
Types
A subclass of distributive shock, shock refers specifically to decreased tissue perfusion resulting in ischemiaIschemia
In medicine, ischemia is a restriction in blood supply, generally due to factors in the blood vessels, with resultant damage or dysfunction of tissue. It may also be spelled ischaemia or ischæmia...
and organ dysfunction. Cytokines released in a large scale inflammatory response results in massive vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, decreased systemic vascular resistance, and hypotension. Hypotension reduces tissue perfusion pressure causing tissue hypoxia. Finally, in an attempt to offset decreased blood pressure, ventricular dilatation and myocardial dysfunction will occur.
Causes
When bacteria or viruses are present in the bloodstream, the condition is known as bacteremiaBacteremia
Bacteremia is the presence of bacteria in the blood. The blood is normally a sterile environment, so the detection of bacteria in the blood is always abnormal....
or viremia
Viremia
Viremia is a medical condition where viruses enter the bloodstream and hence have access to the rest of the body. It is similar to bacteremia, a condition where bacteria enter the bloodstream.- Primary versus Secondary :...
. If the organisms are particularly virulent, or the host is immunocompromised, then the host organism may develop a condition known as systemic inflammatory response syndrome
Systemic inflammatory response syndrome
Systemic inflammatory response syndrome is an inflammatory state affecting the whole body, frequently a response of the immune system to infection, but not necessarily so...
(or SIRS). Sepsis is by definition bacteremia, combined with SIRS. If sepsis worsens to the point of end-organ dysfunction (renal failure, liver dysfunction, altered mental status, or heart damage), then the condition is called severe sepsis. Once severe sepsis worsens to the point where blood pressure can no longer be maintained with intravenous fluids alone, then the criteria have been met for septic shock. The precipitating infections which may lead to septic shock if severe enough include appendicitis
Appendicitis
Appendicitis is a condition characterized by inflammation of the appendix. It is classified as a medical emergency and many cases require removal of the inflamed appendix, either by laparotomy or laparoscopy. Untreated, mortality is high, mainly because of the risk of rupture leading to...
, pneumonia
Pneumonia
Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung—especially affecting the microscopic air sacs —associated with fever, chest symptoms, and a lack of air space on a chest X-ray. Pneumonia is typically caused by an infection but there are a number of other causes...
, bacteremia
Bacteremia
Bacteremia is the presence of bacteria in the blood. The blood is normally a sterile environment, so the detection of bacteria in the blood is always abnormal....
, diverticulitis
Diverticulitis
Diverticulitis is a common digestive disease particularly found in the large intestine. Diverticulitis develops from diverticulosis, which involves the formation of pouches on the outside of the colon...
, pyelonephritis
Pyelonephritis
Pyelonephritis is an ascending urinary tract infection that has reached the pyelum or pelvis of the kidney. It is a form of nephritis that is also referred to as pyelitis...
, meningitis
Meningitis
Meningitis is inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, known collectively as the meninges. The inflammation may be caused by infection with viruses, bacteria, or other microorganisms, and less commonly by certain drugs...
, pancreatitis
Pancreatitis
Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas. It occurs when pancreatic enzymes that digest food are activated in the pancreas instead of the small intestine. It may be acute – beginning suddenly and lasting a few days, or chronic – occurring over many years...
, and necrotizing fasciitis
Necrotizing fasciitis
Necrotizing fasciitis , commonly known as flesh-eating disease or Flesh-eating bacteria syndrome, is a rare infection of the deeper layers of skin and subcutaneous tissues, easily spreading across the fascial plane within the subcutaneous tissue.Necrotizing fasciitis is a quickly progressing and...
.
Pathophysiology
Most cases of septic shock (approximately 70%) are caused by endotoxin-producing Gram-negative bacilli. EndotoxinEndotoxin
Endotoxins are toxins associated with some Gram-negative bacteria. An "endotoxin" is a toxin that is a structural molecule of the bacteria that is recognized by the immune system.-Gram negative:...
s are bacterial wall lipopolysaccharide
Lipopolysaccharide
Lipopolysaccharides , also known as lipoglycans, are large molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide joined by a covalent bond; they are found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, act as endotoxins and elicit strong immune responses in animals.-Functions:LPS is the major...
s (LPS) consisting of a toxic fatty acid (lipid A) core common to all Gram-negative bacteria, and a complex polysaccharide coat (including O antigen) unique for each species. Analogous molecules in the walls of Gram-positive bacteria and fungi can also elicit septic shock.
Free LPS attaches to a circulating LPS-binding protein, and the complex then binds to a specific receptor (CD14) on monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils. Engagement of CD14 (even at doses as minute as 10 pg/mL) results in intracellular signaling via an associated "Toll-like receptor" protein 4 (TLR-4), resulting in profound activation of mononuclear cells and production of potent effector cytokines such as IL-1 and TNF-α. These cytokines act on endothelial cells and have a variety of effects including reduced synthesis of anticoagulation factors such as tissue factor pathway inhibitor and thrombomodulin. The effects of the cytokines may be amplified by TLR-4 engagement on endothelial cells.
