Siege of Dubrovnik
Encyclopedia
The Siege of Dubrovnik is a term marking the battle and siege
of the city of Dubrovnik
and the surrounding area in Croatia
as part of the Croatian War of Independence
. Yugoslav People's Army
(JNA) invaded the Dubrovnik area in October 1991 from Montenegro, Bosnia and even parts of Croatia, surrounding the city in order to conquer it. The three-month bombardment of the port city was one of the events which turned international opinion against the Serbs.
Dubrovnik was besieged and attacked in October 1991, with the major fighting ending in early 1992 and the Croatian counterattack finally lifting the siege and liberating the area in mid-1992, despite suffering heavy losses. The heaviest shelling of the city was on St. Nicholas Day, on December 6, 1991, when thirteen civilians were killed, which represented the greatest number of civilian deaths on a single day during the siege. According to the United Nations
report, the siege caused at least 15,000 refugee
s, of which 7,000 were evacuated by sea in October 1991, whereas the city itself was without electricity
or fresh water
for at least two months, until the end of December 1991, since the JNA forces bombarded the district's electrical grid. The population at that time was dependent on ships for their water supply.
At the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY), the prosecution alleged "It was the objective of the Serb forces to detach this area from Croatia and to annex it to Montenegro
."
is an old city located in the southernmost part of Dalmatia
. It is a UNESCO World Heritage site
and tourist destination
, and under Communist Yugoslavia
was demilitarized as it was considered that a military presence would not go hand to hand with tourism. When Croatia voted for independence in 1991, it was therefore one of the few major cities in Croatia not to have major JNA military forces in the area, which spared it during the Battle of the Barracks
of September. In 1991, the city had a population of approximately 50,000 of whom 82.4% were Croats
, 6.8% were Serbs
, and 4% were Muslims
.
The geographical position of the city was somewhat problematic. With the land borders between Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina
(BiH) and Montenegro
(in 1991 both still part of Yugoslavia), Dubrovnik and the surrounding area found itself isolated. The southernmost part of Croatia is separated by the BiH's sea corridor at Neum
. Furthermore, the geographical area around the city is very mountainous and unsuitable for military operations, creating a significant supply problem which was to limit the amount of forces involved. This meant that, in the case of a JNA attack from the neighbouring republics, Croatia's assistance would be limited to what could be transported to the area by sea.
At the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY), prosecutor Carla Del Ponte
claimed that the purpose of the attack was to annex the area to Serbia and Montenegro by proclaiming a new Republic of Dubrovnik. Nojko Marinović claims that Dubrovnik was offered to become an autonomous republic within an enlarged Serbia. Former Yugoslav Ambassador to the European Union
(EU), Mihailo Crnobrnja, speculated that the rationale for the siege was to gain an important bargaining chip to force Croatia to lift its blockades of JNA barracks. He also suggested that Montenegro may have wanted to hold Dubrovnik ransom for Croatian recognition of Prevlaka
, a peninsula south of Dubrovnik, as Montenegrin territory.
made a concerted effort at misrepresenting the military situation on the ground and exaggerated the "threat" of an Croatia
n attack on Montenegro
by "30,000 armed Ustashas and 7000 terrorists, including Kurdish mercenaries". This propaganda was widely spread by the state-controlled media of Serbia and Montenegro
.
"Pobjeda"’s 1991 editorials tried to stage that "Croatia and Slovenia
chose the war by opting for independence". This attitude was embraced by leading Montenegrin politicians at the time. Svetozar Marović
saw the causes of the Yugoslav breakup in “the continuity of an aggressive imperialist Catholicism
”. All this helped to instrumentalize the public and gave politicians a free hand to start the invasion of the Dubrovnik area.
During the Siege of Dubrovnik, while the Yugoslav army
shelled the Croatia
n port town, Radio Television of Serbia
showed Dubrovnik
with columns of smoke explaining that the local people were burning automobile tire
s to simulate destruction of the city.
as well as three 120mm mortars. One of the reasons for their disadvantage was Tuđman
's order from August 1991 which stipulated that no "defensive measures were to be taken in the region" of Dubrovnik, which was based on assurances of Veljko Kadijević
and Milošević that the JNA would not attack that city.
The defenders included just one locally conscripted unit, the 163rd Infantry Brigade
, which — along with local police forces and volunteers — numbered less than 1,500 men and had no tanks or heavy guns. Towards the end of the year, the defenders were reinforced with the IX (9th) HOS
Infantry Battalion
of less than 500 men.
These were pitted against several brigades of the JNA and Montenegro Territorial Defence Force of between 7,500 and 20,000 men, with tanks and artillery elements of the Naval District Corps and assorted other Corps formations of south Bosnia and Montenegro. The attack at the time was portrayed as an entirely Montenegrin affair (despite the mixed nationality of JNA troops, and Serb guidance, Montenegrins made the majority of troops) and was therefore presented in Montenegro as "War for Peace". Montenegrin prime minister
Milo Đukanović said at the time that Montenegro had to definitively settle its borders with Croatia and fix the mistakes made by "Bolshevik cartographers".
JNA officers made a concerted effort at misrepresenting the military situation on the ground and exaggerated the "threat" of an attack on Montenegro by "30,000 armed Ustashas and 5,000 terrorists, including Kurdish mercenaries". There were said to be no mercenaries on the Croat side, and only one foreigner at all: a Dutchman, who was married to a lady from Dubrovnik and who was there during the war. He volunteered to join the Croatian army.
