Ma Fuxiang
Encyclopedia
Ma Fuxiang . Ma, a Dongxiang
muslim
leader, had a military and political career which spanned the Qing dynasty
through the early Republic of China
and illustrated the power of family, the role of religious affiliations, and the interaction of Inner Asian China and the national government of China.
Ma was born in Linxia, Gansu
, China. He was named the military governor of Xining
, and then of Altay
, in Qing times. He held a large number of military posts in the northwestern region after the founding of the republic
. He was governor of Qinghai
in 1912, Ningxia
from 1912 to 1920, and Suiyuan from 1920 to 1925. Having turned to Chiang Kai-shek
in 1928, he was made chairman (governor) of the government of Anhui
in 1930. He was elected a member of the National Government Commission, and then appointed the mayor of Qingdao
, special municipality. He was also the president of the Mongolian-Tibetan Commission and a member of the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang. He died in August 1932.
, they are Mongol muslims.
Schram reported that Ma Fuxiang's Sarta ancestors belonged to a group of Mongols who converted to Islam under threat of losing their lives during the Qianlong Emperor's rule (1736–1796), since the area where they lived, around Hezhou, was dominated from Salar rebels at the time. Another separate group of Mongol muslims existed in Hezhou's east, whose leaders claimed a lineage from the Yuan dynasty royal family.He claimed himself as a Hui
, with no mention of his Sarta
Mongol ancestors.
. His elder brothers were Ma Fucai(馬福財), Ma Fulu
and Ma Fushou
. He received an education in the Quran and Spring and Autumn Annals
. In 1889, Ma Fuxiang joined Ma Fulu in the martial arts hall, after three years, he and Ma Fushou attended military school. In 1895, he served under general Dong Fuxiang
, leading loyalist Chinese Muslims to crush a revolt by rebel Chinese Muslims and Salars. His loyalist Muslim troops massacred the rebel Muslims, delivering their severed heads and ears to their superiors. In 1897 Ma Fuxiang received a military Juren degree.
Ma graduated in military science, having passed provincial examinations. Under the Qing dynasty was Brigadier General at Palikum, New Dominion. (Xinjiang). He received his military training at Military School in Kansu.
Ma was transferred along with his brother Ma Fulu and several cousins as officers under General Dong Fuxiang
to Beijing
in 1898. During the Boxer Rebellion
, the Muslim troops came to be known as the "Kansu Braves", and fought against the Eight Nation Alliance. Ma Fuxiang killed many foreigners in combat. Ma led a cavalry charge against a western European army at the Battle of Langfang
, defeating them and forcing the Europeans to flee. He and Ma Fulu personally planned and led the attack, with a pincer movement around they European force. The western invasion of Peking was derailed by his efforts for another several months. Ma Fulu and four of his cousins were killed in action, in 1900 in Beijing during the Battle of Peking (1900). He had commanded a brigade, Ma Fuxiang took over his position after his death. Ma Fulu's command was taken over by Ma Fuxiang. For the rest of the Boxer War his unit engaged in the Siege of the International Legations (Boxer Rebellion). He escorted the imperial family to Xi'an
.
In March 1909, Palikun, Xinjiang, he served as a "Brigade General". In July- August 1912, Ma was "Acting Chief Executive Officer of Kokonur" (de facto governor of Kokonor, later Qinghai
Province). On October 10, 1912, he was in Altai, as the "Commader of the Guards Division".
in 1912, Ma Fuxiang protected a Catholic mission from attacks by the Gelaohui
in the Sandaohe district, and he also protected another Catholic mission from attacks in 1916.
He and his nephew Ma Hongbin
received the Order of Leopold (Belgium) for their work.
Ma Fuxiang was named military commander of Ningxia
by president Yuan Shikai
. Ma captured a Mongol separatist in Baotou
and executed a Mongol prince who tried to declare himself emperor. The Mongol prince who pretended to be the Emperor was Wu Ta-er Liu-chi(Wu Daer Liuji) who was a Buddhist monk. He was supported by the bandit Kao Shih-hsiu(Gao Shixiu). Ma Fuxiang defeated Kao in Ningxia in 1916, and the Mongol princes of Otoy, Üüsin, and Qanggin extended their allegiance to the fake emperor, presenting him with rifles. On June 19, 1916, Kao arrived with his Emperor, severely defeated by Ma Fushou
, the brother of Ma Fuxiang,withdrew through Otoy to Sandaohe. In 1917, Kao was defeated at Shizzuizi, the Emperor and Kao's underlings were executed, and Kao fled.
Ma Fuxiang's book, Shuofang Daozhi, portrays these events. An account written by Frenchman Harry Serruys describes the events.
He and Ma Yuanzhang became enemies after Ma Fuxiang became very angry that Ma Yuanzhang refused to help him remove Zhang Guangjian as governor of Gansu
and telegraphed Beijing that Zhang should remaining as Governor. Ma Fuxiang and other Gansu Generals believed a local dujun Gansu person should be governor.
