Syria-Lebanon campaign
Encyclopedia
The Syria–Lebanon campaign, also known as Operation Exporter, was the Allied
invasion of Vichy French
-controlled Syria
and Lebanon
, in June–July 1941, during World War II
. Time Magazine
referred to the fighting as a "mixed show" while it was taking place and the campaign remains little known, even in the countries that took part. There is evidence that Allied censor
s acted to suppress or reduce reportage of the fierce fighting. Senior Allied commanders and/or politicians believed that knowledge of fighting against French forces could have a negative effect on public opinion in Allied countries.
from using the Vichy French-controlled Mandate of Syria
and Mandate of Lebanon
as springboards for attacks on the Allied stronghold of Egypt
, as the Allies fought a campaign against Axis
forces further west, in North Africa
. Although the French had ceded autonomy to Syria in September 1936, they had retained treaty rights to maintain armed forces and two airfields in the territory. From 1 April, after a coup d'état
, Iraq
was controlled by pro-German rebel forces under Rashid Ali.
In May 1941, Admiral François Darlan
signed an agreement with the Germans known as the "Paris Protocols
". Darlan signed on behalf of Vichy France
and the agreement granted the Germans access to military facilities in Syria. Though the protocols were never ratified, Charles Huntziger
, the Vichy Minister of War
, sent orders to Henri Dentz
, the High Commissioner for the Levant
. In accordance with these orders, aircraft of the German Air Force (Luftwaffe
) and the Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica
) were allowed to refuel in Syria. Disguised as Iraqi aircraft, the German and Italian aircraft
landed in Syria en route to the Kingdom of Iraq
during the Anglo-Iraqi War
. The Germans also requested permission from the Vichy authorities to use Syrian railways to send armaments to Iraqi rebels in Mosul
. There was a threat of Axis support for anti-British parties in Iraq, thus endangering strategic oil supplies and communications. General Archibald Wavell
—Commander in Chief of Middle East Command
—faced a threat posed by Vichy collaboration with Germany and Italy.
bomber flying a reconnaissance mission over Palmyra
spotted a Junkers Ju 90
transport taking off, with more German and Italian aircraft seen later that day, resulting in a strafing
mission being authorised later that evening. Attacks against German and Italian aircraft staging through Syria continued, with a total of six Axis aircraft being claimed destroyed by 8 June, while Vichy French forces claiming to have shot down a Blenheim on 28 May, with a further Blenheim being forced down on 2 June. A Vichy French Martin 167F bomber was shot down by the RAF over Palestine on 6 June.
. Dentz was also Commander in Chief of the Army of the Levant
(Armée du Levant). This formation was divided into the regular metropolitan colonial troops and the "special troops" (troupes speciales, who were indigenous Syrian and Lebanese soldiers).
Dentz had seven infantry battalions of regular French troops at his disposal. These battalions included the 6th Infantry Regiment of the French Foreign Legion
and the 24th Colonial Infantry Regiment. Dentz also had eleven infantry battalions of "special troops", including at least 5,000 cavalry—horse and motorized forces. In addition, Dentz had two artillery groups and supporting units.
The Vichy French Air Force
(Armée de l'Air de Vichy) in the Levant was relatively strong at the outbreak of hostilities. Starting with over 90 aircraft, three additional groups were sent from France and from North Africa. This increased the strength of the air force in Lebanon and Syria to 289 aircraft.
Two destroyers and three submarines of the French Navy
(Marine Nationale) were available to support the Vichy forces in the Levant.
While German interest in the French mandates of Syria and Lebanon turned out to be limited, Adolf Hitler
permitted reinforcement of the French troops by allowing French aircraft en route from Algeria to Syria to safely fly over Axis-controlled territory and refuel in German-controlled Eleusina
air base in Greece. The activity of German aircraft based in Greece
and the Dodecanese Islands was interpreted by the Allies as being in support of Vichy troops. Although Dentz briefly considered accepting German support, he turned down the offer on 13 June.
Iraq Command
—Allied forces in Iraq
that were commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Edward Quinan
—was used in this campaign to attack northern and central Syria from the east. The Iraq Command ' formations used in Syria consisted of the following units:
Commando
and raiding operations were undertaken by the British Army's No. 11 (Scottish) Commando
and Palmach
, a unit recruited from Jews in the British Mandate of Palestine. Palmach also provided interpreters and guides to other Allied units.
Close air support
was provided by squadrons from the British Royal Air Force
and Royal Australian Air Force
and ground forces on the coast were supported by shelling
from British Royal Navy
and Royal Australian Navy
units. Concerning fighters, Wavell
provided Wilson with 70 aircraft. By comparison, the Vichy French had at least 100 fighters. The forces were more evenly matched than numbers alone would indicate, with British Hawker Hurricane
s and brand-new, U.S.-built Curtiss Tomahawks, matching up well against French Dewoitine D.520
s and Potez 63s.
The Mediterranean Sea
was a traditional focus of British maritime power. The Mediterranean Fleet was Britain's instrument of this maritime power.
Allied forces in reserve included the British 6th Infantry Division (including the Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion—East
attached to the 23rd Brigade) and the Australian 17th Brigade
. In mid-June, the British 6th Infantry Division with two infantry brigades under command came into the line as reinforcements, mainly on the Damascus front and the southern force was placed under the command of Australian I Corps
HQ on 18 June.
The Allied plan of attack was devised by General
Wilson. The plan called for four lines of attack: on Damascus from Palestine, on Beirut from Palestine, on northern Syria from Iraq and on Palmyra (in central Syria) and Tripoli from Iraq.
Wilfrid Lewis Lloyd
—were ordered to cross the Syrian border from Palestine
and take Quneitra
and Deraa. It was anticipated that this would open the way for the 1st Free French Division
forces to advance to Damascus
. Four days after the commencement of the operation, this force was bought under unified command and was named Gentforce after its French commander, Major-General Paul Louis Le Gentilhomme
.
—commanded by Major-General John Lavarack
(succeeded by Major-General Arthur "Tubby" Allen
on 18 June when Lavarack took over Australian I Corps)— had the responsibility of advancing from Palestine
along the coastal road from Haifa
towards Beirut
. The Australian 21st Brigade was to take Beirut.
The Australian 25th Brigade
was to attack the big Vichy French airbase at Rayak
. The operation was also to include a supporting commando
landing from Cyprus
at the south of the Litani River
.
in Iraq
(upstream from Baghdad) toward Deir ez Zor and thence to Raqqa and Aleppo
to threaten the communication and supply lines of the Vichy forces defending Beirut against the Australians advancing from the south, in particular the railway line running northwards through Aleppo to Turkey
(at the time, Turkey was thought by some to be sympathetic to the Vichy government and to Germany).
Meanwhile, a group comprising two infantry battalions from the 10th Indian Division's 20th Indian Infantry Brigade
and two from 8th Indian Infantry Division, 17th Indian Infantry Brigade
, would operate independently to capture all the territory in north-east Syria. 20th Indian Infantry Brigade
were to make a feint from Mosul
and the 17th Indian Infantry Brigade
would advance into the Bec du Canard (or Duck's Bill) region through which a railway from Aleppo ran eastward to Mosul
and then to Baghdad
.
—consisting of the 4th Cavalry Brigade
, the 1st Battalion of the Essex Regiment, the Arab Legion Mechanized Regiment
and a battery each of field, anti-tank and anti-aircraft artillery—to gather in western Iraq
between Rutbah and the Transjordan
border.
At the same time as the thrust up the Euphrates, this force would advance in a northwesterly direction to take Palmyra
in Syria. Habforce was to secure the oil pipeline from Haditha
to Tripoli
. Habforce was in Iraq, attached to Iraq Command, because it had previously struck across the desert from the Transjordan
border as part of the relief of RAF Habbaniya
during the Anglo-Iraqi War
.
