Surround Optical Fiber Immunoassay (SOFIA)
Encyclopedia
Surround Optical Fiber Immunoassay (SOFIA) is an ultra-sensitive, in vitro
diagnostic platform incorporating a surround optical fiber
assembly that captures fluorescence
emissions from an entire sample. The technology's defining characteristics are its extremely high limit of detection, sensitivity
and dynamic range
. SOFIA’s sensitivity is measured at the attogram level (10−18g), making it approximately one billion times more sensitive than conventional diagnostic techniques. Based on its enhanced dynamic range, SOFIA is able to discriminate levels of analyte
in a sample over 10 orders of magnitude facilitating accurate titering
.
As a diagnostic platform SOFIA has a broad range of applications. Several studies have already demonstrated SOFIA’s unprecedented ability to detect naturally occurring prions in the blood and urine of disease carriers. This is expected to lead to the first reliable antemortem screening test for vCJD, BSE
, scrapie
, CWD, and other transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Given the technology’s extreme sensitivity, additional unique applications are anticipated, including in-vitro tests for other neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
SOFIA was developed as a result of a joint-collaborative research project between Los Alamos National Laboratory
and State University of New York
, and was supported by the Department of Defense's
National Prion Research Program (NPRP). Its ongoing development is being spear-headed by Bionosis, Inc., a private-sector biotechnology
company.
measurements such as infrared
, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy
, phosphorescence
, etc. is to use a small transparent laboratory vessel known as a cuvette
to contain the sample to be analyzed.
To perform a measurement, the cuvette is filled with the liquid to be investigated and then illuminated with a laser focused through one of the cuvette’s faces. A lens is placed in line with one of the faces of the cuvette located at ninety degrees from the input window to collect the laser-induced fluorescence light. Only a small volume of the cuvette is actually illuminated by the laser and produces a detectable spectroscopic emission. The output signal is significantly reduced by the fact that the lens picks up only approximately ten percent of the spectroscopic emission due to sold angle considerations. This technique has been used for at least seventy-five years; even before the laser existed, when conventional light sources were used to excite the fluorescence.
SOFIA solves the problem of low collection efficiency as it collects nearly all of the fluorescence light produced from the sample that is analyzed, increasing the amount of fluorescence signal by approximately a factor of ten over conventional apparatus.
SOFIA combines the specificity inherent in monoclonal antibodies
(Mabs) for antigen capture with the sensitivity of surround optical detection technology. To detect extremely low signal levels, a low noise, photo-voltaic diode is used as the detector for the system. SOFIA utilizes a laser illuminating a micro-capillary holding the sample. Then, the light collected from the sample is directed to transfer optics from optical fibers. Next, the light is optically filtered for detection, which is performed as a current measurement amplified against noise by a digital signal processing lock-in amplified. The results are displayed on a computer and software designed for data acquisition.
The advantages of such a detection array are numerous. Primarily, it permits the use of very small samples at low concentration to be optimally interrogated using the laser-induced fluorescence technique. This fiber-based detection system is adaptable to existing short-pulsed detection hardware that was originally developed for sequencing single DNA molecules. The geometry is also amenable to deployment for short pulse laser single molecule detection schemes. The multi-port geometry of the system allows efficient electronic processing of the signals from each arm of the device. Finally, and perhaps most important, fiber optical cables are essentially 100% efficient in optical transmission, having an attenuation
less than 10 dB
per kilometer. Thus, once deployed for use in a facility, as the fluorescence information can be fiber-optically transmitted to a remote location where data processing and analysis can be performed.
Figure 1 depicts the current version of the SOFIA system. Four linear arrays (101) extend from a sample holder (102), which houses an elongated, transparent sample container which is open at both ends, to an end port (103). The distal end of the endport (104) is inserted into an end port assembly (200). The linear arrays (101) comprise a plurality of optical fibers having a first end and a second end, the plurality of optical fibers optionally surrounded by a protective and/or insulating sheath. The optical fibers are linearly arranged, meaning that they are substantially coplanar with respect to one another so as to form an elongated row of fibers.