He invested in the wool trade and a match making factory.
Ma was appointed Military Governor of Suiyuan by the Beiyang
government, from 1920–1922. Suiyuan had a four hundred mile river valley and a railroad. American businessmen reported that Ma Fuxiang considered modernizing infrastructure in the region with motorized transport.
Ma Fuxiang, a member of the Zhili clique, signed a denunciation of the Anhui clique
, and its military arm, the Anfu Club led by Xu Shuzheng
and Duan Qirui
. The denunciation was circulated through a telegram called Paoting-fu, on July 12, 1920. The Zhili clique was led by Wu Peifu
. At the time, Ma was Defense Commissioner of Ningxia
, Gansu
. This led to the Zhili–Anhui War.
Ma Fuxiang, as supervisor in Suiyuan, sent telegrams regarding the uniting of Rehe and Chahar for defense purposes from January to September 1924.
Ma Fuxiang allied with General Wu Peifu
, and acquired land from the political separation of Inner Mongolia from Zhang Zuolin
. Ma Fuxiang's nephew Ma Hongbin was in charge of his army, and his civil administrator was a non Muslim. Ma Hongbin read to Upton Close the revelations of prophet in Shandong, who advocated the union of Buddhism, Islam, Daoism. Catholicism and Protestantism in China under Confucianism.
Ma Fuxiang's wife died in 1927 in Beijing
, and a funeral was held in Hochow. She was one of his multiple wives.
during the Northern Expedition in 1928. Ma Fuxiang and his son Ma Hongkui
were originally generals in Feng Yuxiang
's army. He became a member of the Kuomintang Central Committee, member of the State Council, Mayor of Qingdao
, Governor of Anhui
, and chairman of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission
. Ma Fuxiang founded Islamic organizations sponsored by the Kuomintang, including the China Islamic Association (Zhongguo Huijiao Gonghui).
Ma was governor of Anhui
from March to September 1930.
In Nanjing
on April 1931 Ma Fuxiang attended a national leadership conference, with Chiang Kai-shek
and Zhang Xueliang
.
Ma gave the explorer Sven Hedin
permission to enter Gansu
.
Ma was also appointed as a member of the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang.
. Chinese Muslims from Hezhou served in his cavalry army.
Dongxiang people were also known as Santa (San-t'a) people, it was reported that many of them served in the army of General Ma Fuxiang. It was even said that Ma Fuxiang himself was of Santa descent, who had assimilated into the Hui community. The Santa Muslim Dongxiang Mongols continued to play a major role in his army, protecting towns.
Among the posts he held was Commander of the 6th Mixed Brigade of Gansu Army in 1922 and 7th Division of the Northwest Army in 1926
from Baotou
found out that Ma Fuxiang was assisting the drug trade in opium
which helped finance his military expenses. He earned a sum of $2 million from taxing those sales in 1923. General Ma had been using the Bank, a branch of the Government of China's exchequer, to arrange for silver curreny to be transported to Baotou to use it to sponsor the trade.
It was hoped that Ma Fuxiang would have improved the situation, since Chinese muslims were well known for opposition to smoking opium
Ma Fuxiang officially prohibited opium and made it illegal in Ningxia
, but the Guominjun
reversed his policy, by 1933, people from every level of society was abusing the drug, Ningxia was left in destitution
On September 11, 1930, Ma Fuxiang celebrated his birthday in Suiyuan, Inner Mongolia, His annual opium profits reached $15,000,000. A video of this event and his poppy fields was recorded by Universal Newspaper Newsreel.
Many of the opium runners in western Inner Mongolia were Chinese Muslims. They appeared consistently in Ma Fuxiang's army.
sponsored Imam Wang Jingzhai when he went on hajj to Mecca in 1921.
Ma Fuxiang supported Imam Hu Songshan
.
Ma built many elementary and high schools for Muslims throughout northwest China.He founded the Association for the Promoting of Islamic Teaching in 1918 in the provincial capital of Gansu. Ma Fuxiang funded both the Yuehua and Beijing's Xibei Gongxue (the Northwestern Middle School) for fostering Hui intellectuals who would contribute to nation-building and the development of the Northwest. Ma Fuxiang believed that modern education would help Hui Chinese build a better society and help China resist foreign imperialism and help build the nation. He had both the military authority and economic power to help fund education. Ma Fuxiang donated fund of one hundred yuans every month to education until his death in 1932.
He established a public library in Ningxia, and sponsored various Muslim schools. Ma Fuxiang was a Chinese nationalist and a Confucianist, and was praised for his "guojia yizhi" (national consciousness) by non Muslims. He also invested in new editions of Confucian and Islamic texts. He edited Shuofang Daozhi., a gazette, and books such as Meng Cang ZhuangKuang: Hui Bu Xinjiang fu.
