Socio-ecological system
Encyclopedia
A socio-ecological system consists of 'a bio-geo-physical' unit and its associated social actors and institutions. Socio-ecological systems are complex
and adaptive
and delimited by spatial or functional boundaries surrounding particular ecosystem
s and their problem context.
Scholars have used the concept of socio-ecological systems to emphasise the integrate concept of humans in nature and to stress that the delineation between social systems
and ecological systems is artificial and arbitrary. Whilst resilience
has somewhat different meaning in social and ecological context , the SES approach holds that social and ecological systems are linked through feedback mechanisms
, and that both display resilience
and complexity
.
and natural sciences was very limited in dealing with socio-ecological systems. Just as mainstream ecology had tried to exclude humans from the study of ecology, many social science disciplines had ignored environment altogether and limited their scope to humans. Although some scholars(e.g. Bateson 1979) had tried to bridge the nature-culture divide
, the majority of studies focused on investigating processes within the social domain only, treating the ecosystem largely as a “black box” and assuming that if the social system performs adaptively or is well organised institutionally it will also manage the environmental resource base in a sustainable fashion.
This changed through the 1970s and 1980s with the rise of several subfields associated with the social sciences but explicitly including the environment in the framing of the issues. These subfields are:
Each of the six areas summarised is a ‘bridge’ spanning different combinations of natural science and social science thinking.
and complexity theory
it is not the same. The studies of SES include some central societal concerns (e.g. equity and human wellbeing) that have traditionally received little attention in complex adaptive systems
theory, and there are areas of complexity theory
(e.g. quantum physics) that have little direct relevance for understanding SES.
SES theory incorporates ideas from theories relating to the study of resilience
, robustness
, sustainability
, and vulnerability
(e.g.Levin 1999, Berkes et al. 2003, Gunderson and Holling 2002 Norberg and Cumming 2008), but it is also concerned with a wider range of SES dynamics and attributes than any one of these terms implies. While SES theory draws on a range of discipline-specific theories, such as island biogeography
, optimal foraging theory
, and microeconomic theory, it is much broader than any of these individual theories alone.
Being a relatively new concept, SES theory has emerged from a combination of disciplinary platforms and the notion of complexity
developed through the work of many scholars, notably the Santa Fe Institute
(2002). It can thus be said that complex system
theory is a more important 'intellectual parent' of SES. However, due to the social context in which SES research has been placed, and the possibility of SES research translating into recommendations that will affect real people, SES research has been considerable more ‘self- conscious’ and more ‘pluralistic’ in its perspectives than complexity theory has ever acknowledged.
Studying SESs from a complex system
perspective is a fast growing interdisciplinary field which can be viewed as an attempt to link different disciplines into a new body of knowledge that can be applied to solve some of the most serious environmental problems today . Management processes in the complex systems
can be improved by making them adaptive and flexible, able to deal with uncertainty and surprise, and by building capacity to adapt to change. SESs are both complex
and adaptive
, meaning that they require continuous testing, learning about, and developing knowledge and understanding in order to cope with change and uncertainty.
A complex system
differs from a simple system in that it has a number of attributes that cannot be observed in simple systems, such as nonlinearity, uncertainty
, emergence
, scale
, and self-organisation.
, which refers to local rules of interaction that change as the system evolves and develops. A consequence of path dependency is the existence of multiple basins of attraction in ecosystem development and the potential for threshold behaviour and qualitative shifts in system dynamics under changing environmental influences.
. In a complex system many subsystems can be distinguished; and since many complex systems are hierarchic
, each subsystem is nested in a larger subsystem etc. For example, a small watershed may be considered an ecosystem, but it is a part of a larger watershed that can also be considered an ecosystem and a larger one that encompasses all the smaller watersheds. Phenomena at each level of the scale tend to have their own emergent properties, and different levels may be coupled through feedback relationships. Therefore, complex systems should always be analysed or managed simultaneously at different scales.
. The basic idea is that open systems will reorganise at critical points of instability. Holling’s adaptive renewal cycle is an illustration of reorganisation that takes place within the cycles of growth and renewal. The self-organisation principle, operationalised through feedback mechanisms
, applies to many biological systems, social systems
and even to mixture of simple chemicals. High speed computers and nonlinear mathematical techniques help simulate self-organisation by yielding complex results and yet strangely ordered effects. The direction of self-organisation will depend on such things as the system’s history; it is path dependent
and difficult to predict.
approach.