SOFIA has demonstrated its potential as a device with a wide-range of applications. These include (1) clinical applications, such as detecting diseases, discovering predispositions to pathologies, establishing a diagnosis and tracking the effectiveness of prescribed treatments, and (2) non-clinical applications, such as preventing the entry of toxins and other pathogenic agents into products intended for human consumption:
Clinical Applications – SOFIA may be used to conduct both qualitative tests (either positive or negative results) to detect or identify bacteria or viruses, and quantitative tests (measuring substances) to detect or quantify biological constants or markers, which are substances produced by the body in the presence of, for example, an infectious disease (to allow determination of viral load for instance in AIDS therapy, or the level of toxicity in drugs of abuse detection).
Non-clinical Applications - As an immunoassay, SOFIA can potentially be utilized on a wider scale to monitor the quality of food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, water, as well as general environmental parameters and agricultural products. The ability to detect and screen bacteria and toxins for a wide range of products is a growing and more complex requirement as may be evidenced by the increase incidence of food and animal borne diseases such as E. coli, Salmonella, BSE, Avian Influenza, etc.
in samples of bodily fluids such as blood or urine. PrPSc is the marker protein used in diagnostics for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), examples of which include bovine spongiform encephalopathy
in cattle (i.e. “mad cow” disease), scrapie
in sheep, and Creutzfeld-Jakob disease in humans. Currently, no rapid means exists for the antemortem detection of PrPSc in the dilute quantities in which it usually appears in bodily fluids. SOFIA has the advantages of requiring little sample preparation, and allowing for electronic diagnostic equipment to be placed outside the containment area.
of deer and elk, scrapie
in sheep, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
(CJD) in humans. TSEs may be passed from host to host by ingestion of infected tissues or blood transfusions. Clinical symptoms of TSEs include loss of movement coordination and dementia in humans. They have incubation periods of months to years, but after the appearance of clinical signs, they are rapidly progressive, untreatable and invariably fatal. Attempts at TSE risk reduction have led to significant changes in the production and trade of agricultural goods, medicines, cosmetics, blood and tissue donations, and bio-technology products. Post-mortem neuropathological examination of brain tissue from an animal or human has remained the ‘gold standard’ of TSE diagnosis and is very specific, but not as sensitive as other techniques.
To improve food safety it would be highly beneficial to screen all the animals for prion diseases using antemortem, pre-clinical testing, i.e., testing prior to presentation of symptoms. However, PrPSc levels are very low in pre-symptomatic hosts. In addition, PrPScs are generally unevenly distributed in body tissues, with highest concentration consistently found in nervous system tissues and very low concerntrations in easily accessible body fluids such as blood or urine. Therefore, any such test would be required to detect extremely small amounts of PrP and would have to differentiate PrPC and PrPSc.
Current PrPSc detection methods are time-consuming and employ post-mortem analysis after suspicious animals manifest one or more symptoms of the disease. Current diagnostic methods are based mainly on detection of physiocochemical differences between PrPC and PrPSc which, to date, are the only reliable markers for TSEs. For example, the most widely used diagnostic tests exploit the relative protease
resistance of PrPSc in brain samples to discriminate between PrPC and PrPSc, in combination with antibody-based detection of the PK
-resistant portion of PrPSc. It has as yet not been possible to detect prion diseases by using conventional methods such as polymerase chain reaction, serology or cell culture assays. An agent-specific nucleic acid has not yet been identified, and the infected host does not elicit an antibody response.
The conformationally altered form of PrPC is PrPSc. Some groups believe that PrPSc is the infectious agent (prion agent) in TSEs, while other groups do not. PrPSc could be a neuropathological
product of the disease process, a component of the infectious agent, the infectious agent itself or something else altogether. Regardless of what its actual function in the disease state is, what is clear is that PrPSc is specifically associated with the disease process and detection of it indicates infection with the agent that causes prion diseases.
, or a combination thereof. Absence of PrPSc indicates no infection with the infectious agent up to the detection limits of the methods. Detection of a presence of PrPSc indicates infection with the infectious agent associated with prion disease. Infection with the prion agent may be detected in both presymptomatic and symptomatic stages of disease progression.
These and other improvements have been achieved with SOFIA. SOFIA’s sensitivity and specificity eliminates the need for PK digestion to distinguish between the normal and abnormal PrP isoforms. Further detection of PrPSc in blood plasma
has now been addressed by limited PMCA
followed by SOFIA. Because of the sensitivity of SOFIA, PMCA cycles can be reduced, thus decreasing the chances of spontaneous PrPSc formation and the detection of falsely positive samples.