A new edition of a book by Ma Te-hsin, called Ho-yin Ma Fu-ch'u hsien-sheng i-shu Ta hua tsung kuei Ssu tien yaohui, which was printed in 1865 was reprinted in 1927 by Ma Fuxiang.
Yunting (雲亭) was the courtesy name of Ma Fuxiang, a school, the Yunting Provincial Normal School was named after him.
Ma Fuxiang did not drink wine or smoke tobacco, but he served them to western guests like Upton Close.
The learned "scholar" General Ma Fuxiang was considered "progressive" while the senior (de facto leader of muslims in Northwest China), Muslim General Ma Anliang
was considered "reactionary".
.
Ma Fuxiang had a son Ma Hongkui
who became a general in the National Revolutionary Army.
Ma Fuxiang had several wives, one of them died in 1927 in Beijing
, and a funeral was held in Hochow., another one, Ma Tsai (te), was the wife who gave birth to Ma Hongkui on Mar. 14, 1892. She died in 1948.
His nephew was Ma Hongbin
, another General.
His brothers were Ma Fulu
, Ma Fushou
, and Ma Fucai.
Ma Fuxiang became a sworn brother of President Chiang Kaishek.
Ma Fuxiang became so prominent and well known that some Jewish organizations in the United States tried to claim (falsely) that his father was Jewish.
and Tibet
were parts of the Republic of China
:
During the Sino-Tibetan War
, Ma Fuxiang, as head of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission, sent a telegraph to Muslim Kuomintang official Tang Kesan
ordering him to breach the agreement with Tibet, because he was concerned that political rivals in Nanjing were using the incident.
to receive medical treatment, from Chikungsan around Hankou.
Dongxiang people
The Dongxiang people are one of 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China...
muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
leader, had a military and political career which spanned the Qing dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
through the early Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
and illustrated the power of family, the role of religious affiliations, and the interaction of Inner Asian China and the national government of China.
Ma was born in Linxia, Gansu
Gansu
' is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.It lies between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, and Shaanxi to the east...
, China. He was named the military governor of Xining
Xining
Xining is the capital of Qinghai province, People's Republic of China, and the largest city on the Tibetan Plateau. It has 2,208,708 inhabitants at the 2010 census whom 1,198,304 live in the built up area made of 4 urban districts.-History:...
, and then of Altay
Altay, Xinjiang
Altay or Aletai is a county-level city in Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, in the People's Republic of China. It is the administrative centre of Altay Prefecture, and has 142,000 inhabitants.-Climate:...
, in Qing times. He held a large number of military posts in the northwestern region after the founding of the republic
History of the Republic of China
The History of the Republic of China begins after the Qing Dynasty in 1912, when the formation of the Republic of China put an end to over two thousand years of Imperial rule. The Qing Dynasty, also known as the Manchu Dynasty, ruled from 1644 to 1912...
. He was governor of Qinghai
Qinghai
Qinghai ; Oirat Mongolian: ; ; Salar:) is a province of the People's Republic of China, named after Qinghai Lake...
in 1912, Ningxia
Ningxia
Ningxia, formerly transliterated as Ningsia, is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Located in Northwest China, on the Loess Plateau, the Yellow River flows through this vast area of land. The Great Wall of China runs along its northeastern boundary...
from 1912 to 1920, and Suiyuan from 1920 to 1925. Having turned to Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek was a political and military leader of 20th century China. He is known as Jiǎng Jièshí or Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng in Mandarin....
in 1928, he was made chairman (governor) of the government of Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
in 1930. He was elected a member of the National Government Commission, and then appointed the mayor of Qingdao
Qingdao
' also known in the West by its postal map spelling Tsingtao, is a major city with a population of over 8.715 million in eastern Shandong province, Eastern China. Its built up area, made of 7 urban districts plus Jimo city, is home to about 4,346,000 inhabitants in 2010.It borders Yantai to the...
, special municipality. He was also the president of the Mongolian-Tibetan Commission and a member of the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang. He died in August 1932.
Family history
It was said by American scholar Louis M. J. Schram that Ma Fuxiang himself was of Sarta descent. The Sarta (Sar-t'a) people are known as the Dongxiang peopleDongxiang people
The Dongxiang people are one of 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China...
, they are Mongol muslims.
Schram reported that Ma Fuxiang's Sarta ancestors belonged to a group of Mongols who converted to Islam under threat of losing their lives during the Qianlong Emperor's rule (1736–1796), since the area where they lived, around Hezhou, was dominated from Salar rebels at the time. Another separate group of Mongol muslims existed in Hezhou's east, whose leaders claimed a lineage from the Yuan dynasty royal family.He claimed himself as a Hui
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
, with no mention of his Sarta
Dongxiang people
The Dongxiang people are one of 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China...
Mongol ancestors.