Knowledge acquisition of SESs is an ongoing, dynamic learning process, and such knowledge often emerges with people’s institutions and organisations. To remain effective it requires institutional framework and social networks to be nested across scales. It is thus the communities which interact with ecosystems on the daily basis and over long periods of time that possess the most relevant knowledge of resource and ecosystem dynamics, together with associated management practices. Some scholars have suggested that management
and governance
of SESs may benefit from combination of different knowledge systems; others have attempted to import such knowledge into the scientific knowledge field There also those who have argued that it would be difficult to separate these knowledge systems from their institutional and cultural contexts , and those who have questioned the role of traditional and local knowledge systems in the current situation of pervasive environmental change and globalised societies. Other scholars have claimed that valuable lessons can be extracted from such systems for complex system
management; lessons that also need to account for interactions across temporal and spatial scales and organisational and institutional levels , and in particular during periods of rapid change, uncertainty and system reorganisation.
, panarchy
, transformability, and adaptability
, are of considerable conceptual appeal, and it is claimed to be generally applicable to ecological and social systems as well as to coupled socio-ecological systems .
The two main dimension that determine changes in an adaptive cycle are connectedness and potential . The connectedness dimension is the visual depiction of a cycle and stands for the ability to internally control its own destiny . It “reflects the strength of internal connections that mediate and regulate the influences between inside processes and the outside world” (p. 50). The potential dimension is represented by the vertical axis, and stands for the “inherent potential of a system that is available for change” (p. 393). Social or cultural potential can be characterised by the “accumulated networks of relationships-friendship, mutual respect, and trust among people and between people and institutions of governance” (p. 49). According to the adaptive cycle heuristic, the levels of both dimensions differ during the course of the cycle along the four phases. The adaptive cycle thus predicts that the four phases of the cycle can be distinguished based on distinct combinations of high or low potential and connectedness.
of socio-ecological systems is related to the degree of the shock that the system can absorb and remain within a given state . The concept of resilience is a promising tool for analysing adaptive change towards sustainability because it provides a way for analysing how to manipulate stability in the face of change.
In order to emphasise the key requirements of a socio-ecological system for successful adaptive governance, Folke and colleagues contrasted case studies from the Florida Everglades and the Grand Canyon
. Both are complex socio-ecological systems that have experiences unwanted degradation of their ecosystem services, but differ substantially in terms of their institutional make-up.
The governance structure in the Everglades is dominated by the interests of agriculture and environmentalists who have been in conflict over the need to conserve the habitat at the expense of agricultural productivity throughout history. Here, a few feedbacks between the ecological system and the social system exist, and the SES is unable to innovate and adapt (the α-phase of reorganisation and growth)
In contrast, different stakeholders have formed an adaptive management workgroup in the case of Grand Canyon, using planned management interventions and monitoring to learn about changes occurring in the ecosystem including the best ways to subsequently manage them. Such an arrangement in governance creates the opportunity for institutional learning to take place, allowing for a successful period of reorganisation and growth. Such an approach to institutional learning is becoming more common as NGOs, scientist and communities collaborate to manage ecosystems .
. A close conceptual and methodological relation exists between the analysis of socio-ecological systems, complexity
research, and transdisciplinarity
. These three research concepts are based on similar ideas and models of reasoning. Moreover, the research on socio-ecological systems almost always uses transdisciplinary
mode of operation in order to achieve an adequate problem orientation and to ensure integrative results . Problems of sustainable development
are intrinsically tied to the socio-ecological system defined to tackle them. This means that scientists from the relevant scientific disciplines or field of research as well as the involved societal stakeholders have to be regarded as elements of the socio-ecological system in question .
Complex system
A complex system is a system composed of interconnected parts that as a whole exhibit one or more properties not obvious from the properties of the individual parts....
and adaptive
Adaptive system
The term adaptation arises mainly in the biological scope as a trial to study the relationship between the characteristics of living beings and their environments...
and delimited by spatial or functional boundaries surrounding particular ecosystem
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving , physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight....
s and their problem context.
Definitions
A socio-ecological system can be defined as: (p. 163)- A coherent system of biophysical and social factors that regularly interact in a resilientResilience (ecology)In ecology, resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to respond to a perturbation or disturbance by resisting damage and recovering quickly. Such perturbations and disturbances can include stochastic events such as fires, flooding, windstorms, insect population explosions, and human activities...