SOFIA meets the needs of increased sensitivity in the detection of prion diseases in both presymptomatic and symptomatic TSE infected animals, including humans, by providing methods of analysis using highly sensitive instrumentation, which requires less sample preparation than previously described methods, in combination with recently developed Mabs against PrP. The method of the present version of SOFIA provides sensitivity levels sufficient to detect PrPSc in brain tissue. When coupled with limited sPMCA, the methods of the present inventions provide sensitivity levels sufficient to detect PrPSc in blood plasma, tissue and other fluids collected antemortem.
The methods combine the specificity of the Mabs for antigen
capture and concentration with the sensitivity of a surround optical fiber detection technology. In contrast to previously described methods for detection of PrPSc in brain homogenates
, these techniques, when used to study brain homogenates, does not utilize seeded polymerization, amplification, or enzymatic digestion (for example, by proteinase K, or “PK”). This is important in that previous reports have indicated the existence of PrPSc isoforms with varied PK sensitivity, which decreases reliability of the assay. The sensitivity of this assay makes it suitable as a platform for rapid prion detection assay in biological fluids. In addition to prion diseases, the method may provide a means for rapid, high-throughput testing for a wide spectrum of infections and disorders.
While it was found that about 40 cycles of sPMCA combined with immunoprecipitation was inadequate for PrPSc detection in plasma by ELISA or western blotting, the PrPSc has also been found to be readily measured by SOFIA methods. In accordance with this invention the limited numbers of cycles necessary for the present assay platform virtually eliminates the possibility of obtaining PMCA-related false positive results such as those previously reported (Thorne and Terry, 2008).
is an assay technology that is predicted to be of broader use in diagnostic assay development for infections and disorders beyond the scope of prion diseases. A major potential application of SOFIA as a clinical diagnostic test are other protein misfolding diseases, in particular Alzheimer's.
A 2010 study demonstrated that a moderate amount of protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) coupled to a novel surround optical fiber immunoassay (SOFIA) detection scheme, can be used to detect PrPSc in protease-untreated plasma from preclinical and clinical scrapie sheep, and white-tailed deer with chronic wasting disease, following natural and experimental infection. The disease-associated form of the prion protein (PrPSc), resulting from a conformational change of the normal (cellular) form of prion protein (PrPC), is considered central to neuropathogenesis and serves as the only reliable molecular marker for prion disease diagnosis. While the highest levels of PrPSc are present in the CNS, the development of a reasonable diagnostic assay requires the use of body fluids which characteristically contains exceedingly low levels of PrPSc. PrPSc has been detected in the blood of sick animals by means of PMCA technology. However, repeated cycling over several days, which is necessary for PMCA of blood material, has been reported to result in decreased specificity (false positives). To generate an assay for PrPSc in blood that is both highly sensitive and specific, the researchers utilized limited serial PMCA (sPMCA) with SOFIA. The researchers did not find any enhancement of sPMCA with the addition of polyadenylic acid nor was it necessary to match the genotypes of the PrPC and PrPSc sources for efficient amplification.
A 2009 study, found that in its current format, SOFIA is capable of detecting less than 10 attogram (ag) of hamster, sheep and deer recombinant PrP. Approximately 10 ag of PrPSc from 263K-infected hamster brains can be detected with similar lower limits of PrPSc detection from the brains of scrapie-infected sheep and deer infected with chronic wasting disease. These detection limits allow protease treated and untreated material to be diluted beyond the point where PrPC, non-specific proteins or other extraneous material may interfere with PrPSc signal detection and/or specificity. This not only eliminates the issue of specificity of PrPSc detection but also increases sensitivity since the possibility of partial PrPSc proteolysis is no longer a concern. SOFIA will likely lead to early antemortem detection of transmissible encephalopathies and is also amenable for use with additional target amplification protocols. SOFIA represents a sensitive means for detecting specific proteins involved in disease pathogenesis and/or diagnosis that extends beyond the scope of the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.