(Armée de l'Air de Vichy) enjoyed did not last long. The Vichy French lost most of their aircraft during the campaign. The majority of the lost aircraft were destroyed on the ground where the flat terrain, absence of infrastructure and absence of modern anti-aircraft (AA) artillery
made them vulnerable to air attacks. On 26 June, a strafing run by Tomahawks
of No. 3 Squadron
Royal Australian Air Force
(3 Sqn), on Homs
airfield, destroyed five Dewoitine D.520
s of Fighter Squadron II/3 (Groupe de Chasse II/3) and damaged six more.
On 10 July, five D.520s attacked Bristol Blenheim
bombers from No. 45 Squadron RAF
, which were being escorted by seven Tomahawks from 3 Sqn. The French pilots claimed three Blenheims but at least four D.520s were destroyed by the Australians. The following day, a Dewoitine pilot shot down a Tomahawk from 3 Sqn, the only one lost during the campaign.
By the end of the campaign, the Vichy forces had lost 179 aircraft from about 289 committed to the Levant, with remaining aircraft with the range to do so evacuating to Rhodes
.
, rough seas kept commandos from landing along the coast on the first day of battle. On 9 June 1941, two French destroyers fired on the advancing Australians at the Litani River
before being driven off by shore-based artillery fire. The French destroyers—Valmy
and Guepard
—then exchanged fire with the British destroyer . The New Zealand light cruiser HMNZS Leander
came to the aid of Janus along with six additional British destroyers and the French retired.
On 15 June, with or without French approval, the Luftwaffe attempted to come to the aid of the hard-pressed French naval forces. Junkers Ju 88
s of II./LG 1 (2nd Group, Lehrgeschwader 1), attacked British warships forces of the Syrian coast. Hits were scored on the destroyers and . That evening, French aircraft of the 4th Naval Air Group bombed British naval units off of the Syrian coast.
HMS Illex and Iris were towed to Haifa
for repairs. Iris returned to service soon thereafter. Illex underwent a series of temporary repairs at Haifa but further temporary repairs had to be made at Suez
, Aden
, Mombassa and Durban
in order for Illex to reach the United States
for a refit and full repair.
On 16 June, British torpedo aircraft sank the French destroyer Chevalier Paul
. The destroyer was on its way from Toulon
to Syria carrying ammunition from Metropolitan France
. On the following day, British bombers attacked another French destroyer in the port of Beirut which was also carrying ammunition.
On the night of 22/23 June, Guepard fought with two British cruisers and six destroyers off of the coast of Syria. The French destroyer was able to retire under cover of darkness.
On 25 June, the British submarine torpedoed and sank the French submarine Souffleur off the Syrian coast; shortly afterward, the French tanker Adour was attacked by British torpedo aircraft. Adour was carrying the entire fuel supply for the French forces in the Middle East andwas badly damaged.
During the ceasefire which started on 12 July, Dentz ordered ships and aircraft under his command to go to neutral Turkey
where they were interned.
(also known as the "Convention of Acre") was signed on July 14 at the "Sidney Smith Barracks" on the outskirts of the city of Acre.
The Vichy French forces lost approximately 6,000 men. Of these, roughly 1,000 had been killed. This left 37,736 Vichy French prisoners of war. When given the choice of being repatriated to Metropolitan France
or joining the Free French, only 5,668 men chose to join the forces of General Charles De Gaulle
. The total number of persons repatriated to Metropolitan France, civilian and military was 37,563. Eight convoys composed of three hospital ship
s and one "gleaner" ship sailed for France between 7 August and 27 September 1941 and were cleared without any unfortunate incident.
Prisoners taken by the Vichy French forces were returned as well. It was determined that several British prisoners of war had been sent out of Syria even after the armistice was initialled. The delay in obtaining the return of these prisoners led to the detention in Palestine of Dentz and 29 of his most senior officers. They were released in due course as the British prisoners were returned to Syria.
In late July 1941, De Gaulle flew from Brazzaville
to personally congratulate the victors.
Free French General Georges Catroux
was placed in control of Syria and Lebanon. On 26 November, shortly after taking up this post, Catroux recognised the independence of Syria and Lebanon in the name of the Free French movement.
On 8 November 1943, after elections, Lebanon became an independent state. On 27 February 1945, it declared war on Germany and the Empire of Japan
.
Syria became independent on 1 January 1944. On 26 February 1945, Syria declared war on Germany and Japan.
Allies of World War II
The Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . Former Axis states contributing to the Allied victory are not considered Allied states...
invasion of Vichy French
Vichy France
Vichy France, Vichy Regime, or Vichy Government, are common terms used to describe the government of France that collaborated with the Axis powers from July 1940 to August 1944. This government succeeded the Third Republic and preceded the Provisional Government of the French Republic...
-controlled Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
and Lebanon
Lebanon
Lebanon , officially the Republic of LebanonRepublic of Lebanon is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies. The term Lebanese Republic, a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names that is not used in today's world. Arabic is the most common language spoken among...
, in June–July 1941, during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. Time Magazine
Time (magazine)
Time is an American news magazine. A European edition is published from London. Time Europe covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong...
referred to the fighting as a "mixed show" while it was taking place and the campaign remains little known, even in the countries that took part. There is evidence that Allied censor
Censorship
thumb|[[Book burning]] following the [[1973 Chilean coup d'état|1973 coup]] that installed the [[Military government of Chile |Pinochet regime]] in Chile...
s acted to suppress or reduce reportage of the fierce fighting. Senior Allied commanders and/or politicians believed that knowledge of fighting against French forces could have a negative effect on public opinion in Allied countries.
Background
The Allied offensive was aimed at preventing Nazi GermanyNazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
from using the Vichy French-controlled Mandate of Syria
French Mandate of Syria
Officially the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon was a League of Nations mandate founded after the First World War and the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire...
and Mandate of Lebanon
French Mandate of Lebanon
The state of Greater Lebanon, the predecessor of modern Lebanon, was created in 1920 as part of the French scheme of dividing the French Mandate of Syria into six states....
as springboards for attacks on the Allied stronghold of Egypt
Kingdom of Egypt
The Kingdom of Egypt was the first modern Egyptian state, lasting from 1922 to 1953. The Kingdom was created in 1922 when the British government unilaterally ended its protectorate over Egypt, in place since 1914. Sultan Fuad I became the first king of the new state...
, as the Allies fought a campaign against Axis
Axis Powers
The Axis powers , also known as the Axis alliance, Axis nations, Axis countries, or just the Axis, was an alignment of great powers during the mid-20th century that fought World War II against the Allies. It began in 1936 with treaties of friendship between Germany and Italy and between Germany and...
forces further west, in North Africa
North Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
. Although the French had ceded autonomy to Syria in September 1936, they had retained treaty rights to maintain armed forces and two airfields in the territory. From 1 April, after a coup d'état
Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
, Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
was controlled by pro-German rebel forces under Rashid Ali.
In May 1941, Admiral François Darlan
François Darlan
Jean Louis Xavier François Darlan was a French naval officer. His great-grandfather was killed at the Battle of Trafalgar...
signed an agreement with the Germans known as the "Paris Protocols
Paris Protocols
The Paris Protocols was an agreement between Nazi Germany and Vichy France negotiated in May 1941. Admiral François Darlan represented the French and the German ambassador to France, Otto Abetz, represented the Germans. The Paris Protocols granted the Germans military facilities in Syria,...