, Konavle
, Cavtat
and the entire area around Dubrovnik, including the important international airport. The operation involved some amphibious landings. The airport was looted of valuable equipment which was taken to Montenegro - after independence in 2006, Montenegro has agreed to pay reparations for this.
On the way to attack Dubrovnik, JNA forces from Bosnia leveled the Croatian forces in the village of Ravno
(in Bosnia) to the ground, making it the first casualty of the Bosnian War
which officially started only six months later.
A combination of stiff resistance and international attention blocked the JNA's total attack and occupation of the city. The JNA occupied high terrain around the city instead, placing artillery there to shell the city - thus, the siege had started. At the same time, the Yugoslav Navy
was actively involved in the bombardment, conducting amphibious operations and maintaining a sea blockade while shelling the city from the Adriatic Sea
. Food, water and electricity supply to the city was cut during the earliest stages of the siege. The city was also crowded with 55,000 refugees from other war-torn areas in Croatia who had sought a safe haven there.
) - which drew international criticism of the JNA forces. The siege was heavily present in the international media and journalists have been heavily criticised for focusing and exaggerating damage to the old city to encourage military intervention, instead of focusing on human casualties. The concern with buildings over civilian deaths pushed the pivotal and much more brutal Battle of Vukovar
out of public view. Even before the siege, the international community attempted several treaties to limit JNA advances into overwhelmingly Croat areas, yet these were systematically broken by JNA forces.
Negative though the international reaction was, it did nothing to quell the brutal bombardment, however, and the shelling continued until December. If the area around Dubrovnik is excluded, the Old Town itself was shelled on 23 October, 30 October (when 6 civilians were killed, including a mother and her child), 1 November, 2 November (when refugees were wounded), 3 November, 4 November, 8-13 November, 2 December and 6 December.
Towards the end of the year, the Croatian defenders staged a small counterattack aiming to displace the JNA from the surrounding mountains, but this did not end the bombardment entirely. Yugoslav poet Milan Milišić
was one of the first casualties of shelling, on 5 October 1991. The Yugoslav Navy and Army also increased their pressure on neighbouring Croatians ports such as Slano
, where they burned and destroyed the small transport Perast. Three seamen were killed in the attack, while the rest of the crew escaped to Dubrovnik. The ship was later found adrift by members of the Croatian Navy off Šipan
island.
In November, the ferryboat Slavija, leading a large convoy of 40 fishing and tour boats docked at the town, taking 2,000 refugees from the city up the Croatian coast. The convoy, called by the Croatians Libertas or "Freedom 's convoy", had been initially stopped by the Yugoslav frigate JRM Split
between the islands of Brač
and Šolta
and the next day by Yugoslav patrol boats off Korčula
, but after several hours of negotiations between Yugoslav President Stjepan Mesić
, aboard the Slavija, and his deputy minister of defense, the flotilla was allowed to proceed.
On 11 November an old Maltese
-flagged coaster, the Euro River, manned by a Croatian crew and bound for Ploce
, a port located some miles north of Dubrovnik, was sunk by gunfire at the position 43°19′N 16°9′E, not far from the area where the Slavija convoy was stopped for the first time. All people aboard were safely rescued.
At the same period, a runabout
from the Dubrovnik marina, the Sveti Vlaho (St. Blaise) was requisitioned by the Croatian authorities, thus becoming one of the first operational vessels of the new Croatian Navy as it represented the first craft of the Armed Boats Squadron Dubrovnik
. She was outfitted with armor-plates and armed with machine guns. The Sveti Vlaho carried out several blockade-running missions smuggling weapons, ammunition and supplies into the besieged city before being hit and crippled by a 9K11 Malyutka missile on 6 December. The vessel has since been restored and is currently on display at the city's port.
On 6 December, the heaviest shelling was reported on what came to be known as the St. Nicholas Day Bombardment, and 13 civilians were killed. During the siege, several yachts moored at the old harbour were destroyed or damaged by wire-guided missile
s, while some larger ships at the port of Gruž
, like the ferryboat Adriatic and the American-owned sailing ship Pelagic were set ablaze and destroyed by gunfire. By the end of December, Croatian Navy and coastal artillery
had successfully repelled JNA Navy forces along Dalmatia, and the Navy withdrew to Montenegro's naval base at Boka Kotorska. The situation on the ground was still unfavorable, though. The last ceasefire went into effect at the end of the year and the shelling ended by 1992.
was to start in April - the notable exception was Dubrovnik where there weren't enough local Serb formations as in other parts of Croatia to replace them, so the JNA continued its presence there. Since many of the units involved in attacks on Dubrovnik were originally from Army formations stationed in Bosnia (specifically, Trebinje
Corps), these were now returned to their home commands, as JNA forces planned a general offensive on the nearby BiH city of Mostar
.
The units left behind near Dubrovnik were now to reserve strength and the Croatian army took advantage of the altered situation by redeploying elements of its elite guard brigades (1st, 2nd
and 4th brigades) to the area, forming a command HQ under Janko Bobetko
in April and starting a successful offensive which broke the blockade on 26 May 1992. During the course of the next two months, Operations Čagalj and Tigar were launched to push the remaining forces away from the city and liberate the entire surrounding area, which was achieved by the end of July. The important Prevlaka
area was also taken - which effectively meant a blockade of the JNA Navy in Boka - but was recaptured by Montenegro forces later on. Following this, both sides agreed for United Nations
supervision of the area, ending the battle for Dubrovnik.
condemned the bombardment of buildings. The Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments, in conjunction with UNESCO
, found that of the 824 buildings in the Old Town, 563 (or 68.33 %) had been hit by projectiles in 1991 and 1992. Nine buildings were completely destroyed by fire. In 1993, the Institute for the Rehabilitation of Dubrovnik and UNESCO estimated the total cost for restoring public, private and religious buildings, streets, squares, fountains, ramparts, gates, and bridges at US$9,657,578. By the end of 1999, over $7,000,000 had been spent on restoration.