In vitro diagnostics
In vitro diagnostic tests are medical devices intended to perform diagnoses from assays in a test tube, or more generally in a controlled environment outside a living organism...
diagnostic platform incorporating a surround optical fiber
Optical fiber
An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made of a pure glass not much wider than a human hair. It functions as a waveguide, or "light pipe", to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. The field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of...
assembly that captures fluorescence
Fluorescence
Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation of a different wavelength. It is a form of luminescence. In most cases, emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore lower energy, than the absorbed radiation...
emissions from an entire sample. The technology's defining characteristics are its extremely high limit of detection, sensitivity
Sensitivity and specificity
Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures of the performance of a binary classification test, also known in statistics as classification function. Sensitivity measures the proportion of actual positives which are correctly identified as such Sensitivity and specificity are statistical...
and dynamic range
Dynamic range
Dynamic range, abbreviated DR or DNR, is the ratio between the largest and smallest possible values of a changeable quantity, such as in sound and light. It is measured as a ratio, or as a base-10 or base-2 logarithmic value.-Dynamic range and human perception:The human senses of sight and...
. SOFIA’s sensitivity is measured at the attogram level (10−18g), making it approximately one billion times more sensitive than conventional diagnostic techniques. Based on its enhanced dynamic range, SOFIA is able to discriminate levels of analyte
Analyte
An analyte, or component , is a substance or chemical constituent that is of interest in an analytical procedure. Grammatically, it is important to note that experiments always seek to measure properties of analytes—and that analytes themselves can never be measured. For instance, one cannot...
in a sample over 10 orders of magnitude facilitating accurate titering
Titer
A titer is a way of expressing concentration. Titer testing employs serial dilution to obtain approximate quantitative information from an analytical procedure that inherently only evaluates as positive or negative. The titer corresponds to the highest dilution factor that still yields a positive...
.
As a diagnostic platform SOFIA has a broad range of applications. Several studies have already demonstrated SOFIA’s unprecedented ability to detect naturally occurring prions in the blood and urine of disease carriers. This is expected to lead to the first reliable antemortem screening test for vCJD, BSE
BSE
- Medicine :* Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, a neurological disease commonly known as "mad cow disease"* Breast self-examination* Bone surface element- State Secondary Education Boards of India :*Board of Secondary Education, Assam...
, scrapie
Scrapie
Scrapie is a fatal, degenerative disease that affects the nervous systems of sheep and goats. It is one of several transmissible spongiform encephalopathies , which are related to bovine spongiform encephalopathy and chronic wasting disease of deer. Like other spongiform encephalopathies, scrapie...
, CWD, and other transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Given the technology’s extreme sensitivity, additional unique applications are anticipated, including in-vitro tests for other neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
SOFIA was developed as a result of a joint-collaborative research project between Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory, managed and operated by Los Alamos National Security , located in Los Alamos, New Mexico...
and State University of New York
State University of New York
The State University of New York, abbreviated SUNY , is a system of public institutions of higher education in New York, United States. It is the largest comprehensive system of universities, colleges, and community colleges in the United States, with a total enrollment of 465,000 students, plus...
, and was supported by the Department of Defense's
United States Department of Defense
The United States Department of Defense is the U.S...
National Prion Research Program (NPRP). Its ongoing development is being spear-headed by Bionosis, Inc., a private-sector biotechnology
Biotechnology
Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. Biotechnology also utilizes these products for manufacturing purpose...
company.
Background
The conventional method of performing laser induced fluorescence as well as other types of spectroscopicSpectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy. Historically, spectroscopy originated through the study of visible light dispersed according to its wavelength, e.g., by a prism. Later the concept was expanded greatly to comprise any interaction with radiative...
measurements such as infrared
Infrared
Infrared light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible light, measured from the nominal edge of visible red light at 0.74 micrometres , and extending conventionally to 300 µm...
, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy or ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflectance spectroscopy in the ultraviolet-visible spectral region. This means it uses light in the visible and adjacent ranges...
, phosphorescence
Phosphorescence
Phosphorescence is a specific type of photoluminescence related to fluorescence. Unlike fluorescence, a phosphorescent material does not immediately re-emit the radiation it absorbs. The slower time scales of the re-emission are associated with "forbidden" energy state transitions in quantum...
, etc. is to use a small transparent laboratory vessel known as a cuvette
Cuvette
A cuvette is a small tube of circular or square cross section, sealed at one end, made of plastic, glass, or fused quartz and designed to hold samples for spectroscopic experiments. The best cuvettes are as clear as possible, without impurities that might affect a spectroscopic reading...
to contain the sample to be analyzed.
