Suillus salmonicolor
Encyclopedia
Suillus salmonicolor, commonly known as the slippery Jill, is a fungus
in the family Suillaceae
of the order Boletales
. First described as a member of the genus Boletus
in 1874, the species acquired several synonyms, including Suillus pinorigidus and Suillus subluteus, before it was assigned its current binomial name in 1983. It has not been determined with certainty whether S. salmonicolor is distinct from the species S. cothurnatus
, described by Rolf Singer
in 1945. S. salmonicolor is a mycorrhiza
l fungus—meaning it forms a symbiotic
association with the roots of plants such that both organisms benefit from the exchange of nutrients. This symbiosis occurs with various species of pine
, and the fruit bodies
(or mushroom
s) of the fungus appear scattered or in groups on the ground near the trees. The fungus is found in North America (including Hawaii
), Asia, the Caribbean, South Africa, Australia and Central America. It has been introduced
to several of those locations via transplanted trees.
The mushroom's dingy yellow to brownish cap
is rounded to flattened in shape, slimy when wet, and grows up to 9.5 cm (3.7 in) wide. The small pores on the underside of the cap are yellow before becoming olive-brown. The stem
is up to 10 cm (3.9 in) long and 1.6 cm (0.62992125984252 in) thick and is covered with reddish-brown glandular dots. Young specimens are covered with a grayish, slimy partial veil
that later ruptures and leaves a sheathlike ring
on the stem. Although the mushroom is generally considered edible
—especially if the slimy cap cuticle
and partial veil are first peeled off—opinions about its palatability vary. Other similar Suillus
species include S. acidus
, S. subalutaceus
, and S. intermedius
.
scientifically by American mycologist Charles C. Frost in 1874 as Boletus salmonicolor, based on specimens he collected in the New England
area of the United States. In a 1983 publication, mycologist Roy Halling declared Boletus subluteus (described by Charles Horton Peck
in 1887; Ixocomus subluteus is a later combination based on this name) and Suillus pinorigidus (described by Wally Snell
and Esther A. Dick in 1956) to be synonymous
. Halling also reexamined Frost's type specimen of B. salmonicolor, and considered the taxon better placed in Suillus because of its glutinous cap, dotted stem, and ring
; he formally transferred it to that genus, resulting in the combination Suillus salmonicolor. The specific epithet salmonicolor is a Latin
color term meaning "pink with a dash of yellow". The mushroom is commonly
known as the "slippery Jill".
In a 1986 publication on Suillus taxonomy
and nomenclature
, and further discussed the synonymy of S. salmonicolor, S. subluteus, and S. pinorigidus. They noted that fruit bodies
of S. subluteus collected in Minnesota did not have the strong salmon colors considered characteristic of S. salmonicolor, as well as collections that had been named S. pinorigidus; this is a morphological
difference that could be sufficient to consider S. subluteus a distinct species. They explained that although the microscopic characteristics of the three taxa do not differ significantly, this is not unusual for Suillus and cannot be used as the sole proof of conspecificity
. Palm and Stewart concluded that a study of specimens from various areas of their geographical ranges would be needed to fully resolve the taxonomy of these related species.
There is some disagreement in the literature about whether Suillus cothurnatus
represents a different species from S. salmonicolor. The online mycological taxonomy database MycoBank
lists them as synonyms, contrary to Index Fungorum
. In their 2000 monograph
of North American boletes, Alan Bessette and colleagues list the two taxa separately, noting that the range of S. cothurnatus is difficult to determine because of confusion with S. salmonicolor. In a molecular analyses of Suillus phylogeny, based on the internal transcribed spacer
, S. salmonicolor (as S. subluteus) and S. intermedius clustered together very closely, indicating a high degree of genetic similarity. These analyses were based on comparing the sequence differences in a single region of ribosomal DNA
; more recent molecular analyses typically combine the analysis of several genes to increase the validity of inferences drawn.