, sustainedSustainabilitySustainability is the capacity to endure. For humans, sustainability is the long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions, and encompasses the concept of union, an interdependent relationship and mutual responsible position with all living and non...
manner; - A system that is defined at several spatial, temporal, and organisational scales, which may be hierarchically linked;
- A set of critical resources (natural, socioeconomic, and cultural) whose flow and use is regulated by a combination of ecological and social systems; and
- A perpetually dynamic, complex system with continuous adaptation.
Scholars have used the concept of socio-ecological systems to emphasise the integrate concept of humans in nature and to stress that the delineation between social systems
Social systems
Social system is a central term in sociological systems theory. The term draws a line to ecosystem, biological organisms, psychical systems and technical systems. They all form the environment of social systems. Minimum requirements for a social system is interaction of at least two personal...
and ecological systems is artificial and arbitrary. Whilst resilience
Resilience (ecology)
In ecology, resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to respond to a perturbation or disturbance by resisting damage and recovering quickly. Such perturbations and disturbances can include stochastic events such as fires, flooding, windstorms, insect population explosions, and human activities...
has somewhat different meaning in social and ecological context , the SES approach holds that social and ecological systems are linked through feedback mechanisms
Feedback
Feedback describes the situation when output from an event or phenomenon in the past will influence an occurrence or occurrences of the same Feedback describes the situation when output from (or information about the result of) an event or phenomenon in the past will influence an occurrence or...
, and that both display resilience
Resilience (ecology)
In ecology, resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to respond to a perturbation or disturbance by resisting damage and recovering quickly. Such perturbations and disturbances can include stochastic events such as fires, flooding, windstorms, insect population explosions, and human activities...
and complexity
Complexity
In general usage, complexity tends to be used to characterize something with many parts in intricate arrangement. The study of these complex linkages is the main goal of complex systems theory. In science there are at this time a number of approaches to characterizing complexity, many of which are...
.
Integrative approaches
Until the past few decades, the point of contact between social sciencesSocial sciences
Social science is the field of study concerned with society. "Social science" is commonly used as an umbrella term to refer to a plurality of fields outside of the natural sciences usually exclusive of the administrative or managerial sciences...
and natural sciences was very limited in dealing with socio-ecological systems. Just as mainstream ecology had tried to exclude humans from the study of ecology, many social science disciplines had ignored environment altogether and limited their scope to humans. Although some scholars(e.g. Bateson 1979) had tried to bridge the nature-culture divide
Nature vs. Culture
Nature versus culture, or the nature/culture divide, refers to a theoretical foundation of contemporary anthropology. Early anthropologists sought theoretical insight from the perceived tensions between culture, as a social entity, and nature, as a bio-physical entity...
, the majority of studies focused on investigating processes within the social domain only, treating the ecosystem largely as a “black box” and assuming that if the social system performs adaptively or is well organised institutionally it will also manage the environmental resource base in a sustainable fashion.
This changed through the 1970s and 1980s with the rise of several subfields associated with the social sciences but explicitly including the environment in the framing of the issues. These subfields are:
- Environmental ethicsEnvironmental ethicsEnvironmental ethics is the part of environmental philosophy which considers extending the traditional boundaries of ethics from solely including humans to including the non-human world...
, which arose from the need to develop a philosophy of relations between humans and their environment, because conventional ethicsEthicsEthics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
only applied to relations among people. - Political ecologyPolitical ecologyPolitical ecology is the study of the relationships between political, economic and social factors with environmental issues and changes. Political ecology differs from apolitical ecological studies by politicizing environmental issues and phenomena....
, which expands ecological concerns to respond to the inclusion of cultural and political activity within an analysis of ecosystems that are significantly but not always entirely socially constructed. - Environmental historyEnvironmental historyEnvironmental history, a branch of historiography, is the study of human interaction with the natural world over time. In contrast to other historical disciplines, it emphasizes the active role nature plays in influencing human affairs. Environmental historians study how humans both shape their...
which arose from the rich accumulation of material documenting relationships between societies and their environment. - Ecological economicsEcological economicsImage:Sustainable development.svg|right|The three pillars of sustainability. Clickable.|275px|thumbpoly 138 194 148 219 164 240 182 257 219 277 263 291 261 311 264 331 272 351 283 366 300 383 316 394 287 408 261 417 224 424 182 426 154 423 119 415 87 403 58 385 40 368 24 347 17 328 13 309 16 286 26...