To perform a measurement, the cuvette is filled with the liquid to be investigated and then illuminated with a laser focused through one of the cuvette’s faces. A lens is placed in line with one of the faces of the cuvette located at ninety degrees from the input window to collect the laser-induced fluorescence light. Only a small volume of the cuvette is actually illuminated by the laser and produces a detectable spectroscopic emission. The output signal is significantly reduced by the fact that the lens picks up only approximately ten percent of the spectroscopic emission due to sold angle considerations. This technique has been used for at least seventy-five years; even before the laser existed, when conventional light sources were used to excite the fluorescence.
SOFIA solves the problem of low collection efficiency as it collects nearly all of the fluorescence light produced from the sample that is analyzed, increasing the amount of fluorescence signal by approximately a factor of ten over conventional apparatus.
Technological Advantages
SOFIA is an apparatus and method for improved optical geometry for enhancement of spectroscopic detection of analytes in a sample. The invention has already demonstrated its proof-of-concept functionality as an apparatus and method for ultrasensitive detection of prions and other low-level analytes.SOFIA combines the specificity inherent in monoclonal antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies are monospecific antibodies that are the same because they are made by identical immune cells that are all clones of a unique parent cell....
(Mabs) for antigen capture with the sensitivity of surround optical detection technology. To detect extremely low signal levels, a low noise, photo-voltaic diode is used as the detector for the system. SOFIA utilizes a laser illuminating a micro-capillary holding the sample. Then, the light collected from the sample is directed to transfer optics from optical fibers. Next, the light is optically filtered for detection, which is performed as a current measurement amplified against noise by a digital signal processing lock-in amplified. The results are displayed on a computer and software designed for data acquisition.
The advantages of such a detection array are numerous. Primarily, it permits the use of very small samples at low concentration to be optimally interrogated using the laser-induced fluorescence technique. This fiber-based detection system is adaptable to existing short-pulsed detection hardware that was originally developed for sequencing single DNA molecules. The geometry is also amenable to deployment for short pulse laser single molecule detection schemes. The multi-port geometry of the system allows efficient electronic processing of the signals from each arm of the device. Finally, and perhaps most important, fiber optical cables are essentially 100% efficient in optical transmission, having an attenuation
Attenuation
In physics, attenuation is the gradual loss in intensity of any kind of flux through a medium. For instance, sunlight is attenuated by dark glasses, X-rays are attenuated by lead, and light and sound are attenuated by water.In electrical engineering and telecommunications, attenuation affects the...
less than 10 dB
Decibel
The decibel is a logarithmic unit that indicates the ratio of a physical quantity relative to a specified or implied reference level. A ratio in decibels is ten times the logarithm to base 10 of the ratio of two power quantities...
per kilometer. Thus, once deployed for use in a facility, as the fluorescence information can be fiber-optically transmitted to a remote location where data processing and analysis can be performed.
Components of SOFIA
SOFIA comprises a multi-well plate sample container; an automated means for successively transporting samples from the multi-well plate sample container to a transparent capillary contained within a sample holder; an excitation source in optical communication with the sample, wherein radiation from the excitation source is directed along the length of the capillary, and wherein the radiation induces a signal which is emitted from the sample; and, at least one linear array.Assay Preparation
After amplifying and then concentrating the target analyte, the samples are labeled with a fluorescent dye using an antibody for specificity and then finally loaded into a micro-capillary tube. This tube is placed in a specially constructed apparatus so that it is totally surrounded by optical fibers to capture all light emitted once the dye is excited using a laser.Instrumentation Processing
The present invention is a spectroscopic—or light gathering—apparatus and corresponding method for rapidly detecting and analyzing analytes in a sample. The sample is irradiated by an excitation source in optical communication with the sample. The excitation source may include, but is not limited to, a laser, a flash lamp, an arc lamp, a light emitting diode, or the like.Figure 1 depicts the current version of the SOFIA system. Four linear arrays (101) extend from a sample holder (102), which houses an elongated, transparent sample container which is open at both ends, to an end port (103). The distal end of the endport (104) is inserted into an end port assembly (200). The linear arrays (101) comprise a plurality of optical fibers having a first end and a second end, the plurality of optical fibers optionally surrounded by a protective and/or insulating sheath. The optical fibers are linearly arranged, meaning that they are substantially coplanar with respect to one another so as to form an elongated row of fibers.