". Darlan signed on behalf of Vichy France
Vichy France
Vichy France, Vichy Regime, or Vichy Government, are common terms used to describe the government of France that collaborated with the Axis powers from July 1940 to August 1944. This government succeeded the Third Republic and preceded the Provisional Government of the French Republic...
and the agreement granted the Germans access to military facilities in Syria. Though the protocols were never ratified, Charles Huntziger
Charles Huntziger
Charles Huntziger was a French Army general during World War I and World War II.Born at Lesneven , he graduated from Saint-Cyr in 1900 and joined the colonial infantry. During World War I he served in the Middle Eastern theatre. He was chief of staff of operations of the Allied Expeditionary Force...
, the Vichy Minister of War
Minister of Defence (France)
The Minister of Defense and Veterans Affairs is the French government cabinet member charged with running the military of France....
, sent orders to Henri Dentz
Henri Dentz
Henri Fernand Dentz was an officer in the French Army and, after France surrendered during World War II, he served with the Vichy French Army.-Syria-Lebanon campaign:...
, the High Commissioner for the Levant
High Commissioners of French-mandated Syria and Lebanon
High Commissioners of Syria and Lebanon were the highest ranking authority representing France in the french mandated countries of Syria and Lebanon. They were based in Beirut, Lebanon...
. In accordance with these orders, aircraft of the German Air Force (Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe is a generic German term for an air force. It is also the official name for two of the four historic German air forces, the Wehrmacht air arm founded in 1935 and disbanded in 1946; and the current Bundeswehr air arm founded in 1956....
) and the Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica
Regia Aeronautica
The Italian Royal Air Force was the name of the air force of the Kingdom of Italy. It was established as a service independent of the Royal Italian Army from 1923 until 1946...
) were allowed to refuel in Syria. Disguised as Iraqi aircraft, the German and Italian aircraft
Fliegerführer Irak
Flyer Command Iraq was a unit of the German Air Force sent to Iraq in May 1941 as part of a German mission to support the regime of Rashid Ali during the Anglo-Iraqi War...
landed in Syria en route to the Kingdom of Iraq
Kingdom of Iraq
The Kingdom of Iraq was the sovereign state of Iraq during and after the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. The League of Nations mandate started in 1920. The kingdom began in August 1921 with the coronation of Faisal bin al-Hussein bin Ali al-Hashemi as King Faisal I...
during the Anglo-Iraqi War
Anglo-Iraqi War
The Anglo-Iraqi War was the name of the British campaign against the rebel government of Rashid Ali in the Kingdom of Iraq during the Second World War. The war lasted from 2 May to 31 May 1941. The campaign resulted in the re-occupation of Iraq by British armed forces and the return to power of the...
. The Germans also requested permission from the Vichy authorities to use Syrian railways to send armaments to Iraqi rebels in Mosul
Mosul
Mosul , is a city in northern Iraq and the capital of the Ninawa Governorate, some northwest of Baghdad. The original city stands on the west bank of the Tigris River, opposite the ancient Assyrian city of Nineveh on the east bank, but the metropolitan area has now grown to encompass substantial...
. There was a threat of Axis support for anti-British parties in Iraq, thus endangering strategic oil supplies and communications. General Archibald Wavell
Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell
Field Marshal Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell GCB, GCSI, GCIE, CMG, MC, PC was a British field marshal and the commander of British Army forces in the Middle East during the Second World War. He led British forces to victory over the Italians, only to be defeated by the German army...
—Commander in Chief of Middle East Command
Middle East Command
The Middle East Command was a British Army Command established prior to the Second World War in Egypt. Its primary role was to command British land forces and co-ordinate with the relevant naval and air commands to defend British interests in the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean region.The...
—faced a threat posed by Vichy collaboration with Germany and Italy.
Early air clashes
On 14 May, a British Bristol BlenheimBristol Blenheim
The Bristol Blenheim was a British light bomber aircraft designed and built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company that was used extensively in the early days of the Second World War. It was adapted as an interim long-range and night fighter, pending the availability of the Beaufighter...
bomber flying a reconnaissance mission over Palmyra
Palmyra
Palmyra was an ancient city in Syria. In the age of antiquity, it was an important city of central Syria, located in an oasis 215 km northeast of Damascus and 180 km southwest of the Euphrates at Deir ez-Zor. It had long been a vital caravan city for travellers crossing the Syrian desert...
spotted a Junkers Ju 90
Junkers Ju 90
The Junkers Ju 90 was a 40-seat, four-engine airliner developed for and used by Deutsche Luft Hansa shortly before World War II. It was based on the rejected Ju 89 bomber...
transport taking off, with more German and Italian aircraft seen later that day, resulting in a strafing
Strafing
Strafing is the practice of attacking ground targets from low-flying aircraft using aircraft-mounted automatic weapons. This means, that although ground attack using automatic weapons fire is very often accompanied with bombing or rocket fire, the term "strafing" does not specifically include the...
mission being authorised later that evening. Attacks against German and Italian aircraft staging through Syria continued, with a total of six Axis aircraft being claimed destroyed by 8 June, while Vichy French forces claiming to have shot down a Blenheim on 28 May, with a further Blenheim being forced down on 2 June. A Vichy French Martin 167F bomber was shot down by the RAF over Palestine on 6 June.
Prelude
The Vichy French and Allied forces confronting each other in Syria and Lebanon were fairly evenly matched.Vichy French forces
The High Commissioner of the Levant was General Henri DentzHenri Dentz
Henri Fernand Dentz was an officer in the French Army and, after France surrendered during World War II, he served with the Vichy French Army.-Syria-Lebanon campaign:...
. Dentz was also Commander in Chief of the Army of the Levant
Army of the Levant
The Army of the Levant identifies the armed forces of France and then Vichy France which occupied, and were in part recruited from, a portion of the "Levant" during the interwar period and early World War II.-Origins:...
(Armée du Levant). This formation was divided into the regular metropolitan colonial troops and the "special troops" (troupes speciales, who were indigenous Syrian and Lebanese soldiers).
Dentz had seven infantry battalions of regular French troops at his disposal. These battalions included the 6th Infantry Regiment of the French Foreign Legion
6th Foreign Infantry Regiment
The 6th Foreign Infantry Regiment , or 6e Régiment Étrangère d'Infanterie, was an infantry regiment in the French Foreign Legion from 1939 to 1941 and again from 1949 to 1955.-History:...
and the 24th Colonial Infantry Regiment. Dentz also had eleven infantry battalions of "special troops", including at least 5,000 cavalry—horse and motorized forces. In addition, Dentz had two artillery groups and supporting units.
The Vichy French Air Force
Vichy French Air Force
The Vichy French Air Force was the aerial branch of the armed forces of Vichy France - the government of France that collaborated with the Axis powers following the defeat of France by Germany in 1940....
(Armée de l'Air de Vichy) in the Levant was relatively strong at the outbreak of hostilities. Starting with over 90 aircraft, three additional groups were sent from France and from North Africa. This increased the strength of the air force in Lebanon and Syria to 289 aircraft.
Two destroyers and three submarines of the French Navy
French Navy
The French Navy, officially the Marine nationale and often called La Royale is the maritime arm of the French military. It includes a full range of fighting vessels, from patrol boats to a nuclear powered aircraft carrier and 10 nuclear-powered submarines, four of which are capable of launching...
(Marine Nationale) were available to support the Vichy forces in the Levant.
While German interest in the French mandates of Syria and Lebanon turned out to be limited, Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
permitted reinforcement of the French troops by allowing French aircraft en route from Algeria to Syria to safely fly over Axis-controlled territory and refuel in German-controlled Eleusina
Eleusina
Eleusina is a town and municipality in West Attica, Greece. It is situated about 18 km northwest from the centre of Athens. It is located in the Thriasian Plain, at the northernmost end of the Saronic Gulf. It is the seat of administration of West Attica regional unit...
air base in Greece. The activity of German aircraft based in Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
and the Dodecanese Islands was interpreted by the Allies as being in support of Vichy troops. Although Dentz briefly considered accepting German support, he turned down the offer on 13 June.