of S. salmonicolor is bluntly rounded or convex to nearly flattened, reaching a diameter of 3 –. The cap surface is sticky to slimy when moist, but becomes shiny when dry. The cap color is variable, ranging from dingy yellow to yellowish-orange to ochraceous
-salmon
, cinnamon-brown or olive-brown to yellow-brown. The flesh
is pale orange-yellow to orange-buff or orange, and does not stain when exposed to air. The odor and taste are not distinctive. The pore surface on the underside of the cap is yellow to dingy yellow, or yellowish orange to salmon, darkening to brownish with age; it also does not stain when bruised. The pores are circular to angular, measuring 1–2 per mm and 8 – deep. The stem
is 2.5 – long, 6 – thick, and either equal in width throughout or slightly enlarged in the lower portion. It is whitish to yellowish or pinkish-ochre, and has reddish-brown to dark brown glandular dots and smears on the surface. Glandular dots are made of clumps of pigment
ed cells, and, unlike reticulation or scabers (small visible tufts of fibers that occur on the stems of other Suillus species), can be rubbed off with handling. The flesh
is ochraceous to yellowish, often salmon-orange at the base of the stem. The partial veil
that protects the developing gills is initially thick, baggy, and rubbery. It often has a conspicuously thickened cottony roll of tissue at its base, and sometimes flares outward from the stem on the lower portion. It forms a gelatinous ring
on the upper to middle part of the stem. The spore print
is cinnamon-brown to brown. The surface of the cap, when applied with a drop of dilute potassium hydroxide
(KOH) or ammonia solution
(chemical reagents commonly used for mushroom identification
), will first turn a fleeting pink color, then dark red as the flesh collapses.
The spore
s are smooth, roughly ellipsoid in shape, inequilateral when viewed in profile, and measure 7.6–10 by 3–3.4 μm
. They appear hyaline
(translucent) to yellowish in a dilute solution of KOH, and cinnamon to pale ochraceous
when stained with Melzer's reagent
. The basidia are somewhat collapsed, hyaline, and 5–6 μm thick. The cystidia are scattered, sometimes arranged in clusters (especially on the gill edge), usually with an ochraceous-brown content, but occasionally hyaline. They are club-shaped to somewhat cylindric and measure 34–60 by 10–13 μm. The cuticle
of the cap is an ixotrichodermium—a cellular arrangement where the outermost hyphae are gelatinous and emerge roughly parallel, like hairs, perpendicular to the cap surface. These hyphae are hyaline and narrowly cylindric, measuring 1.4–3 μm in diameter. The stem surface is made of scattered bundles of caulocystidia (cystidia on the stem) that are brown or sometimes hyaline in KOH, club-shaped to subcylindrical bundles interspersed among hyaline cells. These bundles are underlain by a layer of gelatinous, hyaline, vertically oriented and parallel hyphae that are shaped like narrow cylinders. Clamp connection
s are absent from the hyphae.
, but removal of the slimy cap cuticle and partial veil is recommended to avoid possible gastrointestinal upset; similarly, the 1992 field guide Edible Wild Mushrooms of North America recommends the removal of the tube layer before preparation, as it can become slimy during cooking. Opinions about the quality of the mushroom vary. According to the book Boletes of North America, it is "very good" with a "lemony" flavor. A Canadian field guide is more cautious in its assessment, and suggests that one would have to be brave to consume a mushroom with such a sticky veil. Mycologist David Arora
, in his Mushrooms Demystified
, opines that it is not worth eating. Whatever its palatibility to humans, the mushroom serves as a habitat for larva
e of mycophagous
insects such as the muscid fly
Mydaea discimana and the scuttle fly Megaselia lutea.
, found in northeastern and northern North America, is similar in appearance to S. salmonicolor. It may be distinguished by a lighter-colored cap, cream to yellowish or pale ochraceous flesh, and a ring that is neither as thick nor as wide as S. salmonicolor. It is also larger, with a cap diameter of up to 16 cm (6.3 in), and its pore surface sometimes slowly stains reddish-brown when bruised. Although it has not been definitively established whether S. cothurnatus
is a distinct species, several characteristics have been reported to differentiate it from S. salmonicolor: a thinner, less rubbery veil that usually lacks a thickened cottony roll at the base; glandular dots on the stem that consist of bundles of multiseptate
hyphae in a parallel arrangement ending in an even row of large, sterile cystidia (60–140 μm long) that resemble basidia; and small hyaline cystidia shaped like swollen bottles with narrowed bases. Other Suillus species with which S. salmonicolor might be confused include S. acidus
and S. subalutaceus
. Both of these species have a less well-developed partial veil, and their flesh is a duller tone lacking yellow-orange tints.
