Sino-Tibetan War
Encyclopedia
The Sino–Tibetan War occurred in 1930–1932 when the Tibetan army under the 13th Dalai Lama invaded Xikang
and Yushu
in Qinghai
in a dispute over monasteries. The Ma clique
warlord Ma Bufang
secretly sent a telegram to the Sichuan
warlord Liu Wenhui
, and the leader of the Republic of China
, Chiang Kai-shek
, suggesting a joint attack on the Tibetan forces. Their armies rapidly overran and defeated the Tibetan forces.
, with the Tibetan government in principle claiming all of the lands inhabited by Tibetans, much of which was in fact ruled by Chinese warlords loosely aligned with the Republic; in the tense relationship between the 13th Dalai Lama and the 9th Panchen Lama, which had led to the latter's exile in Chinese-controlled territory; and in the complexities of power politics among local Tibetan dignitaries, both religious and secular. The proximate cause was that the chieftain of Beri, a Tibetan area beyond the Tibetan government's control, seized the properties of the incarnate lama of Nyarong Monastery, who sought support from nearby Dhargyä Monastery. The chieftain of Beri was allegedly incited by supporters of the 9th Panchen Lama. When the Nyarong Lama and monks from Dhargyä Monastery seized back control of Nyarong Monastery in June 1930, the chieftain of Beri responded by requesting help from the local Chinese warlord, Liu Wenhui
, the governor of Sichuan
. Liu's forces quickly took control of the area. The Dhargyä monks in turn requested the aid of the Tibetan government, whose forces entered Beri and drove Liu Wenhui's army out.
During this period, Liu Wenhui's army fought against Tibetan forces. Kuomintang
Muslim official Tang Kesan
was sent to negotiate for an end to the fighting. Ma Xiao
was a Muslim brigade commander in Liu Wenhui's army. The Muslim General Ma Fuxiang
, as head of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission
, sent a telegraph to Muslim Kuomintang official Tang Kesan
ordering him to breach the agreement with Tibet, because he was concerned that political rivals in Nanjing were using the incident.
After warring against Liu Wenhui, the Tibetans were defeated several times. In 1932, Tibet made the decision to expand the war into Qinghai against Ma Bufang. A variety of reasons for this move was speculated upon.
province, following contention in Yushu, Qinghai over a monastery in 1932. Ma Bufang and Liu saw this as an opportunity to retake Xikang for China. Under General Ma, the 9th Division (Kokonor), was prepared for a offensive against the Tibetans. (Kokonor is another name for Qinghai. The army of Ma Bufang's vanquished the Tibetan armies and recaptured several counties in Xikang
province. Shiqu, Dengke, and other counties were reseized from the Tibetans. Ma Bufang's army was entirely composed of Muslims. The Tibetans were pushed back to the other side of the Jinsha river. The Qinghai army recaptured counties that had fallen into the hands of the Tibetan army since 1919. Ma and Liu warned Tibetan officials not to dare cross the Jinsha river
again. Ma Bufang defeated the Tibetans at Dan Chokorgon. Several Tibetan generals surrendered then were demoted by the Dalai Lama. By August, the Tibetans lost so much land to Liu Wenhui and Ma Bufang's forces that the Dalai Lama telegraphed the British government of India
for assistance. British pressure led to Nanjing
to declare a ceasefire. Separate truces were signed by Ma and Liu with the Tibetans in 1933, ending the fighting.
The Chinese government and Ma Bufang accused the British of supplying weapons and arms to the Tibetans throughout the war. There was a sound basis for that accusation: in addition to persistent diplomatic effort encouraging both parties to refrain from hostilities and make a comprehensive settlement, the British government, and later, India, provided some military training and small quantities of arms and ammunition to Tibet throughout the 1912 to 1950 period of de facto Tibetan independence.
Xikang
Xikang or Sikang , is a defunct province of the Republic of China , comprising most of the Kham region of traditional Tibet, where Khampas, a subgroup of the Tibetan ethnicity, live. The area is also home to a small minority of Mongol ethnicity...
and Yushu
Yushu
Yushu may refer to the following locations in China:*Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture , in Qinghai*Yushu, Jilin , city in Jilin*Yushu County , in Qinghai*Yushu Town, the name of a number of towns...
in Qinghai
Qinghai
Qinghai ; Oirat Mongolian: ; ; Salar:) is a province of the People's Republic of China, named after Qinghai Lake...
in a dispute over monasteries. The Ma clique
Ma clique
The Ma clique or Ma family warlords is a collective name for a group of Muslim warlords in Northwestern China who ruled the Chinese provinces of Qinghai, Gansu and Ningxia from the 1910s until 1949. There were 3 families in the Ma clique , each of them respectively controlled 3 areas, Gansu,...
warlord Ma Bufang
Ma Bufang
Ma Bufang was a prominent Muslim Ma clique warlord in China during the Republic of China era, ruling the northwestern province of Qinghai. His rank was Lieutenant-general...
secretly sent a telegram to the Sichuan
Sichuan
' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu...
warlord Liu Wenhui
Liu Wenhui
Liu Wenhui was one of the warlords of Sichuan province during China's Warlord era. Liu who rose to prominence in Sichuan in the 1920s and 1930s, came from a peasant family. At the beginning of his career, he was aligned with the Kuomintang , commanding the Sichuan-Xikang Defence Force from 1927 to...
, and the leader of the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
, Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek was a political and military leader of 20th century China. He is known as Jiǎng Jièshí or Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng in Mandarin....
, suggesting a joint attack on the Tibetan forces. Their armies rapidly overran and defeated the Tibetan forces.
Conflict
The roots of the conflict lay in the disputed border between Tibetan government territory and the territory of the Republic of ChinaRepublican period
Republican period may refer to many periods in several nations, including:# The Roman Republic.# The French Republic.# Republican China.# Any of several periods in the United States where the Republican Party controlled the federal government, or within individual US states or local governments...