TLR-mediated activation helps to trigger the innate immune system to efficiently eradicate invading microbes.
At high levels of LPS, the syndrome of septic shock supervenes; the same cytokine and secondary mediators, now at high levels, result in systemic vasodilation (hypotension), diminished myocardial contractility, widespread endothelial injury and activation, causing systemic leukocyte adhesion and diffuse alveolar capillary damage in the lung activation of the coagulation system, culminating in disseminated intravascular coagulation
Disseminated intravascular coagulation
Disseminated intravascular coagulation , also known as disseminated intravascular coagulopathy or consumptive coagulopathy, is a pathological activation of coagulation mechanisms that happens in response to a variety of diseases. DIC leads to the formation of small blood clots inside the blood...
(DIC).
The hypoperfusion resulting from the combined effects of widespread vasodilation, myocardial pump failure, and DIC causes multiorgan system failure that affects the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system, among others. Unless the underlying infection (and LPS overload) is rapidly brought under control, the patient usually dies.
Treatment
Treatment primarily consists of the following.- Volume resuscitation
- Early antibiotic administration
- Early goal directed therapy
- Rapid source identification and control.
- Support of major organ dysfunction.
Among the choices for vasopressors, norepinephrine
Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine is the US name for noradrenaline , a catecholamine with multiple roles including as a hormone and a neurotransmitter...
is superior to dopamine
Dopamine
Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter present in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the brain, this substituted phenethylamine functions as a neurotransmitter, activating the five known types of dopamine receptors—D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5—and their...
in septic shock. Both however are still listed as first line in guidelines.
Antimediator agents may be of some limited use in severe clinical situations however are controversial:
- Low dose steroids (hydrocortisone) for 5 – 7 days led to improved outcomes.
- RecombinantRecombinant DNARecombinant DNA molecules are DNA sequences that result from the use of laboratory methods to bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in biological organisms...
activated protein CProtein CProtein C, also known as autoprothrombin IIA and blood coagulation factor XIV, is a zymogenic protein, the activated form of which plays an important role in regulating blood clotting, inflammation, cell death and maintaining the permeability of blood vessel walls in humans and other animals...
(drotrecogin alpha) in a 2011 Cochrane review was found not to decrease mortality and thus was not recommended for use. Other reviews however comment that it may be effective in those with very severe disease.
Epidemiology
Sepsis has a worldwide incidence of more than 20 million cases a year, with mortality due to septic shock reaching up to 70 percent even in industrialized countries.According to the US CDC, septic shock is the 13th leading cause of death in the United States, and the #1 cause of deaths in intensive care units. There has been an increase in the rate of septic shock deaths in recent decades, which is attributed to an increases in invasive medical devices and procedures, increases in immunocompromised patients, and an overall increase in elderly patients. Tertiary care centers (such as hospice
Hospice
Hospice is a type of care and a philosophy of care which focuses on the palliation of a terminally ill patient's symptoms.In the United States and Canada:*Gentiva Health Services, national provider of hospice and home health services...
care facilities) have 2-4 times the rate of bacteremia than primary care centers, 75% of which are nosocomial infections.
The process of infection by bacteria or fungi can result in systemic signs and symptoms that are variously described. Approximately 70% of septic shock cases were once traceable to Gram staining gram-negative bacilli
Bacillus
Bacillus is a genus of Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria and a member of the division Firmicutes. Bacillus species can be obligate aerobes or facultative anaerobes, and test positive for the enzyme catalase. Ubiquitous in nature, Bacillus includes both free-living and pathogenic species...
that produce endotoxins; however, with the emergence of MRSA and the increased use of arterial and venous catheters, Gram-positive cocci are implicated approximately as commonly as bacilli
Bacilli
Bacilli refers to a taxonomic class of bacteria. It includes two orders, Bacillales and Lactobacillales, which contain several well-known pathogens like Bacillus anthracis .-Ambiguity:...
. In rough order of increasing severity, these are bacteremia or fungemic; septicemia; sepsis, severe sepsis or sepsis syndrome; septic shock; refractory septic shock; multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, and death.
35% of septic shock cases derive from urinary tract infections, 15% from the respiratory tract, 15% from skin catheters (such as IVs
IVS
IVS is an abbreviation that can mean:*The International Valuation Standards published by the IVSC - The International Valuation Standards Committee*Indus Valley Script*Indus Valley School of Art and Architecture*Interactive visualization system...
); over 30% of all cases are idiopathic
Idiopathic
Idiopathic is an adjective used primarily in medicine meaning arising spontaneously or from an obscure or unknown cause. From Greek ἴδιος, idios + πάθος, pathos , it means approximately "a disease of its own kind". It is technically a term from nosology, the classification of disease...
in origin.
The mortality rate from sepsis is approximately 40% in adults, and 25% in children, and is significantly greater when left untreated for more than 7 days.