l association with various species of Pinus. This is a mutualistic relationship in which the subterranean fungal mycelia
creates a protective sheath around the rootlets of the tree and a network of hyphae (the Hartig net
) that penetrates between the tree's epidermal and cortical cells. This association helps the plant absorb water and mineral
nutrients; in exchange, the fungus receives a supply of carbohydrate
s produced by the plant's photosynthesis
. Two-, three-, and five-needled pines have all been recorded to associate with S. salmonicolor. In North America, the fungus has been found growing with P. banksiana, P. palustris, P. resinosa, P. rigida, P. strobus and P. taeda. In Kamchatka (in the Russian Far East) it has been found in association with P. pumila, in the Philippines
with P. kesiya, and in southern India with P. patula
. The northern limit of its North American range extends to eastern Canada (Quebec
), and the southern limit to Nuevo León
and near the village of Nabogame in Temósachi Municipality, Chihuahua, Mexico.
Suillus salmonicolor has been collected from the Dominican Republic
in the Caribbean, Japan, Taiwan, and from Mpumalanga
, South Africa. Because there are no native Pinus species in South Africa, the fungus is assumed to be an exotic species that has been introduced
via pine plantations. It has also been introduced to Australia
, where it is known from a single collection made in a plantation of Caribbean pine
(Pinus caribaea) in Queensland
; the fungus has additionally been found growing with Caribbean pine in Belize
. It is found in Hawaii under Slash Pine
(Pinus elliotii), including lawns where those trees are used in landscaping
. S. salmonicolor is one of several ectomycorrhizal species that have "traveled the thousands of kilometers from a mainland to Hawaii in the roots and soil of introduced seedlings."
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
in the family Suillaceae
Suillaceae
The Suillaceae are a family of fungi in the order Boletales , containing the boletus-like Suillus, the small truffle-like Truncocolumella, as well as the monotypic genus Psiloboletinus. As of 2008, there are 54 species in the family...
of the order Boletales
Boletales
The Boletales are an order of Agaricomycetes, containing over 1300 species with a diverse array of fruiting body types. The boletes are the best known members of this group, and until recently, the Boletales were thought to only contain boletes...
. First described as a member of the genus Boletus
Boletus
Boletus is a genus of mushroom, comprising over 100 species. The genus Boletus was originally broadly defined and described by Elias Magnus Fries in 1821, essentially containing all fungi with pores...
in 1874, the species acquired several synonyms, including Suillus pinorigidus and Suillus subluteus, before it was assigned its current binomial name in 1983. It has not been determined with certainty whether S. salmonicolor is distinct from the species S. cothurnatus
Suillus cothurnatus
Suillus cothurnatus is a species of mushroom in the genus Suillus. Found in North America, it was first described scientifically by mycologist Rolf Singer in 1945....
, described by Rolf Singer
Rolf Singer
Rolf Singer was a German-born mycologist and one of the most important taxonomists of gilled mushrooms in the 20th century....
in 1945. S. salmonicolor is a mycorrhiza
Mycorrhiza
A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant....
l fungus—meaning it forms a symbiotic
Symbiosis
Symbiosis is close and often long-term interaction between different biological species. In 1877 Bennett used the word symbiosis to describe the mutualistic relationship in lichens...
association with the roots of plants such that both organisms benefit from the exchange of nutrients. This symbiosis occurs with various species of pine
Pine
Pines are trees in the genus Pinus ,in the family Pinaceae. They make up the monotypic subfamily Pinoideae. There are about 115 species of pine, although different authorities accept between 105 and 125 species.-Etymology:...
, and the fruit bodies
Basidiocarp
In fungi, a basidiocarp, basidiome or basidioma , is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multicellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes; rusts and smuts do not produce such structures...
(or mushroom
Mushroom
A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi that...
s) of the fungus appear scattered or in groups on the ground near the trees. The fungus is found in North America (including Hawaii
Hawaii
Hawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states , and is the only U.S. state made up entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of...
), Asia, the Caribbean, South Africa, Australia and Central America. It has been introduced
Introduced species
An introduced species — or neozoon, alien, exotic, non-indigenous, or non-native species, or simply an introduction, is a species living outside its indigenous or native distributional range, and has arrived in an ecosystem or plant community by human activity, either deliberate or accidental...
to several of those locations via transplanted trees.