Qing Dynasty
Ma Fuxiang was the son of Ma QianlingMa Qianling
Ma Qianling was a Dongxiang Muslim General who defected to the Qing Dynasty in 1872 during the Dungan revolt along with his superior General Ma Zhanao and General Ma Haiyan. He then assisted General Zuo Zongtang in crushing the rebel Muslims. His trading activities were a success...
. His elder brothers were Ma Fucai(馬福財), Ma Fulu
Ma Fulu
Ma Fulu , a Hui, was the son of General Ma Qianling, and the brother of Ma Fucai, Ma Fushou, and Ma Fuxiang. He joined the martial arts hall and attended military school. In 1895, he served under general Dong Fuxiang, leading loyalist Chinese Muslims to crush a revolt by rebel Chinese Muslims and...
and Ma Fushou
Ma Fushou
Ma Fushou , a Hui, was the son of General Ma Qianling, and the brother of Ma Fucai, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang. He joined the martial arts hall and attended military school after three years of training in 1892....
. He received an education in the Quran and Spring and Autumn Annals
Spring and Autumn Annals
The Spring and Autumn Annals is the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period from 722 BCE to 481 BCE. It is the earliest surviving Chinese historical text to be arranged on annalistic principles. The text is extremely concise and, if all the commentaries are excluded, about 16,000...
. In 1889, Ma Fuxiang joined Ma Fulu in the martial arts hall, after three years, he and Ma Fushou attended military school. In 1895, he served under general Dong Fuxiang
Dong Fuxiang
Dong Fuxiang , a Chinese, was born Gansu, China. He commanded an army of Chinese Muslim soldiers, which included the later Ma clique generals Ma Anliang and Ma Fuxiang. According to the Western calendar, his birth date is in 1839.- Religion :Conflicting accounts are given about his religion and...
, leading loyalist Chinese Muslims to crush a revolt by rebel Chinese Muslims and Salars. His loyalist Muslim troops massacred the rebel Muslims, delivering their severed heads and ears to their superiors. In 1897 Ma Fuxiang received a military Juren degree.
Ma graduated in military science, having passed provincial examinations. Under the Qing dynasty was Brigadier General at Palikum, New Dominion. (Xinjiang). He received his military training at Military School in Kansu.
Ma was transferred along with his brother Ma Fulu and several cousins as officers under General Dong Fuxiang
Dong Fuxiang
Dong Fuxiang , a Chinese, was born Gansu, China. He commanded an army of Chinese Muslim soldiers, which included the later Ma clique generals Ma Anliang and Ma Fuxiang. According to the Western calendar, his birth date is in 1839.- Religion :Conflicting accounts are given about his religion and...
to Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
in 1898. During the Boxer Rebellion
Boxer Rebellion
The Boxer Rebellion, also called the Boxer Uprising by some historians or the Righteous Harmony Society Movement in northern China, was a proto-nationalist movement by the "Righteous Harmony Society" , or "Righteous Fists of Harmony" or "Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists" , in China between...
, the Muslim troops came to be known as the "Kansu Braves", and fought against the Eight Nation Alliance. Ma Fuxiang killed many foreigners in combat. Ma led a cavalry charge against a western European army at the Battle of Langfang
Battle of Langfang
The Seymour Expedition, also known as the First Intervention, was an attempt by a multi-national military force to march to Beijing and protect the diplomatic legations and foreign nationals in the city from attacks by Boxers in 1900...
, defeating them and forcing the Europeans to flee. He and Ma Fulu personally planned and led the attack, with a pincer movement around they European force. The western invasion of Peking was derailed by his efforts for another several months. Ma Fulu and four of his cousins were killed in action, in 1900 in Beijing during the Battle of Peking (1900). He had commanded a brigade, Ma Fuxiang took over his position after his death. Ma Fulu's command was taken over by Ma Fuxiang. For the rest of the Boxer War his unit engaged in the Siege of the International Legations (Boxer Rebellion). He escorted the imperial family to Xi'an
Xi'an
Xi'an is the capital of the Shaanxi province, and a sub-provincial city in the People's Republic of China. One of the oldest cities in China, with more than 3,100 years of history, the city was known as Chang'an before the Ming Dynasty...
.
In March 1909, Palikun, Xinjiang, he served as a "Brigade General". In July- August 1912, Ma was "Acting Chief Executive Officer of Kokonur" (de facto governor of Kokonor, later Qinghai
Qinghai
Qinghai ; Oirat Mongolian: ; ; Salar:) is a province of the People's Republic of China, named after Qinghai Lake...
Province). On October 10, 1912, he was in Altai, as the "Commader of the Guards Division".
Beiyang
During the Xinhai RevolutionXinhai Revolution
The Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution, also known as Revolution of 1911 or the Chinese Revolution, was a revolution that overthrew China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing , and established the Republic of China...
in 1912, Ma Fuxiang protected a Catholic mission from attacks by the Gelaohui
Gelaohui
The Gelaohui , also called Futaubang, or Hatchet Gang , as every member allegedly carried a small hatchet inside the sleeve, was a secret society and underground resistance movement associated with the revolutionary Tongmenghui led by Sun Yat-sen and Song Jiaoren.Originating in western china,...
in the Sandaohe district, and he also protected another Catholic mission from attacks in 1916.