Applications of SOFIA
SOFIA is used for detecting and analyzing analytes. The analyte of interest may be biological or chemical in nature, and by way of example only may include chemical moieties (toxins, metabolites, drugs and drug residues), peptides, proteins, cellular components, viruses, and combinations thereof. The analyte of interest may be in either a fluid or a supporting media such as, for example, a gel.SOFIA has demonstrated its potential as a device with a wide-range of applications. These include (1) clinical applications, such as detecting diseases, discovering predispositions to pathologies, establishing a diagnosis and tracking the effectiveness of prescribed treatments, and (2) non-clinical applications, such as preventing the entry of toxins and other pathogenic agents into products intended for human consumption:
Clinical Applications – SOFIA may be used to conduct both qualitative tests (either positive or negative results) to detect or identify bacteria or viruses, and quantitative tests (measuring substances) to detect or quantify biological constants or markers, which are substances produced by the body in the presence of, for example, an infectious disease (to allow determination of viral load for instance in AIDS therapy, or the level of toxicity in drugs of abuse detection).
Non-clinical Applications - As an immunoassay, SOFIA can potentially be utilized on a wider scale to monitor the quality of food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, water, as well as general environmental parameters and agricultural products. The ability to detect and screen bacteria and toxins for a wide range of products is a growing and more complex requirement as may be evidenced by the increase incidence of food and animal borne diseases such as E. coli, Salmonella, BSE, Avian Influenza, etc.
Antemortem Test for Prion Diseases
SOFIA has been used to rapidly detect the abnormal form of the prion protein PrPScPrion
A prion is an infectious agent composed of protein in a misfolded form. This is in contrast to all other known infectious agents which must contain nucleic acids . The word prion, coined in 1982 by Stanley B. Prusiner, is a portmanteau derived from the words protein and infection...
in samples of bodily fluids such as blood or urine. PrPSc is the marker protein used in diagnostics for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), examples of which include bovine spongiform encephalopathy
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy , commonly known as mad-cow disease, is a fatal neurodegenerative disease in cattle that causes a spongy degeneration in the brain and spinal cord. BSE has a long incubation period, about 30 months to 8 years, usually affecting adult cattle at a peak age onset of...
in cattle (i.e. “mad cow” disease), scrapie
Scrapie
Scrapie is a fatal, degenerative disease that affects the nervous systems of sheep and goats. It is one of several transmissible spongiform encephalopathies , which are related to bovine spongiform encephalopathy and chronic wasting disease of deer. Like other spongiform encephalopathies, scrapie...
in sheep, and Creutzfeld-Jakob disease in humans. Currently, no rapid means exists for the antemortem detection of PrPSc in the dilute quantities in which it usually appears in bodily fluids. SOFIA has the advantages of requiring little sample preparation, and allowing for electronic diagnostic equipment to be placed outside the containment area.
Background
TSEs, or prion diseases, are infectious neurodegenerative diseases of mammals that include bovine spongiform encephalopaty (“mad cow” disease), chronic wasting diseaseChronic wasting disease
Chronic wasting disease is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy of mule deer, whitetailed deer, elk , and moose. TSEs are caused by unusual infectious agents known as prions. To date, CWD has been found mainly in cervids...
of deer and elk, scrapie
Scrapie
Scrapie is a fatal, degenerative disease that affects the nervous systems of sheep and goats. It is one of several transmissible spongiform encephalopathies , which are related to bovine spongiform encephalopathy and chronic wasting disease of deer. Like other spongiform encephalopathies, scrapie...
in sheep, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease or CJD is a degenerative neurological disorder that is incurable and invariably fatal. CJD is at times called a human form of mad cow disease, given that bovine spongiform encephalopathy is believed to be the cause of variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans.CJD...
(CJD) in humans. TSEs may be passed from host to host by ingestion of infected tissues or blood transfusions. Clinical symptoms of TSEs include loss of movement coordination and dementia in humans. They have incubation periods of months to years, but after the appearance of clinical signs, they are rapidly progressive, untreatable and invariably fatal. Attempts at TSE risk reduction have led to significant changes in the production and trade of agricultural goods, medicines, cosmetics, blood and tissue donations, and bio-technology products. Post-mortem neuropathological examination of brain tissue from an animal or human has remained the ‘gold standard’ of TSE diagnosis and is very specific, but not as sensitive as other techniques.