, with the Tibetan government in principle claiming all of the lands inhabited by Tibetans, much of which was in fact ruled by Chinese warlords loosely aligned with the Republic; in the tense relationship between the 13th Dalai Lama and the 9th Panchen Lama, which had led to the latter's exile in Chinese-controlled territory; and in the complexities of power politics among local Tibetan dignitaries, both religious and secular. The proximate cause was that the chieftain of Beri, a Tibetan area beyond the Tibetan government's control, seized the properties of the incarnate lama of Nyarong Monastery, who sought support from nearby Dhargyä Monastery. The chieftain of Beri was allegedly incited by supporters of the 9th Panchen Lama. When the Nyarong Lama and monks from Dhargyä Monastery seized back control of Nyarong Monastery in June 1930, the chieftain of Beri responded by requesting help from the local Chinese warlord, Liu Wenhui
Liu Wenhui
Liu Wenhui was one of the warlords of Sichuan province during China's Warlord era. Liu who rose to prominence in Sichuan in the 1920s and 1930s, came from a peasant family. At the beginning of his career, he was aligned with the Kuomintang , commanding the Sichuan-Xikang Defence Force from 1927 to...
, the governor of Sichuan
Sichuan
' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu...
. Liu's forces quickly took control of the area. The Dhargyä monks in turn requested the aid of the Tibetan government, whose forces entered Beri and drove Liu Wenhui's army out.
During this period, Liu Wenhui's army fought against Tibetan forces. Kuomintang
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
Muslim official Tang Kesan
Tang Kesan
Tang Kesan was a Chinese Muslim. In Xikang province during the Sino-Tibetan War Tang Kesan represented the Kuomintang.- Career :Tang was a Muslim from Shandong province, and he promoted Muslim education. He worked with Muslim General Bai Chongxi...
was sent to negotiate for an end to the fighting. Ma Xiao
Ma Xiao
Ma Xiao was a Chinese muslim brigade commander in Liu Wenhui's army. He fought against the Tibetan army in the Sino-Tibetan War.-References:...
was a Muslim brigade commander in Liu Wenhui's army. The Muslim General Ma Fuxiang
Ma Fuxiang
Ma Fuxiang . Ma, a Dongxiang muslim leader, had a military and political career which spanned the Qing dynasty through the early Republic of China and illustrated the power of family, the role of religious affiliations, and the interaction of Inner Asian China and the national government of...
, as head of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission
Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission
The Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission is one of two ministry-level commissions of the Executive Yuan in the Republic of China. Inaugural addresses are delivered by the Chairman of the Commission...
, sent a telegraph to Muslim Kuomintang official Tang Kesan
Tang Kesan
Tang Kesan was a Chinese Muslim. In Xikang province during the Sino-Tibetan War Tang Kesan represented the Kuomintang.- Career :Tang was a Muslim from Shandong province, and he promoted Muslim education. He worked with Muslim General Bai Chongxi...
ordering him to breach the agreement with Tibet, because he was concerned that political rivals in Nanjing were using the incident.
After warring against Liu Wenhui, the Tibetans were defeated several times. In 1932, Tibet made the decision to expand the war into Qinghai against Ma Bufang. A variety of reasons for this move was speculated upon.
Qinghai – Tibet War
When the ceasefire negotiated by Tang failed, Tibet expanded the war, attempting to capture parts of southern QinghaiQinghai
Qinghai ; Oirat Mongolian: ; ; Salar:) is a province of the People's Republic of China, named after Qinghai Lake...
province, following contention in Yushu, Qinghai over a monastery in 1932. Ma Bufang and Liu saw this as an opportunity to retake Xikang for China. Under General Ma, the 9th Division (Kokonor), was prepared for a offensive against the Tibetans. (Kokonor is another name for Qinghai. The army of Ma Bufang's vanquished the Tibetan armies and recaptured several counties in Xikang
Xikang
Xikang or Sikang , is a defunct province of the Republic of China , comprising most of the Kham region of traditional Tibet, where Khampas, a subgroup of the Tibetan ethnicity, live. The area is also home to a small minority of Mongol ethnicity...
province. Shiqu, Dengke, and other counties were reseized from the Tibetans. Ma Bufang's army was entirely composed of Muslims. The Tibetans were pushed back to the other side of the Jinsha river. The Qinghai army recaptured counties that had fallen into the hands of the Tibetan army since 1919. Ma and Liu warned Tibetan officials not to dare cross the Jinsha river
Jinsha River
Jinsha River is the westernmost of the major headwater streams of the Yangtze River, southwestern China.Its headwaters rise in the Wulan and Kekexili ranges in western Qinghai province, to the south of the Kunlun Mountains, and on the northern slope of the Tanggula Mountains on the border of the...
again. Ma Bufang defeated the Tibetans at Dan Chokorgon. Several Tibetan generals surrendered then were demoted by the Dalai Lama. By August, the Tibetans lost so much land to Liu Wenhui and Ma Bufang's forces that the Dalai Lama telegraphed the British government of India
British Raj
British Raj was the British rule in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947; The term can also refer to the period of dominion...
for assistance. British pressure led to Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
to declare a ceasefire. Separate truces were signed by Ma and Liu with the Tibetans in 1933, ending the fighting.
The Chinese government and Ma Bufang accused the British of supplying weapons and arms to the Tibetans throughout the war. There was a sound basis for that accusation: in addition to persistent diplomatic effort encouraging both parties to refrain from hostilities and make a comprehensive settlement, the British government, and later, India, provided some military training and small quantities of arms and ammunition to Tibet throughout the 1912 to 1950 period of de facto Tibetan independence.