The mushroom's dingy yellow to brownish cap
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
is rounded to flattened in shape, slimy when wet, and grows up to 9.5 cm (3.7 in) wide. The small pores on the underside of the cap are yellow before becoming olive-brown. The stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
is up to 10 cm (3.9 in) long and 1.6 cm (0.62992125984252 in) thick and is covered with reddish-brown glandular dots. Young specimens are covered with a grayish, slimy partial veil
Partial veil
thumb|150px|right|Developmental stages of [[Agaricus campestris]] showing the role and evolution of a partial veilPartial veil is a mycological term used to describe a temporary structure of tissue found on the fruiting bodies of some basidiomycete fungi, typically agarics...
that later ruptures and leaves a sheathlike ring
Annulus (mycology)
An annulus is the ring like structure sometimes found on the stipe of some species of mushrooms. The annulus represents the remaining part of the partial veil, after it has ruptured to expose the gills or other spore-producing surface. An annulus may be thick and membranous, or it may be cobweb-like...
on the stem. Although the mushroom is generally considered edible
Edible mushroom
Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruiting bodies of several species of fungi. Mushrooms belong to the macrofungi, because their fruiting structures are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. They can appear either below ground or above ground where they may be picked by hand...
—especially if the slimy cap cuticle
Pileipellis
thumb|300px||right|The cuticle of some mushrooms, such as [[Russula mustelina]] shown here, can be peeled from the cap, and may be useful as an identification feature....
and partial veil are first peeled off—opinions about its palatability vary. Other similar Suillus
Suillus
Suillus is a genus of basidiomycete fungi in the family Suillaceae and order Boletales. Species in the genus are associated with coniferous trees, and are mostly distributed in northern temperate locations, although some species have been introduced to the Southern Hemisphere.-Taxonomy:The genus...
species include S. acidus
Suillus acidus
Suillus acidus is an edible species of mushroom in the genus Suillus. The species was first described by Charles Horton Peck as Boletus acidus in 1905....
, S. subalutaceus
Suillus subalutaceus
Suillus subalutaceus is an edible species of mushroom in the genus Suillus. It is found in North America....
, and S. intermedius
Suillus intermedius
Suillus intermedius is an edible species of mushroom in the genus Suillus. It is found in North America....
.
Taxonomy and phylogeny
The species was first describedSpecies description
A species description or type description is a formal description of a newly discovered species, usually in the form of a scientific paper. Its purpose is to give a clear description of a new species of organism and explain how it differs from species which have been described previously, or are...
scientifically by American mycologist Charles C. Frost in 1874 as Boletus salmonicolor, based on specimens he collected in the New England
New England
New England is a region in the northeastern corner of the United States consisting of the six states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut...
area of the United States. In a 1983 publication, mycologist Roy Halling declared Boletus subluteus (described by Charles Horton Peck
Charles Horton Peck
Charles Horton Peck, born March 30, 1833 in Sand Lake, New York, died 1917 in Albany, New York, was an American mycologist of the 19th and early 20th centuries...
in 1887; Ixocomus subluteus is a later combination based on this name) and Suillus pinorigidus (described by Wally Snell
Wally Snell
Walter Henry "Doc" Snell was a pinch-hitter/catcher in Major League Baseball who played briefly for the Boston Red Sox during the season. Following this brief baseball career he became a successful mycologist who worked primarily at Brown University for the next 60 years.-Baseball career:Snell...
and Esther A. Dick in 1956) to be synonymous
Synonym (taxonomy)
In scientific nomenclature, a synonym is a scientific name that is or was used for a taxon of organisms that also goes by a different scientific name. For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies...
. Halling also reexamined Frost's type specimen of B. salmonicolor, and considered the taxon better placed in Suillus because of its glutinous cap, dotted stem, and ring
Annulus (mycology)
An annulus is the ring like structure sometimes found on the stipe of some species of mushrooms. The annulus represents the remaining part of the partial veil, after it has ruptured to expose the gills or other spore-producing surface. An annulus may be thick and membranous, or it may be cobweb-like...
; he formally transferred it to that genus, resulting in the combination Suillus salmonicolor. The specific epithet salmonicolor is a Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
color term meaning "pink with a dash of yellow". The mushroom is commonly
Common name
A common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...
known as the "slippery Jill".
In a 1986 publication on Suillus taxonomy
Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a classification. The field of taxonomy, sometimes referred to as "biological taxonomy", revolves around the description and use of taxonomic units, known as taxa...
and nomenclature
Binomial nomenclature
Binomial nomenclature is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages...