Croatian prisoners of war from the attack on Dubrovnik and its hinterland were taken by the Yugoslav People's Army were taken to detention centers, notably the Morinj camp
near Kotor, Montenegro, and a prison near Bileća
, Bosnia and Herzegovina
, where they were held until 1992.
The city and the area recovered remarkably well from the war, and the city is once again a favorite tourist destination. Prevlaka has been returned from UN supervision to Croatian control and the newly independent Montenegro
has expressed its wish for improving relations with Croatia. However, there is still no agreement between the two countries involving war reparations. In 2000, Milo Đukanović as president of Montenegro
apologized to Croatia for the siege. In 2007, Montenegrin filmmaker Koča Pavlović released Rat za mir about the role of Montenegrin officials in the siege.
(ICTY), prosecutor Carla Del Ponte
charged four JNA commanders for their role in the siege: Pavle Strugar
, Miodrag Jokić
, Milan Zec, and Vladimir Kovačević
.
Croatian authorities issued arrest warrants for numerous former JNA officers and commanders. In 2011, Božidar Vučurević, former war-time mayor of Trebinje
, was arrested at a border crossing by Serb officials based on Croatian charges of bombing Dubrovnik.
Siege
A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by attrition or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for "to sit". Generally speaking, siege warfare is a form of constant, low intensity conflict characterized by one party holding a strong, static...
of the city of Dubrovnik
Dubrovnik
Dubrovnik is a Croatian city on the Adriatic Sea coast, positioned at the terminal end of the Isthmus of Dubrovnik. It is one of the most prominent tourist destinations on the Adriatic, a seaport and the centre of Dubrovnik-Neretva county. Its total population is 42,641...
and the surrounding area in Croatia
Croatia
Croatia , officially the Republic of Croatia , is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers ...
as part of the Croatian War of Independence
Croatian War of Independence
The Croatian War of Independence was fought from 1991 to 1995 between forces loyal to the government of Croatia—which had declared independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia —and the Serb-controlled Yugoslav People's Army and local Serb forces, with the JNA ending its combat...
. Yugoslav People's Army
Yugoslav People's Army
The Yugoslav People's Army , also referred to as the Yugoslav National Army , was the military of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.-Origins:The origins of the JNA can...
(JNA) invaded the Dubrovnik area in October 1991 from Montenegro, Bosnia and even parts of Croatia, surrounding the city in order to conquer it. The three-month bombardment of the port city was one of the events which turned international opinion against the Serbs.
Dubrovnik was besieged and attacked in October 1991, with the major fighting ending in early 1992 and the Croatian counterattack finally lifting the siege and liberating the area in mid-1992, despite suffering heavy losses. The heaviest shelling of the city was on St. Nicholas Day, on December 6, 1991, when thirteen civilians were killed, which represented the greatest number of civilian deaths on a single day during the siege. According to the United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
report, the siege caused at least 15,000 refugee
Refugee
A refugee is a person who outside her country of origin or habitual residence because she has suffered persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or because she is a member of a persecuted 'social group'. Such a person may be referred to as an 'asylum seeker' until...
s, of which 7,000 were evacuated by sea in October 1991, whereas the city itself was without electricity
Electricity
Electricity is a general term encompassing a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. These include many easily recognizable phenomena, such as lightning, static electricity, and the flow of electrical current in an electrical wire...
or fresh water
Fresh Water
Fresh Water is the debut album by Australian rock and blues singer Alison McCallum, released in 1972. Rare for an Australian artist at the time, it came in a gatefold sleeve...
for at least two months, until the end of December 1991, since the JNA forces bombarded the district's electrical grid. The population at that time was dependent on ships for their water supply.
At the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
The International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991, more commonly referred to as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia or ICTY, is a...
(ICTY), the prosecution alleged "It was the objective of the Serb forces to detach this area from Croatia and to annex it to Montenegro
Montenegro
Montenegro Montenegrin: Crna Gora Црна Гора , meaning "Black Mountain") is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and is bordered by Croatia to the west, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the northwest, Serbia to the northeast and Albania to the...
."
Background
DubrovnikDubrovnik
Dubrovnik is a Croatian city on the Adriatic Sea coast, positioned at the terminal end of the Isthmus of Dubrovnik. It is one of the most prominent tourist destinations on the Adriatic, a seaport and the centre of Dubrovnik-Neretva county. Its total population is 42,641...
is an old city located in the southernmost part of Dalmatia
Dalmatia
Dalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south....
. It is a UNESCO World Heritage site
World Heritage Site
A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the UNESCO as of special cultural or physical significance...
and tourist destination
Tourist destination
A tourist destination is a city, town, or other area that is dependent to a significant extent on the revenues accruing from tourism. It may contain one or more tourist attractions and possibly some "tourist traps."...