He and his nephew Ma Hongbin
Ma Hongbin
Ma Hongbin , was a prominent muslim Ma clique warlord in China during the Republic of China era. He was the acting Chairman of Gansu and Ningxia Provinces for a short period.- Life :...
received the Order of Leopold (Belgium) for their work.
Ma Fuxiang was named military commander of Ningxia
Ningxia
Ningxia, formerly transliterated as Ningsia, is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Located in Northwest China, on the Loess Plateau, the Yellow River flows through this vast area of land. The Great Wall of China runs along its northeastern boundary...
by president Yuan Shikai
Yuan Shikai
Yuan Shikai was an important Chinese general and politician famous for his influence during the late Qing Dynasty, his role in the events leading up to the abdication of the last Qing Emperor of China, his autocratic rule as the second President of the Republic of China , and his short-lived...
. Ma captured a Mongol separatist in Baotou
Baotou
Baotou is a mid-sized industrial city in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, its urban areas are home to a population of approximately 1.78 million, with a total population of over 2.65 million accounting for counties under...
and executed a Mongol prince who tried to declare himself emperor. The Mongol prince who pretended to be the Emperor was Wu Ta-er Liu-chi(Wu Daer Liuji) who was a Buddhist monk. He was supported by the bandit Kao Shih-hsiu(Gao Shixiu). Ma Fuxiang defeated Kao in Ningxia in 1916, and the Mongol princes of Otoy, Üüsin, and Qanggin extended their allegiance to the fake emperor, presenting him with rifles. On June 19, 1916, Kao arrived with his Emperor, severely defeated by Ma Fushou
Ma Fushou
Ma Fushou , a Hui, was the son of General Ma Qianling, and the brother of Ma Fucai, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang. He joined the martial arts hall and attended military school after three years of training in 1892....
, the brother of Ma Fuxiang,withdrew through Otoy to Sandaohe. In 1917, Kao was defeated at Shizzuizi, the Emperor and Kao's underlings were executed, and Kao fled.
Ma Fuxiang's book, Shuofang Daozhi, portrays these events. An account written by Frenchman Harry Serruys describes the events.
"Ma Fuxiang, the commander of the Protective Army, dispatched Ma FushouMa FushouMa Fushou , a Hui, was the son of General Ma Qianling, and the brother of Ma Fucai, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang. He joined the martial arts hall and attended military school after three years of training in 1892....
, chief of staff of the Brilliant Military Army to attack the robbers in Zuuqa temple. Ma Fuxiang dispatched Fushou with an army to attack Kao's army at zuuqa temple, and destroyed the band.In the second month of 1917, Ma Fuxiang executed Wu Daer Liuji. Ma Fuxiang dispatched his nephew Ma HongbinMa HongbinMa Hongbin , was a prominent muslim Ma clique warlord in China during the Republic of China era. He was the acting Chairman of Gansu and Ningxia Provinces for a short period.- Life :...
to attack Kao and Wu at Shizuishan. When Liu-chi was defeated, Ma Fuxiang ambushed him and defeated him again. Ma Fuxiang captured Yu Ling-yun, Su Xuefeng, Yao Zhankui, Zhang Zhenqing, Li Zongwen, and several others, in all 18 men were executed. Ma Fuxiang wrote a commemorative inscription for men from Ningxia who died in the expedition against the bogus Emperor. In the third month of the sixth year of the Republic (1917), Ma Fuxiang was at the burial of his mother. As he reached Ning'anbu, Ma Hongbin sent him a telegram stating that the bogus emperor and the other bogus generals had mounted an invasion from Suiyuan. After the victory, officers in charge of military headquarters and regular soldiers were honored."
He and Ma Yuanzhang became enemies after Ma Fuxiang became very angry that Ma Yuanzhang refused to help him remove Zhang Guangjian as governor of Gansu
Gansu
' is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.It lies between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, and Shaanxi to the east...
and telegraphed Beijing that Zhang should remaining as Governor. Ma Fuxiang and other Gansu Generals believed a local dujun Gansu person should be governor.
He invested in the wool trade and a match making factory.
Ma was appointed Military Governor of Suiyuan by the Beiyang
Beiyang
The term Beiyang originated toward the end of the Qing Dynasty, and it referred to the coastal areas of Zhili , Liaoning, and Shandong in northeast China....
government, from 1920–1922. Suiyuan had a four hundred mile river valley and a railroad. American businessmen reported that Ma Fuxiang considered modernizing infrastructure in the region with motorized transport.