Allied forces and planning
Initially, Allied forces to the south of Syria in the British Mandate of Palestine consisted of two main formations under the command of British General Henry Maitland Wilson:- Australian 7th DivisionAustralian 7th DivisionThe 7th Division was an infantry division of the Australian Army. It was formed in February 1940 to serve in World War II, as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force...
(minus the 18th Brigade, which was in North Africa at the Siege of TobrukSiege of TobrukThe siege of Tobruk was a confrontation that lasted 240 days between Axis and Allied forces in North Africa during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War...
) - Gentforce: two Free French brigades of the 1st Free French Division1st Free French DivisionThe 1st Free French Division was one of the principal units of the Free French Forces during World War II, and the first Free French unit of divisional size.-World War II:...
(including two battalions of the 13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade13th Foreign Legion Demi-BrigadeThe 13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade is a mechanized infantry demi-brigade in the French Foreign Legion. It is the only permanent demi-brigade in the French Army, and is a unit of particular notoriety and reputation within the Legion...
attached to the 1st Free French Brigade) and the 5th Indian Infantry Brigade5th Indian Infantry BrigadeThe 5th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was converted for the 9th Indian Infantry Brigade in September 1939, and assigned to the 4th Indian Infantry Division. The brigade fist moved to Egypt and took part in the early battles in North...
(of the 4th Indian Infantry Division) with artillery, engineers and other support services attached to form the "5th Indian Brigade Group".
Iraq Command
Iraqforce
Iraqforce was a British and Commonwealth formation that came together in the Kingdom of Iraq. The formation fought in the Middle East during World War II.-Background:...
—Allied forces in Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
that were commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Edward Quinan
Edward Quinan
General Sir Edward Pellew Quinan KCB, KCIE, DSO, OBE was a British army commander during the Second World War. In the early part of his career, he was involved in Indian Army campaigns in Afghanistan and Waziristan on the North West Frontier of the Indian Empire, also known as the British Raj...
—was used in this campaign to attack northern and central Syria from the east. The Iraq Command ' formations used in Syria consisted of the following units:
- The 10th Indian Infantry Division and elements of the 17th Indian Infantry Brigade17th Indian Infantry BrigadeThe 17th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in November 1940, at the Delhi Cantonment in India and assigned to the 8th Indian Infantry Division. They were sent to participate in the Anglo-Iraqi War and the Syria-Lebanon Campaign...
(from the 8th Indian Infantry Division) - HabforceHabforceHabforce was a British Army military unit created during the Anglo-Iraqi War and still active during the Syria-Lebanon Campaign.-Creation and composition:...
: the British 4th Cavalry Brigade4th Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)The 4th Cavalry Brigade was formation of Regiments of the British Army during the First World War, which was formed again in 1939 from Yeomanry Regiments for service during the Second World War...
and the Arab LegionArab LegionThe Arab Legion was the regular army of Transjordan and then Jordan in the early part of the 20th century.-Creation:...
, under John Glubb ("Glubb Pasha")
Commando
Commando
In English, the term commando means a specific kind of individual soldier or military unit. In contemporary usage, commando usually means elite light infantry and/or special operations forces units, specializing in amphibious landings, parachuting, rappelling and similar techniques, to conduct and...
and raiding operations were undertaken by the British Army's No. 11 (Scottish) Commando
No. 11 (Scottish) Commando
No. 11 Commando was a battalion-sized commando unit of the British Army during the Second World War. Formed in Scotland members of No. 11 Commando adopted the Tam o'shanter as their official headress....
and Palmach
Palmach
The Palmach was the elite fighting force of the Haganah, the underground army of the Yishuv during the period of the British Mandate of Palestine. The Palmach was established on May 15, 1941...
, a unit recruited from Jews in the British Mandate of Palestine. Palmach also provided interpreters and guides to other Allied units.
Close air support
Close air support
In military tactics, close air support is defined as air action by fixed or rotary winged aircraft against hostile targets that are close to friendly forces, and which requires detailed integration of each air mission with fire and movement of these forces.The determining factor for CAS is...
was provided by squadrons from the British Royal Air Force
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
and Royal Australian Air Force
Royal Australian Air Force
The Royal Australian Air Force is the air force branch of the Australian Defence Force. The RAAF was formed in March 1921. It continues the traditions of the Australian Flying Corps , which was formed on 22 October 1912. The RAAF has taken part in many of the 20th century's major conflicts...
and ground forces on the coast were supported by shelling
Artillery
Originally applied to any group of infantry primarily armed with projectile weapons, artillery has over time become limited in meaning to refer only to those engines of war that operate by projection of munitions far beyond the range of effect of personal weapons...
from British Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
and Royal Australian Navy
Royal Australian Navy
The Royal Australian Navy is the naval branch of the Australian Defence Force. Following the Federation of Australia in 1901, the ships and resources of the separate colonial navies were integrated into a national force: the Commonwealth Naval Forces...
units. Concerning fighters, Wavell
Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell
Field Marshal Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell GCB, GCSI, GCIE, CMG, MC, PC was a British field marshal and the commander of British Army forces in the Middle East during the Second World War. He led British forces to victory over the Italians, only to be defeated by the German army...
provided Wilson with 70 aircraft. By comparison, the Vichy French had at least 100 fighters. The forces were more evenly matched than numbers alone would indicate, with British Hawker Hurricane
Hawker Hurricane
The Hawker Hurricane is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was designed and predominantly built by Hawker Aircraft Ltd for the Royal Air Force...
s and brand-new, U.S.-built Curtiss Tomahawks, matching up well against French Dewoitine D.520
Dewoitine D.520
The Dewoitine D.520 was a French fighter aircraft that entered service in early 1940, shortly after the opening of World War II. Unlike the Morane-Saulnier M.S.406, which was at that time the Armée de l'Airs most numerous fighter, the Dewoitine D.520 came close to being a match for the latest...
s and Potez 63s.
The Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant...
was a traditional focus of British maritime power. The Mediterranean Fleet was Britain's instrument of this maritime power.
Allied forces in reserve included the British 6th Infantry Division (including the Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion—East
Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion
The 11th Infantry Battalion — East was a Czechoslovak infantry battalion during World War II. It served with British Commonwealth forces in the Middle East and North African campaigns. The 2008 Czech film, Tobruk, which depicts experiences of a Czech battalion in 1941, was nominated for the 2009...
attached to the 23rd Brigade) and the Australian 17th Brigade
Australian 6th Division
The 6th Division of the Australian Army was a unit in the Second Australian Imperial Force during World War II. It served in the North African campaign, the Greek campaign and the New Guinea campaign, including the crucial battles of the Kokoda Track, among others...
. In mid-June, the British 6th Infantry Division with two infantry brigades under command came into the line as reinforcements, mainly on the Damascus front and the southern force was placed under the command of Australian I Corps
Australian I Corps
I Corps of the Australian Army was its main frontline corps during World War II. Various Australian and other Allied divisions came under its control at different times. In 1940–42, the corps was based in the Mediterranean Theatre...
HQ on 18 June.
The Allied plan of attack was devised by General
General
A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....
Wilson. The plan called for four lines of attack: on Damascus from Palestine, on Beirut from Palestine, on northern Syria from Iraq and on Palmyra (in central Syria) and Tripoli from Iraq.