, and under Communist Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia refers to three political entities that existed successively on the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century....
was demilitarized as it was considered that a military presence would not go hand to hand with tourism. When Croatia voted for independence in 1991, it was therefore one of the few major cities in Croatia not to have major JNA military forces in the area, which spared it during the Battle of the Barracks
Battle of the Barracks
Battle of the barracks - sometimes also called War for the barracks - is a term given to a series of engagements that took place throughout Croatia as part of the Croatian War of Independence during 1991, with the most important fighting in September...
of September. In 1991, the city had a population of approximately 50,000 of whom 82.4% were Croats
Croats
Croats are a South Slavic ethnic group mostly living in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and nearby countries. There are around 4 million Croats living inside Croatia and up to 4.5 million throughout the rest of the world. Responding to political, social and economic pressure, many Croats have...
, 6.8% were Serbs
Serbs
The Serbs are a South Slavic ethnic group of the Balkans and southern Central Europe. Serbs are located mainly in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and form a sizable minority in Croatia, the Republic of Macedonia and Slovenia. Likewise, Serbs are an officially recognized minority in...
, and 4% were Muslims
Muslims by nationality
Muslims by nationality was a term used in Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as an official designation of nationality of Slavic Muslims. They were one of the constitutive groups of Bosnia and Herzegovina...
.
The geographical position of the city was somewhat problematic. With the land borders between Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina , sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina or simply Bosnia, is a country in Southern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. Bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina is almost landlocked, except for the...
(BiH) and Montenegro
Montenegro
Montenegro Montenegrin: Crna Gora Црна Гора , meaning "Black Mountain") is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and is bordered by Croatia to the west, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the northwest, Serbia to the northeast and Albania to the...
(in 1991 both still part of Yugoslavia), Dubrovnik and the surrounding area found itself isolated. The southernmost part of Croatia is separated by the BiH's sea corridor at Neum
Neum
Neum is the only coastal town in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It comprises of coastline, the country's only access to the Adriatic Sea. As of 2009, municipal population was of 4,605 and the one of Neum main town was of 4,268 .-Features:Neum has steep hills, sandy beaches, and several large tourist...
. Furthermore, the geographical area around the city is very mountainous and unsuitable for military operations, creating a significant supply problem which was to limit the amount of forces involved. This meant that, in the case of a JNA attack from the neighbouring republics, Croatia's assistance would be limited to what could be transported to the area by sea.
At the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
The International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991, more commonly referred to as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia or ICTY, is a...
(ICTY), prosecutor Carla Del Ponte
Carla Del Ponte
Carla Del Ponte is a former Chief Prosecutor of two United Nations international criminal law tribunals. A former Swiss attorney general, she was appointed prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in August...
claimed that the purpose of the attack was to annex the area to Serbia and Montenegro by proclaiming a new Republic of Dubrovnik. Nojko Marinović claims that Dubrovnik was offered to become an autonomous republic within an enlarged Serbia. Former Yugoslav Ambassador to the European Union
European Union
The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
(EU), Mihailo Crnobrnja, speculated that the rationale for the siege was to gain an important bargaining chip to force Croatia to lift its blockades of JNA barracks. He also suggested that Montenegro may have wanted to hold Dubrovnik ransom for Croatian recognition of Prevlaka
Prevlaka
Prevlaka is a small peninsula in southern Croatia, at the entrance to the Bay of Kotor in the eastern Adriatic. The word prevlaka means portage. The cape Oštro, located at the tip of the peninsula, is the southernmost point of mainland in Croatia....
, a peninsula south of Dubrovnik, as Montenegrin territory.
Serbian propaganda activities
Before the Siege of Dubrovnik, General Pavle StrugarPavle Strugar
Pavle Strugar is a retired Montenegrin general in the Yugoslav People's Army who was found guilty of war crimes for his role in the siege of Dubrovnik....
made a concerted effort at misrepresenting the military situation on the ground and exaggerated the "threat" of an Croatia
Croatia
Croatia , officially the Republic of Croatia , is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers ...
n attack on Montenegro
Montenegro
Montenegro Montenegrin: Crna Gora Црна Гора , meaning "Black Mountain") is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and is bordered by Croatia to the west, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the northwest, Serbia to the northeast and Albania to the...
by "30,000 armed Ustashas and 7000 terrorists, including Kurdish mercenaries". This propaganda was widely spread by the state-controlled media of Serbia and Montenegro
Serbia and Montenegro
Serbia and Montenegro was a country in southeastern Europe, formed from two former republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia : Serbia and Montenegro. Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, it was established in 1992 as a federation called the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia...
.
"Pobjeda"’s 1991 editorials tried to stage that "Croatia and Slovenia
Slovenia
Slovenia , officially the Republic of Slovenia , is a country in Central and Southeastern Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. Slovenia borders Italy to the west, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north, and also has a small portion of...
chose the war by opting for independence". This attitude was embraced by leading Montenegrin politicians at the time. Svetozar Marović
Svetozar Marovic
Svetozar Marović ; born March 31, 1955) is a lawyer and a Montenegrin politician. He was the only president of Serbia and Montenegro...
saw the causes of the Yugoslav breakup in “the continuity of an aggressive imperialist Catholicism
Catholicism
Catholicism is a broad term for the body of the Catholic faith, its theologies and doctrines, its liturgical, ethical, spiritual, and behavioral characteristics, as well as a religious people as a whole....
”. All this helped to instrumentalize the public and gave politicians a free hand to start the invasion of the Dubrovnik area.