, and further discussed the synonymy of S. salmonicolor, S. subluteus, and S. pinorigidus. They noted that fruit bodies
Basidiocarp
In fungi, a basidiocarp, basidiome or basidioma , is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multicellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes; rusts and smuts do not produce such structures...
of S. subluteus collected in Minnesota did not have the strong salmon colors considered characteristic of S. salmonicolor, as well as collections that had been named S. pinorigidus; this is a morphological
Morphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
difference that could be sufficient to consider S. subluteus a distinct species. They explained that although the microscopic characteristics of the three taxa do not differ significantly, this is not unusual for Suillus and cannot be used as the sole proof of conspecificity
Conspecificity
Conspecificity is a concept in biology. Two or more individual organisms, populations, or taxa are conspecific if they belong to the same species....
. Palm and Stewart concluded that a study of specimens from various areas of their geographical ranges would be needed to fully resolve the taxonomy of these related species.
There is some disagreement in the literature about whether Suillus cothurnatus
Suillus cothurnatus
Suillus cothurnatus is a species of mushroom in the genus Suillus. Found in North America, it was first described scientifically by mycologist Rolf Singer in 1945....
represents a different species from S. salmonicolor. The online mycological taxonomy database MycoBank
MycoBank
MycoBank is an online database, documenting new mycological names and combinations, eventually combined with descriptions and illustrations. It is run by the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures fungal biodiversity center in Utrecht....
lists them as synonyms, contrary to Index Fungorum
Index Fungorum
Index Fungorum, an international project to index all formal names in the Fungi Kingdom. Somewhat comparable to the IPNI, but with more contributing institutions....
. In their 2000 monograph
Monograph
A monograph is a work of writing upon a single subject, usually by a single author.It is often a scholarly essay or learned treatise, and may be released in the manner of a book or journal article. It is by definition a single document that forms a complete text in itself...
of North American boletes, Alan Bessette and colleagues list the two taxa separately, noting that the range of S. cothurnatus is difficult to determine because of confusion with S. salmonicolor. In a molecular analyses of Suillus phylogeny, based on the internal transcribed spacer
Internal transcribed spacer
ITS refers to a piece of non-functional RNA situated between structural ribosomal RNAs on a common precursor transcript. Read from 5' to 3', this polycistronic rRNA precursor transcript contains the 5' external transcribed sequence , 18S rRNA, ITS1, 5.8S rRNA, ITS2, 28S rRNA and finally the 3'ETS...
, S. salmonicolor (as S. subluteus) and S. intermedius clustered together very closely, indicating a high degree of genetic similarity. These analyses were based on comparing the sequence differences in a single region of ribosomal DNA
Ribosomal DNA
Ribosomal DNA codes for ribosomal RNA. The ribosome is an intracellular macromolecule that produces proteins or polypeptide chains. The ribosome itself consists of a composite of proteins and RNA. As shown in the figure, rDNA consists of a tandem repeat of a unit segment, an operon, composed of...
; more recent molecular analyses typically combine the analysis of several genes to increase the validity of inferences drawn.
Description
The capPileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
of S. salmonicolor is bluntly rounded or convex to nearly flattened, reaching a diameter of 3 –. The cap surface is sticky to slimy when moist, but becomes shiny when dry. The cap color is variable, ranging from dingy yellow to yellowish-orange to ochraceous
Ochre
Ochre is the term for both a golden-yellow or light yellow brown color and for a form of earth pigment which produces the color. The pigment can also be used to create a reddish tint known as "red ochre". The more rarely used terms "purple ochre" and "brown ochre" also exist for variant hues...
-salmon
Salmon (color)
Salmon a range of pale pinkish-orange to light pink colors, named after the color of salmon flesh.The web color salmon is displayed at right.The first recorded use of salmon as a color name in English was in 1776...