Damascus
The 5th Indian Brigade Group—commanded by BrigadierBrigadier
Brigadier is a senior military rank, the meaning of which is somewhat different in different military services. The brigadier rank is generally superior to the rank of colonel, and subordinate to major general....
Wilfrid Lewis Lloyd
Wilfrid Lewis Lloyd
Major-General Wilfrid Lewis Lloyd CBE, DSO, MC was an officer in the British Army and the Indian Army during World War I and World War II.-World War I:...
—were ordered to cross the Syrian border from Palestine
Palestine
Palestine is a conventional name, among others, used to describe the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River, and various adjoining lands....
and take Quneitra
Quneitra
Quneitra is the largely destroyed and abandoned capital of the Quneitra Governorate in south-western Syria. It is situated in a high valley in the Golan Heights at an elevation of 1,010 metres above sea level...
and Deraa. It was anticipated that this would open the way for the 1st Free French Division
1st Free French Division
The 1st Free French Division was one of the principal units of the Free French Forces during World War II, and the first Free French unit of divisional size.-World War II:...
forces to advance to Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
. Four days after the commencement of the operation, this force was bought under unified command and was named Gentforce after its French commander, Major-General Paul Louis Le Gentilhomme
Paul Legentilhomme
Paul Legentilhomme was an officer in the French Army during World War I and World War II. After the fall of France in 1940, he joined the forces of the Free French...
.
Beirut
The Australian 7th DivisionAustralian 7th Division
The 7th Division was an infantry division of the Australian Army. It was formed in February 1940 to serve in World War II, as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force...
—commanded by Major-General John Lavarack
John Lavarack
Lieutenant General Sir John Dudley Lavarack KCMG, KCVO, KBE, CB, DSO was an Australian soldier who was Governor of Queensland from 1 October 1946 to 4 December 1957, the first Australian-born governor of that state....
(succeeded by Major-General Arthur "Tubby" Allen
Arthur Samuel Allen
Major General Arthur Samuel "Tubby" Allen CB CBE DSO VD was an Australian soldier. During World War II he reached the rank of Major General and commanded Allied forces in the Syria-Lebanon and New Guinea campaigns...
on 18 June when Lavarack took over Australian I Corps)— had the responsibility of advancing from Palestine
Palestine
Palestine is a conventional name, among others, used to describe the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River, and various adjoining lands....
along the coastal road from Haifa
Haifa
Haifa is the largest city in northern Israel, and the third-largest city in the country, with a population of over 268,000. Another 300,000 people live in towns directly adjacent to the city including the cities of the Krayot, as well as, Tirat Carmel, Daliyat al-Karmel and Nesher...
towards Beirut
Beirut
Beirut is the capital and largest city of Lebanon, with a population ranging from 1 million to more than 2 million . Located on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coastline, it serves as the country's largest and main seaport, and also forms the Beirut Metropolitan...
. The Australian 21st Brigade was to take Beirut.
The Australian 25th Brigade
25th Brigade (Australia)
The 25th Brigade was a brigade-sized infantry unit of the Australian Army that served during the Second World War. Raised in July 1940 and consisting of three infantry battalions, the 25th Brigade served in the United Kingdom, the Middle East, New Guinea and Borneo before being disbanded in...
was to attack the big Vichy French airbase at Rayak
Rayak (Riyaq)
Riyaq , also Rayak, is a Lebanese town in the Beqaa Mohafazat , near the city of Zahlé. It has one military airport, an old train station on the former line from Beirut to Damascus, and a hospital....
. The operation was also to include a supporting commando
Commando
In English, the term commando means a specific kind of individual soldier or military unit. In contemporary usage, commando usually means elite light infantry and/or special operations forces units, specializing in amphibious landings, parachuting, rappelling and similar techniques, to conduct and...
landing from Cyprus
Cyprus
Cyprus , officially the Republic of Cyprus , is a Eurasian island country, member of the European Union, in the Eastern Mediterranean, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria and north of Egypt. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.The earliest known human activity on the...
at the south of the Litani River
Litani River
The Litani River is an important water resource in southern Lebanon. The river rises in the fertile Beqaa Valley valley, west of Baalbek, and empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre. Exceeding 140 km in length, the Litani River is the longest river in Lebanon and provides an average...
.
Northern Syria
Once the two southern prongs were well engaged, it was planned that a third force, comprising formations drawn from Iraq Command, would attack Syria from Iraq. The bulk of 10th Indian Infantry Division—commanded by Major-General William "Bill" Slim—was to advance northwest up the Euphrates River from HadithaHaditha
Haditha is a city in the western Iraqi Al Anbar Governorate, about 240 km northwest of Baghdad. It is a farming town situated on the Euphrates River at . Its population of around 100,000 people is predominantly Sunni Muslim Arabs...
in Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
(upstream from Baghdad) toward Deir ez Zor and thence to Raqqa and Aleppo
Aleppo
Aleppo is the largest city in Syria and the capital of Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Syrian governorate. With an official population of 2,301,570 , expanding to over 2.5 million in the metropolitan area, it is also one of the largest cities in the Levant...
to threaten the communication and supply lines of the Vichy forces defending Beirut against the Australians advancing from the south, in particular the railway line running northwards through Aleppo to Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
(at the time, Turkey was thought by some to be sympathetic to the Vichy government and to Germany).
Meanwhile, a group comprising two infantry battalions from the 10th Indian Division's 20th Indian Infantry Brigade
20th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 20th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in September 1940, by the conversion of the Khojak Brigade and assigned to the 9th Indian Infantry Division...
and two from 8th Indian Infantry Division, 17th Indian Infantry Brigade
17th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 17th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in November 1940, at the Delhi Cantonment in India and assigned to the 8th Indian Infantry Division. They were sent to participate in the Anglo-Iraqi War and the Syria-Lebanon Campaign...
, would operate independently to capture all the territory in north-east Syria. 20th Indian Infantry Brigade
20th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 20th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in September 1940, by the conversion of the Khojak Brigade and assigned to the 9th Indian Infantry Division...
were to make a feint from Mosul
Mosul
Mosul , is a city in northern Iraq and the capital of the Ninawa Governorate, some northwest of Baghdad. The original city stands on the west bank of the Tigris River, opposite the ancient Assyrian city of Nineveh on the east bank, but the metropolitan area has now grown to encompass substantial...
and the 17th Indian Infantry Brigade
17th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 17th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in November 1940, at the Delhi Cantonment in India and assigned to the 8th Indian Infantry Division. They were sent to participate in the Anglo-Iraqi War and the Syria-Lebanon Campaign...
would advance into the Bec du Canard (or Duck's Bill) region through which a railway from Aleppo ran eastward to Mosul
Mosul
Mosul , is a city in northern Iraq and the capital of the Ninawa Governorate, some northwest of Baghdad. The original city stands on the west bank of the Tigris River, opposite the ancient Assyrian city of Nineveh on the east bank, but the metropolitan area has now grown to encompass substantial...
and then to Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
.
Central Syria
Finally, Wilson's plan called for HabforceHabforce
Habforce was a British Army military unit created during the Anglo-Iraqi War and still active during the Syria-Lebanon Campaign.-Creation and composition:...
—consisting of the 4th Cavalry Brigade
4th Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)
The 4th Cavalry Brigade was formation of Regiments of the British Army during the First World War, which was formed again in 1939 from Yeomanry Regiments for service during the Second World War...
, the 1st Battalion of the Essex Regiment, the Arab Legion Mechanized Regiment
Arab Legion
The Arab Legion was the regular army of Transjordan and then Jordan in the early part of the 20th century.-Creation:...
and a battery each of field, anti-tank and anti-aircraft artillery—to gather in western Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
between Rutbah and the Transjordan
Transjordan
The Emirate of Transjordan was a former Ottoman territory in the Southern Levant that was part of the British Mandate of Palestine...
border.