Ma Fuxiang, a member of the Zhili clique, signed a denunciation of the Anhui clique
Anhui clique
The Anhui clique was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's Warlord era. It was named after Anhui province because several of its generals including its founder, Duan Qirui, was born in Anhui...
, and its military arm, the Anfu Club led by Xu Shuzheng
Xu Shuzheng
Hsu Seu-Cheng or Xu Shuzheng , was a Chinese warlord in Republican China. A subordinate and right-hand man of Duan Qirui, he was a prominent member of the Anhui Clique....
and Duan Qirui
Duan Qirui
Duan Qirui was a Chinese warlord and politician, commander in the Beiyang Army, and the Provisional Chief Executive of Republic of China from November 24, 1924 to April 20, 1926. He was arguably the most powerful man in China from 1916 to 1920.- Early life :Born in Hefei as Duan Qirui , his...
. The denunciation was circulated through a telegram called Paoting-fu, on July 12, 1920. The Zhili clique was led by Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu or Wu P'ei-fu , was a major figure in the struggles between the warlords who dominated Republican China from 1916 to 1927.- Early career :...
. At the time, Ma was Defense Commissioner of Ningxia
Ningxia
Ningxia, formerly transliterated as Ningsia, is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Located in Northwest China, on the Loess Plateau, the Yellow River flows through this vast area of land. The Great Wall of China runs along its northeastern boundary...
, Gansu
Gansu
' is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.It lies between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, and Shaanxi to the east...
. This led to the Zhili–Anhui War.
Ma Fuxiang, as supervisor in Suiyuan, sent telegrams regarding the uniting of Rehe and Chahar for defense purposes from January to September 1924.
Ma Fuxiang allied with General Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu
Wu Peifu or Wu P'ei-fu , was a major figure in the struggles between the warlords who dominated Republican China from 1916 to 1927.- Early career :...
, and acquired land from the political separation of Inner Mongolia from Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin
Zhang Zuolin was the warlord of Manchuria from 1916 to 1928 . He successfully invaded China proper in October 1924 in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War. He gained control of Peking, including China's internationally recognized government, in April 1926...
. Ma Fuxiang's nephew Ma Hongbin was in charge of his army, and his civil administrator was a non Muslim. Ma Hongbin read to Upton Close the revelations of prophet in Shandong, who advocated the union of Buddhism, Islam, Daoism. Catholicism and Protestantism in China under Confucianism.
Ma Fuxiang's wife died in 1927 in Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
, and a funeral was held in Hochow. She was one of his multiple wives.
Kuomintang
Ma Fuxiang then joined the KuomintangKuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
during the Northern Expedition in 1928. Ma Fuxiang and his son Ma Hongkui
Ma Hongkui
Ma Hongkui , was a prominent warlord in China during the Republic of China era, ruling the northwestern province of Ningxia. His rank was Lieutenant-general. His courtesy name was Shao-yun .- Life :...
were originally generals in Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang
Feng Yuxiang was a warlord and leader in Republican China. He was also known as the Christian General for his zeal to convert his troops and the Betrayal General for his penchant to break with the establishment. In 1911, he was an officer in the ranks of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang Army but joined...
's army. He became a member of the Kuomintang Central Committee, member of the State Council, Mayor of Qingdao
Qingdao
' also known in the West by its postal map spelling Tsingtao, is a major city with a population of over 8.715 million in eastern Shandong province, Eastern China. Its built up area, made of 7 urban districts plus Jimo city, is home to about 4,346,000 inhabitants in 2010.It borders Yantai to the...
, Governor of Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
, and chairman of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission
Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission
The Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission is one of two ministry-level commissions of the Executive Yuan in the Republic of China. Inaugural addresses are delivered by the Chairman of the Commission...
. Ma Fuxiang founded Islamic organizations sponsored by the Kuomintang, including the China Islamic Association (Zhongguo Huijiao Gonghui).
Ma was governor of Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
from March to September 1930.
In Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
on April 1931 Ma Fuxiang attended a national leadership conference, with Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek was a political and military leader of 20th century China. He is known as Jiǎng Jièshí or Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng in Mandarin....
and Zhang Xueliang
Zhang Xueliang
Zhang Xueliang or Chang Hsüeh-liang , occasionally called Peter Hsueh Liang Chang in English, nicknamed the Young Marshal , was the effective ruler of Manchuria and much of North China after the assassination of his father, Zhang Zuolin, by the Japanese on 4 June 1928...
.
Ma gave the explorer Sven Hedin
Sven Hedin
Sven Anders Hedin KNO1kl RVO was a Swedish geographer, topographer, explorer, photographer, and travel writer, as well as an illustrator of his own works...
permission to enter Gansu
Gansu
' is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.It lies between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, and Shaanxi to the east...
.
Ma was also appointed as a member of the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang.