, cinnamon-brown or olive-brown to yellow-brown. The flesh
Trama (mycology)
In mycology trama is a term for the inner, fleshy portion of a mushroom's basidiocarp, or fruit body. It is distinct from the outer layer of tissue, known as the pileipellis or cuticle, and from the spore-bearing tissue layer known as the hymenium....
is pale orange-yellow to orange-buff or orange, and does not stain when exposed to air. The odor and taste are not distinctive. The pore surface on the underside of the cap is yellow to dingy yellow, or yellowish orange to salmon, darkening to brownish with age; it also does not stain when bruised. The pores are circular to angular, measuring 1–2 per mm and 8 – deep. The stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
is 2.5 – long, 6 – thick, and either equal in width throughout or slightly enlarged in the lower portion. It is whitish to yellowish or pinkish-ochre, and has reddish-brown to dark brown glandular dots and smears on the surface. Glandular dots are made of clumps of pigment
Pigment
A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, in which a material emits light.Many materials selectively absorb...
ed cells, and, unlike reticulation or scabers (small visible tufts of fibers that occur on the stems of other Suillus species), can be rubbed off with handling. The flesh
Trama (mycology)
In mycology trama is a term for the inner, fleshy portion of a mushroom's basidiocarp, or fruit body. It is distinct from the outer layer of tissue, known as the pileipellis or cuticle, and from the spore-bearing tissue layer known as the hymenium....
is ochraceous to yellowish, often salmon-orange at the base of the stem. The partial veil
Partial veil
thumb|150px|right|Developmental stages of [[Agaricus campestris]] showing the role and evolution of a partial veilPartial veil is a mycological term used to describe a temporary structure of tissue found on the fruiting bodies of some basidiomycete fungi, typically agarics...
that protects the developing gills is initially thick, baggy, and rubbery. It often has a conspicuously thickened cottony roll of tissue at its base, and sometimes flares outward from the stem on the lower portion. It forms a gelatinous ring
Annulus (mycology)
An annulus is the ring like structure sometimes found on the stipe of some species of mushrooms. The annulus represents the remaining part of the partial veil, after it has ruptured to expose the gills or other spore-producing surface. An annulus may be thick and membranous, or it may be cobweb-like...
on the upper to middle part of the stem. The spore print
Spore print
thumb|300px|right|Making a spore print of the mushroom Volvariella volvacea shown in composite: mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print...
is cinnamon-brown to brown. The surface of the cap, when applied with a drop of dilute potassium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula KOH, commonly called caustic potash.Along with sodium hydroxide , this colorless solid is a prototypical strong base. It has many industrial and niche applications. Most applications exploit its reactivity toward acids and its corrosive...
(KOH) or ammonia solution
Ammonium hydroxide
Ammonia solution, also known as ammonium hydroxide, ammonia water, ammonical liquor, ammonia liquor, aqua ammonia, aqueous ammonia, or simply ammonia, is a solution of ammonia in water. It can be denoted by the symbols NH3...
(chemical reagents commonly used for mushroom identification
Chemical tests in mushroom identification
Chemical tests in mushroom identification are methods that aid in determining the variety of some fungi. The most useful tests are Melzer's reagent and potassium hydroxide.- Ammonia :Household ammonia can be used. A couple of drops are placed on the flesh...
), will first turn a fleeting pink color, then dark red as the flesh collapses.
The spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s are smooth, roughly ellipsoid in shape, inequilateral when viewed in profile, and measure 7.6–10 by 3–3.4 μm
Micrometre
A micrometer , is by definition 1×10-6 of a meter .In plain English, it means one-millionth of a meter . Its unit symbol in the International System of Units is μm...
. They appear hyaline
Hyaline
The term hyaline denotes a substance with a glass-like appearance.-Histopathology:In histopathological medical usage, a hyaline substance appears glassy and pink after being stained with haematoxylin and eosin — usually it is an acellular, proteinaceous material...
(translucent) to yellowish in a dilute solution of KOH, and cinnamon to pale ochraceous
Ochre
Ochre is the term for both a golden-yellow or light yellow brown color and for a form of earth pigment which produces the color. The pigment can also be used to create a reddish tint known as "red ochre". The more rarely used terms "purple ochre" and "brown ochre" also exist for variant hues...
when stained with Melzer's reagent
Melzer's Reagent
Melzer's reagent is a chemical reagent used by mycologists to assist with the identification of fungi.-Composition:...