At the same time as the thrust up the Euphrates, this force would advance in a northwesterly direction to take Palmyra
Palmyra
Palmyra was an ancient city in Syria. In the age of antiquity, it was an important city of central Syria, located in an oasis 215 km northeast of Damascus and 180 km southwest of the Euphrates at Deir ez-Zor. It had long been a vital caravan city for travellers crossing the Syrian desert...
in Syria. Habforce was to secure the oil pipeline from Haditha
Haditha
Haditha is a city in the western Iraqi Al Anbar Governorate, about 240 km northwest of Baghdad. It is a farming town situated on the Euphrates River at . Its population of around 100,000 people is predominantly Sunni Muslim Arabs...
to Tripoli
Tripoli, Lebanon
Tripoli is the largest city in northern Lebanon and the second-largest city in Lebanon. Situated 85 km north of the capital Beirut, Tripoli is the capital of the North Governorate and the Tripoli District. Geographically located on the east of the Mediterranean, the city's history dates back...
. Habforce was in Iraq, attached to Iraq Command, because it had previously struck across the desert from the Transjordan
Transjordan
The Emirate of Transjordan was a former Ottoman territory in the Southern Levant that was part of the British Mandate of Palestine...
border as part of the relief of RAF Habbaniya
RAF Habbaniya
Royal Air Force Station Habbaniya, more commonly known as RAF Habbaniya, was a Royal Air Force station at Habbaniyah, about west of Baghdad in modern day Iraq, on the banks of the Euphrates near Lake Habbaniyah...
during the Anglo-Iraqi War
Anglo-Iraqi War
The Anglo-Iraqi War was the name of the British campaign against the rebel government of Rashid Ali in the Kingdom of Iraq during the Second World War. The war lasted from 2 May to 31 May 1941. The campaign resulted in the re-occupation of Iraq by British armed forces and the return to power of the...
.
Campaign
Hostilities commenced on 8 June 1941. The major battles of the campaign were:- Battle of the Litani RiverBattle of the Litani RiverThe Battle of the Litani River was a battle of the Second World War that took place between during the advance on Beirut during the Syria-Lebanon campaign...
(9 June): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine - Battle of Jezzine (13 June): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine
- Battle of KissouéBattle of KissouéThe Battle of Kissoué was part of the Allied advance on Damascus in Syria during the Syria-Lebanon campaign in World War II. The battle is noted for the confrontation between Vichy French and the Free French Forces...
(15–17 June): part of the advance on Damascus from Palestine - Battle of DamascusBattle of DamascusThe Battle of Damascus was the final action of the Allied advance on Damascus in Syria during the Syria-Lebanon campaign in World War II.-Background:...
(18–21 June): part of the advance on Damascus from Palestine - Battle of MerdjayounBattle of MerdjayounBattle of Merdjayoun - In the Syria-Lebanon campaign of World War II, Australian troops fought a long and sometimes costly battle around Merdjayoun. They held a pass which could have allowed the Vichy French forces into the British Mandate of Palestine, with dire results...
(19–24 June): part of the advance on Beirut and Damascus from Palestine - Battle of PalmyraBattle of PalmyraThe Battle of Palmyra was part of the Allied invasion of Syria during the Syria-Lebanon campaign in World War II. The British mechanized cavalry and an Arab Legion desert patrol broke up a Vichy French mobile column northeast of the city of Palmyra...
(1 July): part of the advance on Palmyra and Tripoli from Iraq - Battle of Deir ez Zor (3 July): part of the advance on central and northern Syria from Iraq
- Battle of DamourBattle of DamourThe Battle of Damour was the final major operation of the Australian forces during the Syria-Lebanon Campaign of World War II.-Background:In 1941, Damour was the French administrative capital...
(5–9 July): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine - Battle of Beirut (12 July): part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine
War in the air
The initial advantage that the Vichy French Air ForceVichy French Air Force
The Vichy French Air Force was the aerial branch of the armed forces of Vichy France - the government of France that collaborated with the Axis powers following the defeat of France by Germany in 1940....
(Armée de l'Air de Vichy) enjoyed did not last long. The Vichy French lost most of their aircraft during the campaign. The majority of the lost aircraft were destroyed on the ground where the flat terrain, absence of infrastructure and absence of modern anti-aircraft (AA) artillery
Anti-aircraft warfare
NATO defines air defence as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action." They include ground and air based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and passive measures. It may be to protect naval, ground and air forces...
made them vulnerable to air attacks. On 26 June, a strafing run by Tomahawks
Curtiss P-40
The Curtiss P-40 Warhawk was an American single-engine, single-seat, all-metal fighter and ground attack aircraft that first flew in 1938. The P-40 design was a modification of the previous Curtiss P-36 Hawk which reduced development time and enabled a rapid entry into production and operational...
of No. 3 Squadron
No. 3 Squadron RAAF
No. 3 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force fighter squadron. It was first formed in 1916 and currently operates F/A-18 Hornet aircraft from RAAF Base Williamtown, near Newcastle, New South Wales.-World War I:...
Royal Australian Air Force
Royal Australian Air Force
The Royal Australian Air Force is the air force branch of the Australian Defence Force. The RAAF was formed in March 1921. It continues the traditions of the Australian Flying Corps , which was formed on 22 October 1912. The RAAF has taken part in many of the 20th century's major conflicts...
(3 Sqn), on Homs
Homs
Homs , previously known as Emesa , is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate. It is above sea level and is located north of Damascus...
airfield, destroyed five Dewoitine D.520
Dewoitine D.520
The Dewoitine D.520 was a French fighter aircraft that entered service in early 1940, shortly after the opening of World War II. Unlike the Morane-Saulnier M.S.406, which was at that time the Armée de l'Airs most numerous fighter, the Dewoitine D.520 came close to being a match for the latest...
s of Fighter Squadron II/3 (Groupe de Chasse II/3) and damaged six more.
On 10 July, five D.520s attacked Bristol Blenheim
Bristol Blenheim
The Bristol Blenheim was a British light bomber aircraft designed and built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company that was used extensively in the early days of the Second World War. It was adapted as an interim long-range and night fighter, pending the availability of the Beaufighter...
bombers from No. 45 Squadron RAF
No. 45 Squadron RAF
-First World War:Formed during World War I at Gosport on 1 March 1916 as Number 45 Squadron, the unit was first equipped with Sopwith 1½ Strutters which it was to fly in the Scout role. Deployed to France in October of that year, the Squadron found itself suffering heavy losses due to the quality...
, which were being escorted by seven Tomahawks from 3 Sqn. The French pilots claimed three Blenheims but at least four D.520s were destroyed by the Australians. The following day, a Dewoitine pilot shot down a Tomahawk from 3 Sqn, the only one lost during the campaign.
By the end of the campaign, the Vichy forces had lost 179 aircraft from about 289 committed to the Levant, with remaining aircraft with the range to do so evacuating to Rhodes
Rhodes
Rhodes is an island in Greece, located in the eastern Aegean Sea. It is the largest of the Dodecanese islands in terms of both land area and population, with a population of 117,007, and also the island group's historical capital. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within...
.
War at sea
The war at sea was not a major part of Operation Exporter but it did play a part. During the Battle of the Litani RiverBattle of the Litani River
The Battle of the Litani River was a battle of the Second World War that took place between during the advance on Beirut during the Syria-Lebanon campaign...