During the Siege of Dubrovnik, while the Yugoslav army
Yugoslav Army
Aside from the Yugoslav People's Army, the terms Yugoslav Army, Army of Yugoslavia, or Military of Yugoslavia may refer to:* Yugoslav Partisans , the Yugoslav resistance army during World War II...
shelled the Croatia
Croatia
Croatia , officially the Republic of Croatia , is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers ...
n port town, Radio Television of Serbia
Radio Television of Serbia
Radio Television of Serbia or Serbian Broadcasting Corporation is the public broadcaster in Serbia. It broadcasts and produces a variety of news, drama, and sports programming through radio, television and the Internet. RTS is, since July 2001, a member of the European Broadcasting Union. RTS is...
showed Dubrovnik
Dubrovnik
Dubrovnik is a Croatian city on the Adriatic Sea coast, positioned at the terminal end of the Isthmus of Dubrovnik. It is one of the most prominent tourist destinations on the Adriatic, a seaport and the centre of Dubrovnik-Neretva county. Its total population is 42,641...
with columns of smoke explaining that the local people were burning automobile tire
Tire
A tire or tyre is a ring-shaped covering that fits around a wheel rim to protect it and enable better vehicle performance by providing a flexible cushion that absorbs shock while keeping the wheel in close contact with the ground...
s to simulate destruction of the city.
Opposing forces
Croatian military forces in the area at September were virtually non-existent and were severely outgunned as the heaviest weapons available to them were four Soviet ZIS 76 millimeter artillery guns from 1942 of which only one had a telemetric device. The defenders also received two 85mm guns from the island of KorčulaKorcula
Korčula is an island in the Adriatic Sea, in the Dubrovnik-Neretva County of Croatia. The island has an area of ; long and on average wide — and lies just off the Dalmatian coast. Its 16,182 inhabitants make it the second most populous Adriatic island after Krk...
as well as three 120mm mortars. One of the reasons for their disadvantage was Tuđman
Tuđman
Tuđman or Tudjman can refer to:* Franjo Tuđman , Croatian politician, President of Croatia 1990–1999* Miroslav Tuđman , Croatian scientist and politician...
's order from August 1991 which stipulated that no "defensive measures were to be taken in the region" of Dubrovnik, which was based on assurances of Veljko Kadijević
Veljko Kadijevic
Veljko Kadijević is a former General of the Yugoslav People's Army . He was the Minister of Defence in the Yugoslav government from 1988 until his resignation in 1992, which made him de facto commander of JNA during the Ten-Day War in Slovenia and the initial stages of the War in...
and Milošević that the JNA would not attack that city.
The defenders included just one locally conscripted unit, the 163rd Infantry Brigade
Brigade
A brigade is a major tactical military formation that is typically composed of two to five battalions, plus supporting elements depending on the era and nationality of a given army and could be perceived as an enlarged/reinforced regiment...
, which — along with local police forces and volunteers — numbered less than 1,500 men and had no tanks or heavy guns. Towards the end of the year, the defenders were reinforced with the IX (9th) HOS
Croatian Defence Forces
The Croatian Defence Forces was the military arm of the Croatian Party of Rights from 1991 to 1992 during the first stages of the Yugoslav wars....
Infantry Battalion
Battalion
A battalion is a military unit of around 300–1,200 soldiers usually consisting of between two and seven companies and typically commanded by either a Lieutenant Colonel or a Colonel...
of less than 500 men.
These were pitted against several brigades of the JNA and Montenegro Territorial Defence Force of between 7,500 and 20,000 men, with tanks and artillery elements of the Naval District Corps and assorted other Corps formations of south Bosnia and Montenegro. The attack at the time was portrayed as an entirely Montenegrin affair (despite the mixed nationality of JNA troops, and Serb guidance, Montenegrins made the majority of troops) and was therefore presented in Montenegro as "War for Peace". Montenegrin prime minister
Prime Minister of Montenegro
The Prime Minister of Montenegro , is the head of the Government of Montenegro. The role of the Prime Minister is to direct the work of the Government, and to submit to the Parliament the Government's Program, including a list of proposed ministers...
Milo Đukanović said at the time that Montenegro had to definitively settle its borders with Croatia and fix the mistakes made by "Bolshevik cartographers".
Initial attacks
By October 1991, war had already started throughout Croatia. On 1 October 1991, JNA forces from Montenegro (swelled by mobilization called on 16 September in Montenegro) and south BiH advanced to attack the surrounding area and occupied PrevlakaPrevlaka
Prevlaka is a small peninsula in southern Croatia, at the entrance to the Bay of Kotor in the eastern Adriatic. The word prevlaka means portage. The cape Oštro, located at the tip of the peninsula, is the southernmost point of mainland in Croatia....
, Konavle
Konavle
Konavle is a small region and municipality located southeast of Dubrovnik, Croatia.It is administratively part of the Dubrovnik-Neretva County and forms a municipality with its center at Gruda with a total population of 8,250 people split in 32 villages, in which 96.5% are Croats...
, Cavtat
Cavtat
Cavtat ) is a town in the Dubrovnik-Neretva County of Croatia. It is on the Adriatic seacoast 15 km south of Dubrovnik and is the centre of the Konavle municipality.-History:...
and the entire area around Dubrovnik, including the important international airport. The operation involved some amphibious landings. The airport was looted of valuable equipment which was taken to Montenegro - after independence in 2006, Montenegro has agreed to pay reparations for this.
On the way to attack Dubrovnik, JNA forces from Bosnia leveled the Croatian forces in the village of Ravno
Ravno
Ravno is a town and the seat of its municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina entity. Ravno was a municipality until 1963, when it became a part of the Trebinje municipality...