. The basidia are somewhat collapsed, hyaline, and 5–6 μm thick. The cystidia are scattered, sometimes arranged in clusters (especially on the gill edge), usually with an ochraceous-brown content, but occasionally hyaline. They are club-shaped to somewhat cylindric and measure 34–60 by 10–13 μm. The cuticle
Pileipellis
thumb|300px||right|The cuticle of some mushrooms, such as [[Russula mustelina]] shown here, can be peeled from the cap, and may be useful as an identification feature....
of the cap is an ixotrichodermium—a cellular arrangement where the outermost hyphae are gelatinous and emerge roughly parallel, like hairs, perpendicular to the cap surface. These hyphae are hyaline and narrowly cylindric, measuring 1.4–3 μm in diameter. The stem surface is made of scattered bundles of caulocystidia (cystidia on the stem) that are brown or sometimes hyaline in KOH, club-shaped to subcylindrical bundles interspersed among hyaline cells. These bundles are underlain by a layer of gelatinous, hyaline, vertically oriented and parallel hyphae that are shaped like narrow cylinders. Clamp connection
Clamp connection
A clamp connection is a structure formed by growing hyphal cells of certain fungi. It is created to ensure each septum, or segment of hypha separated by crossed walls, receives a set of differing nuclei, which are obtained through mating of hyphae of differing sexual types...
s are absent from the hyphae.
Edibility
The mushroom is edibleEdible mushroom
Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruiting bodies of several species of fungi. Mushrooms belong to the macrofungi, because their fruiting structures are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. They can appear either below ground or above ground where they may be picked by hand...
, but removal of the slimy cap cuticle and partial veil is recommended to avoid possible gastrointestinal upset; similarly, the 1992 field guide Edible Wild Mushrooms of North America recommends the removal of the tube layer before preparation, as it can become slimy during cooking. Opinions about the quality of the mushroom vary. According to the book Boletes of North America, it is "very good" with a "lemony" flavor. A Canadian field guide is more cautious in its assessment, and suggests that one would have to be brave to consume a mushroom with such a sticky veil. Mycologist David Arora
David Arora
David Arora is an American mycologist, naturalist, and writer. He is the author of two popular books on mushroom identification, Mushrooms Demystified and All That the Rain Promises and More.......
, in his Mushrooms Demystified
Mushrooms Demystified
Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi is a mushroom field and identification guide by American mycologist David Arora, published in 1979 and republished in 1986....
, opines that it is not worth eating. Whatever its palatibility to humans, the mushroom serves as a habitat for larva
Larva
A larva is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle...
e of mycophagous
Fungivore
A fungivore or mycophage is any animal that primarily or solely feeds upon living members of the fungus kingdom. Fungivory is a type of predation, and is an important part of the soil food web...
insects such as the muscid fly
Muscidae
Muscidae are a family of flies found in the superfamily Muscoidea. The apical segment of the antennae of Muscidae are plumose, and the basal portion is smooth....
Mydaea discimana and the scuttle fly Megaselia lutea.
Similar species
Suillus intermediusSuillus intermedius
Suillus intermedius is an edible species of mushroom in the genus Suillus. It is found in North America....
, found in northeastern and northern North America, is similar in appearance to S. salmonicolor. It may be distinguished by a lighter-colored cap, cream to yellowish or pale ochraceous flesh, and a ring that is neither as thick nor as wide as S. salmonicolor. It is also larger, with a cap diameter of up to 16 cm (6.3 in), and its pore surface sometimes slowly stains reddish-brown when bruised. Although it has not been definitively established whether S. cothurnatus
Suillus cothurnatus
Suillus cothurnatus is a species of mushroom in the genus Suillus. Found in North America, it was first described scientifically by mycologist Rolf Singer in 1945....
is a distinct species, several characteristics have been reported to differentiate it from S. salmonicolor: a thinner, less rubbery veil that usually lacks a thickened cottony roll at the base; glandular dots on the stem that consist of bundles of multiseptate
Septum
In anatomy, a septum is a wall, dividing a cavity or structure into smaller ones.-In human anatomy:...
hyphae in a parallel arrangement ending in an even row of large, sterile cystidia (60–140 μm long) that resemble basidia; and small hyaline cystidia shaped like swollen bottles with narrowed bases. Other Suillus species with which S. salmonicolor might be confused include S. acidus
Suillus acidus
Suillus acidus is an edible species of mushroom in the genus Suillus. The species was first described by Charles Horton Peck as Boletus acidus in 1905....
and S. subalutaceus
Suillus subalutaceus
Suillus subalutaceus is an edible species of mushroom in the genus Suillus. It is found in North America....
. Both of these species have a less well-developed partial veil, and their flesh is a duller tone lacking yellow-orange tints.