which examines the link between ecologyEcologyEcology is the scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment. Variables of interest to ecologists include the composition, distribution, amount , number, and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems...
and economicsEconomicsEconomics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
by bridging the two disciplines to promote an integrated view of economics within the ecosystem. - Common property which examines the linkages between resource managementResource managementIn organizational studies, resource management is the efficient and effective deployment of an organization's resources when they are needed. Such resources may include financial resources, inventory, human skills, production resources, or information technology...
and social organisation, analysing how institutions and property rights systems deal with the dilemma of the ‘tragedy of the commonsTragedy of the commonsThe tragedy of the commons is a dilemma arising from the situation in which multiple individuals, acting independently and rationally consulting their own self-interest, will ultimately deplete a shared limited resource, even when it is clear that it is not in anyone's long-term interest for this...
’. - Traditional ecological knowledgeTraditional Ecological Knowledge"Traditional Ecological Knowledge" is an academic term referring to aboriginal, indigenous, or other forms of traditional knowledges regarding local environmental resources. TEK can be defined as "a cumulative body of knowledge, practice, and belief, evolving by adaptive processes and handed down...
, which refers to ecological understanding built, not by experts, but by people who live and use the resources of a place.
Each of the six areas summarised is a ‘bridge’ spanning different combinations of natural science and social science thinking.
Conceptual foundations and origins
Although SES theory draws heavily on systems ecologySystems ecology
Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field of ecology, taking a holistic approach to the study of ecological systems, especially ecosystems. Systems ecology can be seen as an application of general systems theory to ecology. Central to the systems ecology approach is the idea that an ecosystem...
and complexity theory
Complex systems
Complex systems present problems in mathematical modelling.The equations from which complex system models are developed generally derive from statistical physics, information theory and non-linear dynamics, and represent organized but unpredictable behaviors of systems of nature that are considered...
it is not the same. The studies of SES include some central societal concerns (e.g. equity and human wellbeing) that have traditionally received little attention in complex adaptive systems
Systems theory
Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems in general, with the goal of elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of systems at all nesting levels in all fields of research...
theory, and there are areas of complexity theory
Complex systems
Complex systems present problems in mathematical modelling.The equations from which complex system models are developed generally derive from statistical physics, information theory and non-linear dynamics, and represent organized but unpredictable behaviors of systems of nature that are considered...
(e.g. quantum physics) that have little direct relevance for understanding SES.
SES theory incorporates ideas from theories relating to the study of resilience
Resilience (ecology)
In ecology, resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to respond to a perturbation or disturbance by resisting damage and recovering quickly. Such perturbations and disturbances can include stochastic events such as fires, flooding, windstorms, insect population explosions, and human activities...
, robustness
Robustness
Robustness may refer to:*In biology**Robustness , the persistence of a system’s characteristic behavior under perturbations or conditions of uncertainty...
, sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability is the capacity to endure. For humans, sustainability is the long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions, and encompasses the concept of union, an interdependent relationship and mutual responsible position with all living and non...
, and vulnerability
Vulnerability
Vulnerability refer to the susceptibility of a person, group, society, sex or system to physical or emotional injury or attack. The term can also refer to a person who lets their guard down, leaving themselves open to censure or criticism...
(e.g.Levin 1999, Berkes et al. 2003, Gunderson and Holling 2002 Norberg and Cumming 2008), but it is also concerned with a wider range of SES dynamics and attributes than any one of these terms implies. While SES theory draws on a range of discipline-specific theories, such as island biogeography
Island biogeography
Island biogeography is a field within biogeography that attempts to establish and explain the factors that affect the species richness of natural communities. The theory was developed to explain species richness of actual islands...
, optimal foraging theory
Optimal foraging theory
Optimal foraging theory is an idea in ecology based on the study of foraging behaviour and states that organisms forage in such a way as to maximize their net energy intake per unit time. In other words, they behave in such a way as to find, capture and consume food containing the most calories...
, and microeconomic theory, it is much broader than any of these individual theories alone.