To improve food safety it would be highly beneficial to screen all the animals for prion diseases using antemortem, pre-clinical testing, i.e., testing prior to presentation of symptoms. However, PrPSc levels are very low in pre-symptomatic hosts. In addition, PrPScs are generally unevenly distributed in body tissues, with highest concentration consistently found in nervous system tissues and very low concerntrations in easily accessible body fluids such as blood or urine. Therefore, any such test would be required to detect extremely small amounts of PrP and would have to differentiate PrPC and PrPSc.
Current PrPSc detection methods are time-consuming and employ post-mortem analysis after suspicious animals manifest one or more symptoms of the disease. Current diagnostic methods are based mainly on detection of physiocochemical differences between PrPC and PrPSc which, to date, are the only reliable markers for TSEs. For example, the most widely used diagnostic tests exploit the relative protease
Protease
A protease is any enzyme that conducts proteolysis, that is, begins protein catabolism by hydrolysis of the peptide bonds that link amino acids together in the polypeptide chain forming the protein....
resistance of PrPSc in brain samples to discriminate between PrPC and PrPSc, in combination with antibody-based detection of the PK
Proteinase K
Proteinase K is a broad-spectrum serine protease. The enzyme was discovered in 1974 in extracts of the fungus Engyodontium album . Proteinase K is able to digest native keratin , hence, the name "Proteinase K"...
-resistant portion of PrPSc. It has as yet not been possible to detect prion diseases by using conventional methods such as polymerase chain reaction, serology or cell culture assays. An agent-specific nucleic acid has not yet been identified, and the infected host does not elicit an antibody response.
The conformationally altered form of PrPC is PrPSc. Some groups believe that PrPSc is the infectious agent (prion agent) in TSEs, while other groups do not. PrPSc could be a neuropathological
Neuropathology
Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either small surgical biopsies or whole autopsy brains. Neuropathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology, neurology, and neurosurgery...
product of the disease process, a component of the infectious agent, the infectious agent itself or something else altogether. Regardless of what its actual function in the disease state is, what is clear is that PrPSc is specifically associated with the disease process and detection of it indicates infection with the agent that causes prion diseases.
SOFIA as an Ante-Mortem Test for Prion Diseases
SOFIA provides, among other things, methods to diagnose prion diseases by detection of PrPSc in a biological sample. This biological sample can be brain tissue, nerve tissue, blood, urine, lymphatic fluid, cerebrospinal fluidCerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid , Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear, colorless, bodily fluid, that occupies the subarachnoid space and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord...
, or a combination thereof. Absence of PrPSc indicates no infection with the infectious agent up to the detection limits of the methods. Detection of a presence of PrPSc indicates infection with the infectious agent associated with prion disease. Infection with the prion agent may be detected in both presymptomatic and symptomatic stages of disease progression.
These and other improvements have been achieved with SOFIA. SOFIA’s sensitivity and specificity eliminates the need for PK digestion to distinguish between the normal and abnormal PrP isoforms. Further detection of PrPSc in blood plasma
Blood plasma
Blood plasma is the straw-colored liquid component of blood in which the blood cells in whole blood are normally suspended. It makes up about 55% of the total blood volume. It is the intravascular fluid part of extracellular fluid...
has now been addressed by limited PMCA
Protein Misfolding Cyclic Amplification
Protein Misfolding Cyclic Amplification is an amplification technique to multiply misfolded prions originally developed by Soto and colleagues...
followed by SOFIA. Because of the sensitivity of SOFIA, PMCA cycles can be reduced, thus decreasing the chances of spontaneous PrPSc formation and the detection of falsely positive samples.
SOFIA meets the needs of increased sensitivity in the detection of prion diseases in both presymptomatic and symptomatic TSE infected animals, including humans, by providing methods of analysis using highly sensitive instrumentation, which requires less sample preparation than previously described methods, in combination with recently developed Mabs against PrP. The method of the present version of SOFIA provides sensitivity levels sufficient to detect PrPSc in brain tissue. When coupled with limited sPMCA, the methods of the present inventions provide sensitivity levels sufficient to detect PrPSc in blood plasma, tissue and other fluids collected antemortem.