Ecology, habitat and distribution
Suillus salmonicolor occurs in a mycorrhizaMycorrhiza
A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant....
l association with various species of Pinus. This is a mutualistic relationship in which the subterranean fungal mycelia
Mycelium
thumb|right|Fungal myceliaMycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. The mass of hyphae is sometimes called shiro, especially within the fairy ring fungi. Fungal colonies composed of mycelia are found in soil and on or within many other...
creates a protective sheath around the rootlets of the tree and a network of hyphae (the Hartig net
Hartig net
Hartig net is a hyphal network, that extends into the root, penetrating between epidermal and cortical cells. This network is a site of nutrient exchange between the fungus and the host plant...
) that penetrates between the tree's epidermal and cortical cells. This association helps the plant absorb water and mineral
Dietary mineral
Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen present in common organic molecules. Examples of mineral elements include calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, zinc, and iodine...
nutrients; in exchange, the fungus receives a supply of carbohydrate
Carbohydrate
A carbohydrate is an organic compound with the empirical formula ; that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 . However, there are exceptions to this. One common example would be deoxyribose, a component of DNA, which has the empirical...
s produced by the plant's photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can...
. Two-, three-, and five-needled pines have all been recorded to associate with S. salmonicolor. In North America, the fungus has been found growing with P. banksiana, P. palustris, P. resinosa, P. rigida, P. strobus and P. taeda. In Kamchatka (in the Russian Far East) it has been found in association with P. pumila, in the Philippines
Philippines
The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
with P. kesiya, and in southern India with P. patula
Pinus patula
Patula pine, pino patula, pinus patula is a tree native to the highlands of Mexico. It grows from 24° to 18° North latitude and 1800 to 2700 m above sea level. 30 m tall...
. The northern limit of its North American range extends to eastern Canada (Quebec
Quebec
Quebec or is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level....
), and the southern limit to Nuevo León
Nuevo León
Nuevo León It is located in Northeastern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Tamaulipas to the north and east, San Luis Potosí to the south, and Coahuila to the west. To the north, Nuevo León has a 15 kilometer stretch of the U.S.-Mexico border adjacent to the U.S...
and near the village of Nabogame in Temósachi Municipality, Chihuahua, Mexico.
Suillus salmonicolor has been collected from the Dominican Republic
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic is a nation on the island of La Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are shared by two countries...
in the Caribbean, Japan, Taiwan, and from Mpumalanga
Mpumalanga
Mpumalanga , is a province of South Africa. The name means east or literally "the place where the sun rises" in Swazi, Xhosa, Ndebele and Zulu. Mpumalanga lies in eastern South Africa, north of KwaZulu-Natal and bordering Swaziland and Mozambique. It constitutes 6.5% of South Africa's land area...
, South Africa. Because there are no native Pinus species in South Africa, the fungus is assumed to be an exotic species that has been introduced
Introduced species
An introduced species — or neozoon, alien, exotic, non-indigenous, or non-native species, or simply an introduction, is a species living outside its indigenous or native distributional range, and has arrived in an ecosystem or plant community by human activity, either deliberate or accidental...
via pine plantations. It has also been introduced to Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, where it is known from a single collection made in a plantation of Caribbean pine
Caribbean Pine
The Caribbean Pine, Pinus caribaea, is a hard pine native to Central America, Cuba, Jamaica, the Bahamas, and the Turks and Caicos Islands. It inhabits tropical and subtropical coniferous forests, which include both lowland savannas and montane forests...
(Pinus caribaea) in Queensland
Queensland
Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean...
; the fungus has additionally been found growing with Caribbean pine in Belize
Belize
Belize is a constitutional monarchy and the northernmost country in Central America. Belize has a diverse society, comprising many cultures and languages. Even though Kriol and Spanish are spoken among the population, Belize is the only country in Central America where English is the official...
. It is found in Hawaii under Slash Pine
Slash Pine
Pinus elliottii, commonly known as the Slash Pine, is a pine native to the southeastern United States, from southern South Carolina west to southeastern Louisiana, and south to the Florida Keys....
(Pinus elliotii), including lawns where those trees are used in landscaping
Landscaping
Landscaping refers to any activity that modifies the visible features of an area of land, including:# living elements, such as flora or fauna; or what is commonly referred to as gardening, the art and craft of growing plants with a goal of creating a beautiful environment within the landscape.#...
. S. salmonicolor is one of several ectomycorrhizal species that have "traveled the thousands of kilometers from a mainland to Hawaii in the roots and soil of introduced seedlings."