Being a relatively new concept, SES theory has emerged from a combination of disciplinary platforms and the notion of complexity
Complexity
In general usage, complexity tends to be used to characterize something with many parts in intricate arrangement. The study of these complex linkages is the main goal of complex systems theory. In science there are at this time a number of approaches to characterizing complexity, many of which are...
developed through the work of many scholars, notably the Santa Fe Institute
Santa Fe Institute
The Santa Fe Institute is an independent, nonprofit theoretical research institute located in Santa Fe and dedicated to the multidisciplinary study of the fundamental principles of complex adaptive systems, including physical, computational, biological, and social systems.The Institute houses a...
(2002). It can thus be said that complex system
Complex system
A complex system is a system composed of interconnected parts that as a whole exhibit one or more properties not obvious from the properties of the individual parts....
theory is a more important 'intellectual parent' of SES. However, due to the social context in which SES research has been placed, and the possibility of SES research translating into recommendations that will affect real people, SES research has been considerable more ‘self- conscious’ and more ‘pluralistic’ in its perspectives than complexity theory has ever acknowledged.
Studying SESs from a complex system
Complex system
A complex system is a system composed of interconnected parts that as a whole exhibit one or more properties not obvious from the properties of the individual parts....
perspective is a fast growing interdisciplinary field which can be viewed as an attempt to link different disciplines into a new body of knowledge that can be applied to solve some of the most serious environmental problems today . Management processes in the complex systems
Complex systems
Complex systems present problems in mathematical modelling.The equations from which complex system models are developed generally derive from statistical physics, information theory and non-linear dynamics, and represent organized but unpredictable behaviors of systems of nature that are considered...
can be improved by making them adaptive and flexible, able to deal with uncertainty and surprise, and by building capacity to adapt to change. SESs are both complex
Complex system
A complex system is a system composed of interconnected parts that as a whole exhibit one or more properties not obvious from the properties of the individual parts....
and adaptive
Adaptive system
The term adaptation arises mainly in the biological scope as a trial to study the relationship between the characteristics of living beings and their environments...
, meaning that they require continuous testing, learning about, and developing knowledge and understanding in order to cope with change and uncertainty.
A complex system
Complex system
A complex system is a system composed of interconnected parts that as a whole exhibit one or more properties not obvious from the properties of the individual parts....
differs from a simple system in that it has a number of attributes that cannot be observed in simple systems, such as nonlinearity, uncertainty
Uncertainty
Uncertainty is a term used in subtly different ways in a number of fields, including physics, philosophy, statistics, economics, finance, insurance, psychology, sociology, engineering, and information science...
, emergence
Emergence
In philosophy, systems theory, science, and art, emergence is the way complex systems and patterns arise out of a multiplicity of relatively simple interactions. Emergence is central to the theories of integrative levels and of complex systems....
, scale
Scale
-Length:* Architect's scale, a ruler-like device which facilitates the production of technical drawings* Engineer's scale, a ruler-like device similar to the Architect's scale, they are helpful when drawing rooms...
, and self-organisation.
Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity is related to fundamental uncertainty. It generates path dependencyPath dependence
Path dependence explains how the set of decisions one faces for any given circumstance is limited by the decisions one has made in the past, even though past circumstances may no longer be relevant....
, which refers to local rules of interaction that change as the system evolves and develops. A consequence of path dependency is the existence of multiple basins of attraction in ecosystem development and the potential for threshold behaviour and qualitative shifts in system dynamics under changing environmental influences.
Emergence
Emergence is the appearance of behaviour that could not be anticipated from knowledge of the parts of the system alone.Scale
Scale is important when dealing with complex systemsComplex systems
Complex systems present problems in mathematical modelling.The equations from which complex system models are developed generally derive from statistical physics, information theory and non-linear dynamics, and represent organized but unpredictable behaviors of systems of nature that are considered...
. In a complex system many subsystems can be distinguished; and since many complex systems are hierarchic
Hierarchy
A hierarchy is an arrangement of items in which the items are represented as being "above," "below," or "at the same level as" one another...
, each subsystem is nested in a larger subsystem etc. For example, a small watershed may be considered an ecosystem, but it is a part of a larger watershed that can also be considered an ecosystem and a larger one that encompasses all the smaller watersheds. Phenomena at each level of the scale tend to have their own emergent properties, and different levels may be coupled through feedback relationships. Therefore, complex systems should always be analysed or managed simultaneously at different scales.
Self organisation
Self organisation is one of the defining properties of complex systemsComplex systems
Complex systems present problems in mathematical modelling.The equations from which complex system models are developed generally derive from statistical physics, information theory and non-linear dynamics, and represent organized but unpredictable behaviors of systems of nature that are considered...