The methods combine the specificity of the Mabs for antigen
Antigen
An antigen is a foreign molecule that, when introduced into the body, triggers the production of an antibody by the immune system. The immune system will then kill or neutralize the antigen that is recognized as a foreign and potentially harmful invader. These invaders can be molecules such as...
capture and concentration with the sensitivity of a surround optical fiber detection technology. In contrast to previously described methods for detection of PrPSc in brain homogenates
Homogenization (biology)
Homogenization is a process that involves breaking apart cells — releasing organelles and cytoplasm.When the purpose is to extract organelles, it is frequently done in two steps; first using a blender to break the tissue up, and then with an ultrasonic or mechanical tissue disruptor. The...
, these techniques, when used to study brain homogenates, does not utilize seeded polymerization, amplification, or enzymatic digestion (for example, by proteinase K, or “PK”). This is important in that previous reports have indicated the existence of PrPSc isoforms with varied PK sensitivity, which decreases reliability of the assay. The sensitivity of this assay makes it suitable as a platform for rapid prion detection assay in biological fluids. In addition to prion diseases, the method may provide a means for rapid, high-throughput testing for a wide spectrum of infections and disorders.
While it was found that about 40 cycles of sPMCA combined with immunoprecipitation was inadequate for PrPSc detection in plasma by ELISA or western blotting, the PrPSc has also been found to be readily measured by SOFIA methods. In accordance with this invention the limited numbers of cycles necessary for the present assay platform virtually eliminates the possibility of obtaining PMCA-related false positive results such as those previously reported (Thorne and Terry, 2008).
Other Clinical Applications of SOFIA
With rapid developments in the field of biomarker research, many infections and disorders that have not been possible to diagnose via in-vitro testing, are becoming increasingly possible. SOFIAis an assay technology that is predicted to be of broader use in diagnostic assay development for infections and disorders beyond the scope of prion diseases. A major potential application of SOFIA as a clinical diagnostic test are other protein misfolding diseases, in particular Alzheimer's.
Published Research
A September 2011 study reported the detection of prions in urine from naturally and orally infected sheep with clinical scrapie agent and orally infected preclinical and infected white-tailed deer with clinical chronic wasting disease (CWD). This is the first report on prion detection of PrPSc from the urine of naturally or preclinical prion-diseased ovine or cervids.A 2010 study demonstrated that a moderate amount of protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) coupled to a novel surround optical fiber immunoassay (SOFIA) detection scheme, can be used to detect PrPSc in protease-untreated plasma from preclinical and clinical scrapie sheep, and white-tailed deer with chronic wasting disease, following natural and experimental infection. The disease-associated form of the prion protein (PrPSc), resulting from a conformational change of the normal (cellular) form of prion protein (PrPC), is considered central to neuropathogenesis and serves as the only reliable molecular marker for prion disease diagnosis. While the highest levels of PrPSc are present in the CNS, the development of a reasonable diagnostic assay requires the use of body fluids which characteristically contains exceedingly low levels of PrPSc. PrPSc has been detected in the blood of sick animals by means of PMCA technology. However, repeated cycling over several days, which is necessary for PMCA of blood material, has been reported to result in decreased specificity (false positives). To generate an assay for PrPSc in blood that is both highly sensitive and specific, the researchers utilized limited serial PMCA (sPMCA) with SOFIA. The researchers did not find any enhancement of sPMCA with the addition of polyadenylic acid nor was it necessary to match the genotypes of the PrPC and PrPSc sources for efficient amplification.
A 2009 study, found that in its current format, SOFIA is capable of detecting less than 10 attogram (ag) of hamster, sheep and deer recombinant PrP. Approximately 10 ag of PrPSc from 263K-infected hamster brains can be detected with similar lower limits of PrPSc detection from the brains of scrapie-infected sheep and deer infected with chronic wasting disease. These detection limits allow protease treated and untreated material to be diluted beyond the point where PrPC, non-specific proteins or other extraneous material may interfere with PrPSc signal detection and/or specificity. This not only eliminates the issue of specificity of PrPSc detection but also increases sensitivity since the possibility of partial PrPSc proteolysis is no longer a concern. SOFIA will likely lead to early antemortem detection of transmissible encephalopathies and is also amenable for use with additional target amplification protocols. SOFIA represents a sensitive means for detecting specific proteins involved in disease pathogenesis and/or diagnosis that extends beyond the scope of the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.