Army
Ma Fuxiang recruited Salars into his army, classifying them into five inner clans and eight outer clans. He designated the assimilated Tibetan-speaking Salars as the "outer" group. These Salars were both fluent in Turkish and Chinese. Some were uniformed, and had carbines, rifles, and pisols, and BinocularsBinoculars
Binoculars, field glasses or binocular telescopes are a pair of identical or mirror-symmetrical telescopes mounted side-by-side and aligned to point accurately in the same direction, allowing the viewer to use both eyes when viewing distant objects...
. Chinese Muslims from Hezhou served in his cavalry army.
Dongxiang people were also known as Santa (San-t'a) people, it was reported that many of them served in the army of General Ma Fuxiang. It was even said that Ma Fuxiang himself was of Santa descent, who had assimilated into the Hui community. The Santa Muslim Dongxiang Mongols continued to play a major role in his army, protecting towns.
Among the posts he held was Commander of the 6th Mixed Brigade of Gansu Army in 1922 and 7th Division of the Northwest Army in 1926
Drug trafficking
In 1923, an officer of the Bank of ChinaBank of China
Bank of China Limited is one of the big four state-owned commercial banks of the People's Republic of China. It was founded in 1912 by the Government of the Republic of China, to replace the Government Bank of Imperial China. It is the oldest bank in China...
from Baotou
Baotou
Baotou is a mid-sized industrial city in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, its urban areas are home to a population of approximately 1.78 million, with a total population of over 2.65 million accounting for counties under...
found out that Ma Fuxiang was assisting the drug trade in opium
Opium
Opium is the dried latex obtained from the opium poppy . Opium contains up to 12% morphine, an alkaloid, which is frequently processed chemically to produce heroin for the illegal drug trade. The latex also includes codeine and non-narcotic alkaloids such as papaverine, thebaine and noscapine...
which helped finance his military expenses. He earned a sum of $2 million from taxing those sales in 1923. General Ma had been using the Bank, a branch of the Government of China's exchequer, to arrange for silver curreny to be transported to Baotou to use it to sponsor the trade.
It was hoped that Ma Fuxiang would have improved the situation, since Chinese muslims were well known for opposition to smoking opium
Ma Fuxiang officially prohibited opium and made it illegal in Ningxia
Ningxia
Ningxia, formerly transliterated as Ningsia, is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Located in Northwest China, on the Loess Plateau, the Yellow River flows through this vast area of land. The Great Wall of China runs along its northeastern boundary...
, but the Guominjun
Guominjun
The Guominjun , a.k.a Nationalist Army, KMC, or Northwest Army , refers to the military faction founded by Feng Yuxiang, Hu Jingyi and Sun Yue during China's Warlord Era. It was formed when Feng betrayed the Zhili clique during the Second Zhili-Fengtian War with the Fengtian clique in 1924...
reversed his policy, by 1933, people from every level of society was abusing the drug, Ningxia was left in destitution
On September 11, 1930, Ma Fuxiang celebrated his birthday in Suiyuan, Inner Mongolia, His annual opium profits reached $15,000,000. A video of this event and his poppy fields was recorded by Universal Newspaper Newsreel.
Many of the opium runners in western Inner Mongolia were Chinese Muslims. They appeared consistently in Ma Fuxiang's army.
Donations to education
Ma Fuxiang along with Ma LinyiMa Linyi
Ma Linyi was a Chinese Muslim born in Hunan province during the Qing Dynasty.In 1912 he became Minister of Education of Gansu province, appointed by the Republic of China Kuomintang government....
sponsored Imam Wang Jingzhai when he went on hajj to Mecca in 1921.
Ma Fuxiang supported Imam Hu Songshan
Hu Songshan
Hu Songshan , a Hui, was born in 1880, in Tongxin County, Ningxia, China. His father was a Gansu ahong belonging to the Khafiya menhuan, a Chinese-style Sufi order. When he was 18 he joined Wang Naibi of Haicheng. At age 21, he became imam of the Yihewani sect, which was founded by Ma Wanfu...
.
Ma built many elementary and high schools for Muslims throughout northwest China.He founded the Association for the Promoting of Islamic Teaching in 1918 in the provincial capital of Gansu. Ma Fuxiang funded both the Yuehua and Beijing's Xibei Gongxue (the Northwestern Middle School) for fostering Hui intellectuals who would contribute to nation-building and the development of the Northwest. Ma Fuxiang believed that modern education would help Hui Chinese build a better society and help China resist foreign imperialism and help build the nation. He had both the military authority and economic power to help fund education. Ma Fuxiang donated fund of one hundred yuans every month to education until his death in 1932.
He established a public library in Ningxia, and sponsored various Muslim schools. Ma Fuxiang was a Chinese nationalist and a Confucianist, and was praised for his "guojia yizhi" (national consciousness) by non Muslims. He also invested in new editions of Confucian and Islamic texts. He edited Shuofang Daozhi., a gazette, and books such as Meng Cang ZhuangKuang: Hui Bu Xinjiang fu.