. The basic idea is that open systems will reorganise at critical points of instability. Holling’s adaptive renewal cycle is an illustration of reorganisation that takes place within the cycles of growth and renewal. The self-organisation principle, operationalised through feedback mechanisms
Feedback
Feedback describes the situation when output from an event or phenomenon in the past will influence an occurrence or occurrences of the same Feedback describes the situation when output from (or information about the result of) an event or phenomenon in the past will influence an occurrence or...
, applies to many biological systems, social systems
Social systems
Social system is a central term in sociological systems theory. The term draws a line to ecosystem, biological organisms, psychical systems and technical systems. They all form the environment of social systems. Minimum requirements for a social system is interaction of at least two personal...
and even to mixture of simple chemicals. High speed computers and nonlinear mathematical techniques help simulate self-organisation by yielding complex results and yet strangely ordered effects. The direction of self-organisation will depend on such things as the system’s history; it is path dependent
Path dependence
Path dependence explains how the set of decisions one faces for any given circumstance is limited by the decisions one has made in the past, even though past circumstances may no longer be relevant....
and difficult to predict.
Examples of conceptual framework for analysis
There are several conceptual frameworks developed in relation to the resilienceResilience (ecology)
In ecology, resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to respond to a perturbation or disturbance by resisting damage and recovering quickly. Such perturbations and disturbances can include stochastic events such as fires, flooding, windstorms, insect population explosions, and human activities...
approach.
- A framework that focuses on knowledge and understanding of ecosystem dynamics, how to navigate it through management practices, institutions, organisations and social networks and how they relate to drivers of change (Picture A).
- A conceptual model in relation to the robustness of socio-ecological systems. There resource could be water or a fishery and the resource users could be farmers irrigating or inshore fishermen. Public infrastructure providers involve, for example, local users associations and government bureaus and public infrastructure include institutional rules and engineering works. The number refer to links between the entities and are exemplified in the source of the figure (Picture B). .
Role of traditional knowledge in SES
Berkes and colleagues distinguish four sets of elements which can be used to describe socio-ecological system characteristics and linkages:- Ecosystems
- Local knowledge
- People and technology
- Property rights institutions
Knowledge acquisition of SESs is an ongoing, dynamic learning process, and such knowledge often emerges with people’s institutions and organisations. To remain effective it requires institutional framework and social networks to be nested across scales. It is thus the communities which interact with ecosystems on the daily basis and over long periods of time that possess the most relevant knowledge of resource and ecosystem dynamics, together with associated management practices. Some scholars have suggested that management
Management
Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively...
and governance
Governance
Governance is the act of governing. It relates to decisions that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. It consists of either a separate process or part of management or leadership processes...
of SESs may benefit from combination of different knowledge systems; others have attempted to import such knowledge into the scientific knowledge field There also those who have argued that it would be difficult to separate these knowledge systems from their institutional and cultural contexts , and those who have questioned the role of traditional and local knowledge systems in the current situation of pervasive environmental change and globalised societies. Other scholars have claimed that valuable lessons can be extracted from such systems for complex system
Complex system
A complex system is a system composed of interconnected parts that as a whole exhibit one or more properties not obvious from the properties of the individual parts....
management; lessons that also need to account for interactions across temporal and spatial scales and organisational and institutional levels , and in particular during periods of rapid change, uncertainty and system reorganisation.
Adaptive cycle
The adaptive cycle, originally conceptualised by Holling (1986) interprets the dynamics of complex ecosystems in response to disturbance and change. In terms of its dynamics, the adaptive cycle has been described as moving slowly from exploitation (r) to conservation (K), maintaining and developing very rapidly from K to release (W), continuing rapidly to reorganisation (a) and back to exploitation (r) . Depending on the particular configuration of the system, it can then begin a new adaptive cycle or alternatively it may transform into a new configuration, shown as an exit arrow. The adaptive cycle is one of the five heuristics used to understand socio-ecological system behaviour [Assessed: 12 May 2011].. The other four heuristics are: resilienceResilience
Resilience is the property of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading to have this energy recovered. In other words, it is the maximum energy per unit volume that can be elastically stored...
, panarchy
Panarchy
Panarchy is a conceptual term first coined by the Belgian botanist and economist Paul Emile de Puydt in 1860, referring to a specific form of governance that would encompass all others. The Oxford English Dictionary lists the noun as "chiefly poetic" with the meaning "a universal realm," citing...