, rough seas kept commandos from landing along the coast on the first day of battle. On 9 June 1941, two French destroyers fired on the advancing Australians at the Litani River
Litani River
The Litani River is an important water resource in southern Lebanon. The river rises in the fertile Beqaa Valley valley, west of Baalbek, and empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre. Exceeding 140 km in length, the Litani River is the longest river in Lebanon and provides an average...
before being driven off by shore-based artillery fire. The French destroyers—Valmy
Guépard class destroyer
The Guépard-class destroyers of the French navy were laid down in 1927 and commissioned in 1930. They were similar to the previous Chacal class, with a larger hull and with a slightly improved speed and gun armament with 138mm guns of a new design...
and Guepard
Guépard class destroyer
The Guépard-class destroyers of the French navy were laid down in 1927 and commissioned in 1930. They were similar to the previous Chacal class, with a larger hull and with a slightly improved speed and gun armament with 138mm guns of a new design...
—then exchanged fire with the British destroyer . The New Zealand light cruiser HMNZS Leander
HMNZS Leander
HMNZS Leander was a light cruiser which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy during World War II. She was the lead ship of a class of eight ships, the Leander class light cruiser and was initially named HMS Leander.- History :...
came to the aid of Janus along with six additional British destroyers and the French retired.
On 15 June, with or without French approval, the Luftwaffe attempted to come to the aid of the hard-pressed French naval forces. Junkers Ju 88
Junkers Ju 88
The Junkers Ju 88 was a World War II German Luftwaffe twin-engine, multi-role aircraft. Designed by Hugo Junkers' company through the services of two American aviation engineers in the mid-1930s, it suffered from a number of technical problems during the later stages of its development and early...
s of II./LG 1 (2nd Group, Lehrgeschwader 1), attacked British warships forces of the Syrian coast. Hits were scored on the destroyers and . That evening, French aircraft of the 4th Naval Air Group bombed British naval units off of the Syrian coast.
HMS Illex and Iris were towed to Haifa
Haifa
Haifa is the largest city in northern Israel, and the third-largest city in the country, with a population of over 268,000. Another 300,000 people live in towns directly adjacent to the city including the cities of the Krayot, as well as, Tirat Carmel, Daliyat al-Karmel and Nesher...
for repairs. Iris returned to service soon thereafter. Illex underwent a series of temporary repairs at Haifa but further temporary repairs had to be made at Suez
Suez
Suez is a seaport city in north-eastern Egypt, located on the north coast of the Gulf of Suez , near the southern terminus of the Suez Canal, having the same boundaries as Suez governorate. It has three harbors, Adabya, Ain Sokhna and Port Tawfiq, and extensive port facilities...
, Aden
Aden
Aden is a seaport city in Yemen, located by the eastern approach to the Red Sea , some 170 kilometres east of Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000. Aden's ancient, natural harbour lies in the crater of an extinct volcano which now forms a peninsula, joined to the mainland by a...
, Mombassa and Durban
Durban
Durban is the largest city in the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal and the third largest city in South Africa. It forms part of the eThekwini metropolitan municipality. Durban is famous for being the busiest port in South Africa. It is also seen as one of the major centres of tourism...
in order for Illex to reach the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
for a refit and full repair.
On 16 June, British torpedo aircraft sank the French destroyer Chevalier Paul
Vauquelin class destroyer
The Vauquelin-class large destroyers of the French navy were laid down in 1930 and commissioned in 1931. They were very similar to the previous Aigle class, the only difference being a single extra torpedo tube....
. The destroyer was on its way from Toulon
Toulon
Toulon is a town in southern France and a large military harbor on the Mediterranean coast, with a major French naval base. Located in the Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur region, Toulon is the capital of the Var department in the former province of Provence....
to Syria carrying ammunition from Metropolitan France
Metropolitan France
Metropolitan France is the part of France located in Europe. It can also be described as mainland France or as the French mainland and the island of Corsica...
. On the following day, British bombers attacked another French destroyer in the port of Beirut which was also carrying ammunition.
On the night of 22/23 June, Guepard fought with two British cruisers and six destroyers off of the coast of Syria. The French destroyer was able to retire under cover of darkness.
On 25 June, the British submarine torpedoed and sank the French submarine Souffleur off the Syrian coast; shortly afterward, the French tanker Adour was attacked by British torpedo aircraft. Adour was carrying the entire fuel supply for the French forces in the Middle East andwas badly damaged.
During the ceasefire which started on 12 July, Dentz ordered ships and aircraft under his command to go to neutral Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
where they were interned.
Aftermath
On 10 July, as the Australian 21st Brigade was on the verge of entering Beirut, Dentz sought an armistice. At one minute past midnight on July 12, a ceasefire came into effect. To all intents and purposes, this ended the campaign and an armistice known as Armistice of Saint Jean d'AcreArmistice of Saint Jean d'Acre
The Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre concluded the Syria-Lebanon Campaign of World War II. It was an armistice signed between Allied forces in the Middle East under the command of British General Henry Maitland Wilson, and Vichy France forces in Syria and Lebanon, under the command of General Henri...
(also known as the "Convention of Acre") was signed on July 14 at the "Sidney Smith Barracks" on the outskirts of the city of Acre.
Metropolitan France
Metropolitan France is the part of France located in Europe. It can also be described as mainland France or as the French mainland and the island of Corsica...
or joining the Free French, only 5,668 men chose to join the forces of General Charles De Gaulle
Charles de Gaulle
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II. He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969....
. The total number of persons repatriated to Metropolitan France, civilian and military was 37,563. Eight convoys composed of three hospital ship
Hospital ship
A hospital ship is a ship designated for primary function as a floating medical treatment facility or hospital; most are operated by the military forces of various countries, as they are intended to be used in or near war zones....
s and one "gleaner" ship sailed for France between 7 August and 27 September 1941 and were cleared without any unfortunate incident.
Prisoners taken by the Vichy French forces were returned as well. It was determined that several British prisoners of war had been sent out of Syria even after the armistice was initialled. The delay in obtaining the return of these prisoners led to the detention in Palestine of Dentz and 29 of his most senior officers. They were released in due course as the British prisoners were returned to Syria.
In late July 1941, De Gaulle flew from Brazzaville
Brazzaville
-Transport:The city is home to Maya-Maya Airport and a railway station on the Congo-Ocean Railway. It is also an important river port, with ferries sailing to Kinshasa and to Bangui via Impfondo...
to personally congratulate the victors.
Free French General Georges Catroux
Georges Catroux
Georges Catroux was a French Army general and diplomat who served in both World War I and World War II, and served as Grand Chancellor of the Légion d'honneur from 1954 to 1969.-Biography:...
was placed in control of Syria and Lebanon. On 26 November, shortly after taking up this post, Catroux recognised the independence of Syria and Lebanon in the name of the Free French movement.
On 8 November 1943, after elections, Lebanon became an independent state. On 27 February 1945, it declared war on Germany and the Empire of Japan
Empire of Japan
The Empire of Japan is the name of the state of Japan that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 to the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of...
.
Syria became independent on 1 January 1944. On 26 February 1945, Syria declared war on Germany and Japan.
Notable participants
In addition to the various military commanders already noted, the Syria–Lebanon Campaign had numerous participants who are worth noting.Victoria Cross recipients
- Sir Arthur Roden CutlerArthur Roden CutlerSir Roden Cutler, was an Australian diplomat, the longest serving Governor of New South Wales and a recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry "in the face of the enemy" that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth armed forces.-Early life:Arthur Roden Cutler was born on...
, later an Australian diplomat and Governor of New South Wales. A Lieutenant at the time, Cutler was awarded the British Commonwealth's highest award for gallantry, the Victoria CrossVictoria CrossThe Victoria Cross is the highest military decoration awarded for valour "in the face of the enemy" to members of the armed forces of various Commonwealth countries, and previous British Empire territories....