(in Bosnia) to the ground, making it the first casualty of the Bosnian War
Bosnian War
The Bosnian War or the War in Bosnia and Herzegovina was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between April 1992 and December 1995. The war involved several sides...
which officially started only six months later.
A combination of stiff resistance and international attention blocked the JNA's total attack and occupation of the city. The JNA occupied high terrain around the city instead, placing artillery there to shell the city - thus, the siege had started. At the same time, the Yugoslav Navy
Yugoslav Navy
The Yugoslav Navy was the navy of Yugoslavia. It was essentially a coastal defense force with the mission of preventing enemy landings along the Yugoslavia's rugged 4,000- kilometer shoreline or coastal islands, and contesting an enemy blockade or control of the strategic Strait of Otranto...
was actively involved in the bombardment, conducting amphibious operations and maintaining a sea blockade while shelling the city from the Adriatic Sea
Adriatic Sea
The Adriatic Sea is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan peninsula, and the system of the Apennine Mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges...
. Food, water and electricity supply to the city was cut during the earliest stages of the siege. The city was also crowded with 55,000 refugees from other war-torn areas in Croatia who had sought a safe haven there.
Siege and blockade
The siege had immediately raised attention, as western reporters took pictures of the shelling (especially the Old City of Dubrovnik - a UNESCO World Heritage SiteWorld Heritage Site
A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the UNESCO as of special cultural or physical significance...
) - which drew international criticism of the JNA forces. The siege was heavily present in the international media and journalists have been heavily criticised for focusing and exaggerating damage to the old city to encourage military intervention, instead of focusing on human casualties. The concern with buildings over civilian deaths pushed the pivotal and much more brutal Battle of Vukovar
Battle of Vukovar
The Battle of Vukovar was an 87-day siege of Vukovar in eastern Croatia by the Yugoslav People's Army , supported by various paramilitary forces from Serbia, between August and November 1991. Before the Croatian War of Independence the Baroque town was a prosperous, mixed community of Croats,...
out of public view. Even before the siege, the international community attempted several treaties to limit JNA advances into overwhelmingly Croat areas, yet these were systematically broken by JNA forces.
Negative though the international reaction was, it did nothing to quell the brutal bombardment, however, and the shelling continued until December. If the area around Dubrovnik is excluded, the Old Town itself was shelled on 23 October, 30 October (when 6 civilians were killed, including a mother and her child), 1 November, 2 November (when refugees were wounded), 3 November, 4 November, 8-13 November, 2 December and 6 December.
Towards the end of the year, the Croatian defenders staged a small counterattack aiming to displace the JNA from the surrounding mountains, but this did not end the bombardment entirely. Yugoslav poet Milan Milišić
Milan Milišic
Milan Milišić was a poet and playwright from the former Yugoslavia of Yugoslavian ethnicity. He wrote several volumes of poetry and translated, among others, J. R. R...
was one of the first casualties of shelling, on 5 October 1991. The Yugoslav Navy and Army also increased their pressure on neighbouring Croatians ports such as Slano
Slano
Slano is a village in southern Croatia and a small harbour in the bay of the same name. It is located 27 km northwest of Dubrovnik. Farming, olive-growing, viniculture, fruit-growing, tobacco, herbs , fishing and tourism are the villages chief occupations. Slano lies on the main road...
, where they burned and destroyed the small transport Perast. Three seamen were killed in the attack, while the rest of the crew escaped to Dubrovnik. The ship was later found adrift by members of the Croatian Navy off Šipan
Šipan
Šipan also Sipano is the largest of the Elaphiti Islands, 17 km northwest of Dubrovnik, Croatia; separated from the mainland coast by the Kolocepski Channel; area 16.22 km²; population 500 . It is the largest island in this group and its highest point is 243 m...
island.
In November, the ferryboat Slavija, leading a large convoy of 40 fishing and tour boats docked at the town, taking 2,000 refugees from the city up the Croatian coast. The convoy, called by the Croatians Libertas or "Freedom 's convoy", had been initially stopped by the Yugoslav frigate JRM Split
Koni class frigate
Koni class is the NATO reporting name for a anti-submarine warfare frigate built by the Soviet Union. They were known in the Soviet Union as Project 1159. 14 were built in Zelenodolsk shipyard between 1975 and 1988. They were originally intended to replace the older Riga class frigates, but were...
between the islands of Brač
Brac
Brač is an island in the Adriatic Sea within Croatia, with an area of 396 km², making it the largest island in Dalmatia, and the third largest in the Adriatic. Its tallest peak, Vidova Gora, or Mount St. Vid, stands at 778 m, making it the highest island point in the Adriatic...
and Šolta
Šolta
Šolta is an island in Croatia. It is situated in the Adriatic Sea in the central Dalmatian archipelago, west of the island of Brač, south of Split and east of the Drvenik islands . Its area is 58.98 km2 and it has a population of 1,675 .The highest peak of Šolta is the summit Vela Straža...
and the next day by Yugoslav patrol boats off Korčula
Korcula
Korčula is an island in the Adriatic Sea, in the Dubrovnik-Neretva County of Croatia. The island has an area of ; long and on average wide — and lies just off the Dalmatian coast. Its 16,182 inhabitants make it the second most populous Adriatic island after Krk...
, but after several hours of negotiations between Yugoslav President Stjepan Mesić
Stjepan Mesić
Stjepan "Stipe" Mesić is a Croatian politician and former President of Croatia. Before his ten-year presidential term between 2000 and 2010 he held the posts of Speaker of the Croatian Parliament , Prime Minister of Croatia , the last President of the Presidency of Yugoslavia , Secretary General...