A new edition of a book by Ma Te-hsin, called Ho-yin Ma Fu-ch'u hsien-sheng i-shu Ta hua tsung kuei Ssu tien yaohui, which was printed in 1865 was reprinted in 1927 by Ma Fuxiang.
Yunting (雲亭) was the courtesy name of Ma Fuxiang, a school, the Yunting Provincial Normal School was named after him.
Ideology
General Ma had an interest in Chinese classical learning and western engineering and science. He thought his own Hui people fiercely loyal but "primitive" and lacking in "the educational and political privileges of the Han Chinese". Ma encouraged Huis to assimilate into the Han ethnicity, and created the Assimilationist Group to promote this idea.Ma Fuxiang did not drink wine or smoke tobacco, but he served them to western guests like Upton Close.
The learned "scholar" General Ma Fuxiang was considered "progressive" while the senior (de facto leader of muslims in Northwest China), Muslim General Ma Anliang
Ma Anliang
Ma Anliang , a Hui, was born in 1855, in Linxia, Gansu, China. He became a general in the Qing dynasty army, and of the Republic of China. His father was Ma Zhanao, and his younger brother was Ma Guoliang...
was considered "reactionary".
Family
Ma Fuxiang's father was Ma QianlingMa Qianling
Ma Qianling was a Dongxiang Muslim General who defected to the Qing Dynasty in 1872 during the Dungan revolt along with his superior General Ma Zhanao and General Ma Haiyan. He then assisted General Zuo Zongtang in crushing the rebel Muslims. His trading activities were a success...
.
Ma Fuxiang had a son Ma Hongkui
Ma Hongkui
Ma Hongkui , was a prominent warlord in China during the Republic of China era, ruling the northwestern province of Ningxia. His rank was Lieutenant-general. His courtesy name was Shao-yun .- Life :...
who became a general in the National Revolutionary Army.
Ma Fuxiang had several wives, one of them died in 1927 in Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
, and a funeral was held in Hochow., another one, Ma Tsai (te), was the wife who gave birth to Ma Hongkui on Mar. 14, 1892. She died in 1948.
His nephew was Ma Hongbin
Ma Hongbin
Ma Hongbin , was a prominent muslim Ma clique warlord in China during the Republic of China era. He was the acting Chairman of Gansu and Ningxia Provinces for a short period.- Life :...
, another General.
His brothers were Ma Fulu
Ma Fulu
Ma Fulu , a Hui, was the son of General Ma Qianling, and the brother of Ma Fucai, Ma Fushou, and Ma Fuxiang. He joined the martial arts hall and attended military school. In 1895, he served under general Dong Fuxiang, leading loyalist Chinese Muslims to crush a revolt by rebel Chinese Muslims and...
, Ma Fushou
Ma Fushou
Ma Fushou , a Hui, was the son of General Ma Qianling, and the brother of Ma Fucai, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang. He joined the martial arts hall and attended military school after three years of training in 1892....
, and Ma Fucai.
Ma Fuxiang became a sworn brother of President Chiang Kaishek.
Ma Fuxiang became so prominent and well known that some Jewish organizations in the United States tried to claim (falsely) that his father was Jewish.
Tibet
Ma Fuxiang, as the chairman of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission, made a statement that MongoliaMongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest...
and Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
were parts of the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
:
Our Party [the Guomindang] takes the development of the weak and small and resistance to the strong and violent as our sole and most urgent task. This is even more true for those groups which are not of our kind [Ch. fei wo zulei zhe]. Now the peoples [minzu] of Mongolia and Tibet are closely related to us, and we have great affection for one another: our common existence and common honor already have a history of over a thousand years.... Mongolia and Tibet's life and death are China's life and death. China absolutely cannot cause Mongolia and Tibet to break away from China's territory, and Mongolia and Tibet cannot reject China to become independent. At this time, there is not a single nation on earth except China that will sincerely develop Mongolia and Tibet."
During the Sino-Tibetan War
Sino-Tibetan War
The Sino–Tibetan War occurred in 1930–1932 when the Tibetan army under the 13th Dalai Lama invaded Xikang and Yushu in Qinghai in a dispute over monasteries. The Ma clique warlord Ma Bufang secretly sent a telegram to the Sichuan warlord Liu Wenhui, and the leader of the Republic of China, Chiang...
, Ma Fuxiang, as head of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission, sent a telegraph to Muslim Kuomintang official Tang Kesan
Tang Kesan
Tang Kesan was a Chinese Muslim. In Xikang province during the Sino-Tibetan War Tang Kesan represented the Kuomintang.- Career :Tang was a Muslim from Shandong province, and he promoted Muslim education. He worked with Muslim General Bai Chongxi...
ordering him to breach the agreement with Tibet, because he was concerned that political rivals in Nanjing were using the incident.
Death
Ma Fuxiang passed away around Lianghsiang, August 19, 1932, while he was traveling to BeijingBeijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
to receive medical treatment, from Chikungsan around Hankou.