(VC), for his actions at the Battle of MerdjayounBattle of MerdjayounBattle of Merdjayoun - In the Syria-Lebanon campaign of World War II, Australian troops fought a long and sometimes costly battle around Merdjayoun. They held a pass which could have allowed the Vichy French forces into the British Mandate of Palestine, with dire results...
. Cutler lost a leg as a consequence of the fighting. - Jim GordonJames Heather GordonJames Hannah "Jim" Gordon VC was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces....
, Australian Private soldier, awarded the VC for his actions at the Battle of Jezzine.
Others
- Frank BerrymanFrank Horton BerrymanLieutenant General Sir Frank Horton Berryman, KCVO, CB, CBE, DSO was an Australian Army officer who rose to the rank of lieutenant general during the Second World War. The son of an engine driver, he entered Duntroon in 1913. Graduating early due to the First World War, he served on the Western...
, later a prominent Australian General. - Moshe DayanMoshe DayanMoshe Dayan was an Israeli military leader and politician. The fourth Chief of Staff of the Israel Defense Forces , he became a fighting symbol to the world of the new State of Israel...
, later Chief of Staff of the Israel Defense Forces and future IsraelIsraelThe State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
i Defense Minister and Foreign Minister, who lost an eye while serving as an interpreter with an Australian unit. Dayan received the Military Cross for his actions in the campaign. - Roald DahlRoald DahlRoald Dahl was a British novelist, short story writer, fighter pilot and screenwriter.Born in Wales to Norwegian parents, he served in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War, in which he became a flying ace and intelligence agent, rising to the rank of Wing Commander...
, a fighter pilot at the time who had previously fought in the Greek campaign, later a prominent British author. - Bobby GibbesBobby GibbesRobert Henry Maxwell Gibbes DSO, DFC & Bar, OAM was a leading Australian fighter ace of World War II. He was officially credited with shooting down 10¼ enemy aircraft, although his score is often reported as 12 destroyed...
, member of No. 3 Squadron RAAFNo. 3 Squadron RAAFNo. 3 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force fighter squadron. It was first formed in 1916 and currently operates F/A-18 Hornet aircraft from RAAF Base Williamtown, near Newcastle, New South Wales.-World War I:...
, who claimed the first of 10 victories during the campaign and went on to become the squadron's longest-serving wartime commander. - Sir John HackettJohn Winthrop Hackett JuniorGeneral Sir John Winthrop Hackett GCB, CBE, DSO & Bar, MC was an Australian-born British soldier, author and university administrator.-Early life:Hackett, who was nicknamed "Shan", was born in Perth, Western Australia...
, an Australian-born junior officer in the British Army at the time; prominent after the war as both a British General and author. Hackett was wounded during the campaign. - Pierre Le GloanPierre Le GloanPierre Le Gloan , French pilot of World War II.He was born in Brittany, France. At the age of eighteen he joined the French Air Force. At the outbreak of the war he served in the GC III/6 fighter squadron, flying the Morane-Saulnier MS.406...
, French air ace, who served on the Vichy side during the campaign. He shot down seven Allied aircraft. - Paddy MaynePaddy MayneLieutenant Colonel Robert Blair "Paddy" Mayne DSO & Three Bars was a Northern Irish soldier, solicitor, Ireland rugby union international, amateur boxer, polar explorer and a founding member of the Special Air Service .-Early life and sporting achievements:Robert Blair "Paddy" Mayne was born in...
, British Special Air ServiceSpecial Air ServiceSpecial Air Service or SAS is a corps of the British Army constituted on 31 May 1950. They are part of the United Kingdom Special Forces and have served as a model for the special forces of many other countries all over the world...
(SAS) officer. - Yitzhak RabinYitzhak Rabin' was an Israeli politician, statesman and general. He was the fifth Prime Minister of Israel, serving two terms in office, 1974–77 and 1992 until his assassination in 1995....
, later an Israeli General, Chief of the General Staff of the IDF, and twice prime minister of Israel. - Stanley SavigeStanley SavigeLieutenant General Sir Stanley George Savige, KBE, CB, DSO, MC, ED , was an Australian Army soldier and officer who served in World War I and World War II, rising to the rank of lieutenant general....
, commander of the Australian 17th BrigadeAustralian 6th DivisionThe 6th Division of the Australian Army was a unit in the Second Australian Imperial Force during World War II. It served in the North African campaign, the Greek campaign and the New Guinea campaign, including the crucial battles of the Kokoda Track, among others...
, later a prominent Australian General. - Lt Col (then Capt) John Masters DSOJohn MastersLieutenant Colonel John Masters, DSO was an English officer in the British Indian Army and novelist. His works are noted for their treatment of the British Empire in India.-Life:...
, Adjutant 2/4th Prince of Wales's Own Gurkha Rifles, later prominent author who wrote of his involvement in the campaign in "The Road Past Mandalay". - Geoffrey KeyesGeoffrey Charles Tasker KeyesLieutenant-Colonel Geoffrey Charles Tasker Keyes, VC, MC was a Scottish recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces...
, celebrated British commandoBritish CommandosThe British Commandos were formed during the Second World War in June 1940, following a request from the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, for a force that could carry out raids against German-occupied Europe...
officer involved with the crossing of the Litani RiverLitani RiverThe Litani River is an important water resource in southern Lebanon. The river rises in the fertile Beqaa Valley valley, west of Baalbek, and empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre. Exceeding 140 km in length, the Litani River is the longest river in Lebanon and provides an average...
. In November 1941 in operations against German General Erwin RommelErwin RommelErwin Johannes Eugen Rommel , popularly known as the Desert Fox , was a German Field Marshal of World War II. He won the respect of both his own troops and the enemies he fought....
in North AfricaNorth AfricaNorth Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
Keyes was awarded the VC posthumously.
See also
- Führer Directive No. 30Fuhrer Directive No. 30Führer Directive No. 30 was a directive issued by German dictator Adolf Hitler during World War II.-Overview and background:Führer Directive No. 30 dealt with German intervention in support of Arab nationalists in the Kingdom of Iraq...
- AsmahanAsmahanAmal al-Atrash , better known by her stage name Asmahan , was a Syrian Druze singer and actress. Having immigrated to Egypt in childhood, her family knew the composer Dawood Hosni, and she sang the compositions of Mohamed El Qasabgi and Zakariyya Ahmad...
- Attack on Mers-el-Kébir
- HaganahHaganahHaganah was a Jewish paramilitary organization in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine from 1920 to 1948, which later became the core of the Israel Defense Forces.- Origins :...
- 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine
- Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936)Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936)The Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence was a treaty negotiated between France and Syria to provide for Syrian independence from French authority, which had been imposed under a League of Nations Mandate.- Explanation :...
- Italian bombings on Palestine in World War IIItalian bombings on Palestine in World War IIThe Italian bombing of Palestine in World War II was part of an effort by the Italian Royal Air Force to strike at the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth of Nations wherever possible in the Middle East.-Background:...
- French colonial flagsFrench colonial flagsSome of the colonies, protectorates and mandates of the French Colonial Empire used distinctive colonial flags. These most commonly had a French Tricolour in the canton....
- French Colonial EmpireFrench colonial empireThe French colonial empire was the set of territories outside Europe that were under French rule primarily from the 17th century to the late 1960s. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the colonial empire of France was the second-largest in the world behind the British Empire. The French colonial empire...
- List of French possessions and colonies
External links
- Australian War Memorial, 2005, "Syrian Campaign"
- "The Syrian Show Begins" – Time Magazine article, June 18, 1941
- "Exit With A Flourish" – Time Magazine article, July 28, 1941
- The Palmach