, aboard the Slavija, and his deputy minister of defense, the flotilla was allowed to proceed.
On 11 November an old Maltese
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
-flagged coaster, the Euro River, manned by a Croatian crew and bound for Ploce
Ploce
Ploče is a town and a notable seaport in the Dubrovnik-Neretva County of Croatia.The total population of Ploče is 10,102 , in the following settlements:* Baćina, population 564* Banja, population 176* Komin, population 1,222...
, a port located some miles north of Dubrovnik, was sunk by gunfire at the position 43°19′N 16°9′E, not far from the area where the Slavija convoy was stopped for the first time. All people aboard were safely rescued.
At the same period, a runabout
Runabout (boat)
A runabout is any small motorboat holding between four and eight people, well suited to moving about on the water. Runabouts can be used for racing, for pleasure activities like fishing and water skiing, or as a ship's tender for larger vessels...
from the Dubrovnik marina, the Sveti Vlaho (St. Blaise) was requisitioned by the Croatian authorities, thus becoming one of the first operational vessels of the new Croatian Navy as it represented the first craft of the Armed Boats Squadron Dubrovnik
Armed Boats Squadron Dubrovnik
Croatia's Armed Boats Squadron Dubrovnik was a volunteer unit of the Croatian Navy. The squadron, consisting of 23 vessels, mostly of runabout type, lightly armed and armored, was active in 1991 and 1992, during the Siege of Dubrovnik. The unit was crucial in the defense of Dubrovnik, providing a...
. She was outfitted with armor-plates and armed with machine guns. The Sveti Vlaho carried out several blockade-running missions smuggling weapons, ammunition and supplies into the besieged city before being hit and crippled by a 9K11 Malyutka missile on 6 December. The vessel has since been restored and is currently on display at the city's port.
On 6 December, the heaviest shelling was reported on what came to be known as the St. Nicholas Day Bombardment, and 13 civilians were killed. During the siege, several yachts moored at the old harbour were destroyed or damaged by wire-guided missile
Wire-guided missile
A wire-guided missile is a missile that is guided by signals sent to it via thin wires connected between the missile and its guidance mechanism, which is located somewhere near the launch site. As the missile flies, the wires are reeled out behind it...
s, while some larger ships at the port of Gruž
Gruž
Gruž is modern day neighborhood in the greater city of Dubrovnik, Croatia. The main port for Dubrovnik is in Gruž as well as its largest market and the main bus station "Libertas". Around 15,000 people currently live in Gruž...
, like the ferryboat Adriatic and the American-owned sailing ship Pelagic were set ablaze and destroyed by gunfire. By the end of December, Croatian Navy and coastal artillery
Coastal artillery
Coastal artillery is the branch of armed forces concerned with operating anti-ship artillery or fixed gun batteries in coastal fortifications....
had successfully repelled JNA Navy forces along Dalmatia, and the Navy withdrew to Montenegro's naval base at Boka Kotorska. The situation on the ground was still unfavorable, though. The last ceasefire went into effect at the end of the year and the shelling ended by 1992.
Croatian counterattack
As part of the ceasefire agreement, the JNA formally left Croatia and moved to Bosnia and Herzegovina where the Bosnian WarBosnian War
The Bosnian War or the War in Bosnia and Herzegovina was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between April 1992 and December 1995. The war involved several sides...
was to start in April - the notable exception was Dubrovnik where there weren't enough local Serb formations as in other parts of Croatia to replace them, so the JNA continued its presence there. Since many of the units involved in attacks on Dubrovnik were originally from Army formations stationed in Bosnia (specifically, Trebinje
Trebinje
Trebinje is the southernmost municipality and town in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is administratively part of the Republika Srpska entity and is located in southeastern Herzegovina, some from the Adriatic Sea....
Corps), these were now returned to their home commands, as JNA forces planned a general offensive on the nearby BiH city of Mostar
Mostar
Mostar is a city and municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the largest and one of the most important cities in the Herzegovina region and the center of the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation. Mostar is situated on the Neretva river and is the fifth-largest city in the country...
.
The units left behind near Dubrovnik were now to reserve strength and the Croatian army took advantage of the altered situation by redeploying elements of its elite guard brigades (1st, 2nd
2nd Guards Brigade (Croatia)
The 2nd Guards Brigade , also known by their nickname Thunders , was one of the original Croatian National Guard brigades formed in 1991 and one of the most elite mechanized infantry units in the Croatian Ground Army during its existence, during which it saw action in a number of engagements...
and 4th brigades) to the area, forming a command HQ under Janko Bobetko
Janko Bobetko
Janko Bobetko was a Croatian Army general and Chief of the General Staff during the Croatian War of Independence from 1992 until his retirement in 1995. Bobetko had been charged with war crimes by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia but died before he could be tried...
in April and starting a successful offensive which broke the blockade on 26 May 1992. During the course of the next two months, Operations Čagalj and Tigar were launched to push the remaining forces away from the city and liberate the entire surrounding area, which was achieved by the end of July. The important Prevlaka
Prevlaka
Prevlaka is a small peninsula in southern Croatia, at the entrance to the Bay of Kotor in the eastern Adriatic. The word prevlaka means portage. The cape Oštro, located at the tip of the peninsula, is the southernmost point of mainland in Croatia....
area was also taken - which effectively meant a blockade of the JNA Navy in Boka - but was recaptured by Montenegro forces later on. Following this, both sides agreed for United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
supervision of the area, ending the battle for Dubrovnik.