, transformability, and adaptability
Adaptability
Adaptability is a feature of a system or of a process. This word has been put to use as a specialised term in different disciplines and in business operations. Word definitions of adaptability as a specialised term differ little from dictionary definitions...
, are of considerable conceptual appeal, and it is claimed to be generally applicable to ecological and social systems as well as to coupled socio-ecological systems .
The two main dimension that determine changes in an adaptive cycle are connectedness and potential . The connectedness dimension is the visual depiction of a cycle and stands for the ability to internally control its own destiny . It “reflects the strength of internal connections that mediate and regulate the influences between inside processes and the outside world” (p. 50). The potential dimension is represented by the vertical axis, and stands for the “inherent potential of a system that is available for change” (p. 393). Social or cultural potential can be characterised by the “accumulated networks of relationships-friendship, mutual respect, and trust among people and between people and institutions of governance” (p. 49). According to the adaptive cycle heuristic, the levels of both dimensions differ during the course of the cycle along the four phases. The adaptive cycle thus predicts that the four phases of the cycle can be distinguished based on distinct combinations of high or low potential and connectedness.
Adaptive governance and SES
The resilienceResilience (ecology)
In ecology, resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to respond to a perturbation or disturbance by resisting damage and recovering quickly. Such perturbations and disturbances can include stochastic events such as fires, flooding, windstorms, insect population explosions, and human activities...
of socio-ecological systems is related to the degree of the shock that the system can absorb and remain within a given state . The concept of resilience is a promising tool for analysing adaptive change towards sustainability because it provides a way for analysing how to manipulate stability in the face of change.
In order to emphasise the key requirements of a socio-ecological system for successful adaptive governance, Folke and colleagues contrasted case studies from the Florida Everglades and the Grand Canyon
Grand Canyon
The Grand Canyon is a steep-sided canyon carved by the Colorado River in the United States in the state of Arizona. It is largely contained within the Grand Canyon National Park, the 15th national park in the United States...
. Both are complex socio-ecological systems that have experiences unwanted degradation of their ecosystem services, but differ substantially in terms of their institutional make-up.
The governance structure in the Everglades is dominated by the interests of agriculture and environmentalists who have been in conflict over the need to conserve the habitat at the expense of agricultural productivity throughout history. Here, a few feedbacks between the ecological system and the social system exist, and the SES is unable to innovate and adapt (the α-phase of reorganisation and growth)
In contrast, different stakeholders have formed an adaptive management workgroup in the case of Grand Canyon, using planned management interventions and monitoring to learn about changes occurring in the ecosystem including the best ways to subsequently manage them. Such an arrangement in governance creates the opportunity for institutional learning to take place, allowing for a successful period of reorganisation and growth. Such an approach to institutional learning is becoming more common as NGOs, scientist and communities collaborate to manage ecosystems .
Links to sustainable development
The concept of socio-ecological systems has been developed in order to provide both a promising scientific gain as well as impact on problems of sustainable developmentSustainable development
Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use, that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for generations to come...
. A close conceptual and methodological relation exists between the analysis of socio-ecological systems, complexity
Complexity
In general usage, complexity tends to be used to characterize something with many parts in intricate arrangement. The study of these complex linkages is the main goal of complex systems theory. In science there are at this time a number of approaches to characterizing complexity, many of which are...
research, and transdisciplinarity
Transdisciplinarity
Transdisciplinarity connotes a research strategy that crosses many disciplinary boundaries to create a holistic approach. It applies to research efforts focused on problems that cross the boundaries of two or more disciplines, such as research on effective information systems for biomedical...
. These three research concepts are based on similar ideas and models of reasoning. Moreover, the research on socio-ecological systems almost always uses transdisciplinary
Transdisciplinarity
Transdisciplinarity connotes a research strategy that crosses many disciplinary boundaries to create a holistic approach. It applies to research efforts focused on problems that cross the boundaries of two or more disciplines, such as research on effective information systems for biomedical...
mode of operation in order to achieve an adequate problem orientation and to ensure integrative results . Problems of sustainable development
Sustainable development
Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use, that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for generations to come...
are intrinsically tied to the socio-ecological system defined to tackle them. This means that scientists from the relevant scientific disciplines or field of research as well as the involved societal stakeholders have to be regarded as elements of the socio-ecological system in question .