Aftermath
In 1991, the American Institute of ArchitectsAmerican Institute of Architects
The American Institute of Architects is a professional organization for architects in the United States. Headquartered in Washington, D.C., the AIA offers education, government advocacy, community redevelopment, and public outreach to support the architecture profession and improve its public image...
condemned the bombardment of buildings. The Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments, in conjunction with UNESCO
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...
, found that of the 824 buildings in the Old Town, 563 (or 68.33 %) had been hit by projectiles in 1991 and 1992. Nine buildings were completely destroyed by fire. In 1993, the Institute for the Rehabilitation of Dubrovnik and UNESCO estimated the total cost for restoring public, private and religious buildings, streets, squares, fountains, ramparts, gates, and bridges at US$9,657,578. By the end of 1999, over $7,000,000 had been spent on restoration.
Croatian prisoners of war from the attack on Dubrovnik and its hinterland were taken by the Yugoslav People's Army were taken to detention centers, notably the Morinj camp
Morinj camp
The Morinj camp was a detention facility near Kotor, Montenegro where Croatian prisoners of war and civilians were kept by Montenegrin authorities in the Yugoslav People's Army during the Civil war in Croatia. The age of the incarcerated ranged from 15 to 82...
near Kotor, Montenegro, and a prison near Bileća
Bileca
Bileća is a town and municipality in the southeast of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the entity of Republika Srpska. It is in eastern Herzegovina near the border with Montenegro, north of Trebinje and south of Gacko...
, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina , sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina or simply Bosnia, is a country in Southern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. Bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina is almost landlocked, except for the...
, where they were held until 1992.
The city and the area recovered remarkably well from the war, and the city is once again a favorite tourist destination. Prevlaka has been returned from UN supervision to Croatian control and the newly independent Montenegro
Montenegro
Montenegro Montenegrin: Crna Gora Црна Гора , meaning "Black Mountain") is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and is bordered by Croatia to the west, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the northwest, Serbia to the northeast and Albania to the...
has expressed its wish for improving relations with Croatia. However, there is still no agreement between the two countries involving war reparations. In 2000, Milo Đukanović as president of Montenegro
President of Montenegro
-Presidents of Montenegro:-See also:*President of Serbia and Montenegro*President of Yugoslavia*List of Presidents of Montenegro*Prime Minister of Montenegro-External links:*...
apologized to Croatia for the siege. In 2007, Montenegrin filmmaker Koča Pavlović released Rat za mir about the role of Montenegrin officials in the siege.
War crime charges
In 2001, at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former YugoslaviaInternational Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
The International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991, more commonly referred to as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia or ICTY, is a...
(ICTY), prosecutor Carla Del Ponte
Carla Del Ponte
Carla Del Ponte is a former Chief Prosecutor of two United Nations international criminal law tribunals. A former Swiss attorney general, she was appointed prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in August...
charged four JNA commanders for their role in the siege: Pavle Strugar
Pavle Strugar
Pavle Strugar is a retired Montenegrin general in the Yugoslav People's Army who was found guilty of war crimes for his role in the siege of Dubrovnik....
, Miodrag Jokić
Miodrag Jokić
Miodrag Jokić is a convicted war criminal who was the Montenegrin general in the Yugoslav People's Army during the 1991 siege of Dubrovnik...
, Milan Zec, and Vladimir Kovačević
Vladimir Kovacevic
For the SFR Yugoslavia footballer, see Vladimir Kovačević Vladimir Kovačević is a Montenegrin Serb military officer who was charged with violation of the laws of war by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia for his actions in the siege of Dubrovnik during the Croatian War of...
.
- General Pavle Strugar was sentenced to eight years for his role in the shelling of the city.
- Miodrag Jokić (commander of JNA Naval District) was sentenced to seven years.
- The indictment against Yugoslav Navy Captain Milan Zec was withdrawn in July 2002.
- Vladimir Kovačević (commander of Third Battalion 472nd Motorized JNA Brigade) was accused together with Strugar for war crimes, but his case was transferred to the Courts of SerbiaSerbiaSerbia , officially the Republic of Serbia , is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans...
. He was found to be unable to stand trial due to insanity and was transferred to a mental asylum.
Croatian authorities issued arrest warrants for numerous former JNA officers and commanders. In 2011, Božidar Vučurević, former war-time mayor of Trebinje
Trebinje
Trebinje is the southernmost municipality and town in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is administratively part of the Republika Srpska entity and is located in southeastern Herzegovina, some from the Adriatic Sea....
, was arrested at a border crossing by Serb officials based on Croatian charges of bombing Dubrovnik.
Movies and documentaries
- "War for Peace" (2007); a Montenegrin documentary by Koča Pavlović.
- "War for Dubrovnik" (2010); a Montenegrin documentary by Snežana Rakonjac.
External links
- Second Amended Indictment against P. Strugar and V. Kovačević, includes a list of damaged religious, art and education buildings and monuments in the UNESCO-protected old city
- Publication "Dubrovnik: War for peace" on the siege of Dubrovnik, published by the Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in SerbiaHelsinki Committee for Human Rights in SerbiaHelsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia is a volunteer, non-profit organization concerned with human rights issues in Serbia. It was formed in September 1994 as one of many national Helsinki Committees for Human Rights formerly organized into the now-defunct International Helsinki...
- United Nations report on the battle