Tawfiq Canaan
Encyclopedia
Tawfiq Canaan (24 September 1882 – 15 January 1964) was a pioneering physician, medical researcher, ethnographer
and Palestinian nationalist. Born in Beit Jala
during the rule of the Ottoman Empire
, he served as a medical officer in the Ottoman army during World War I. During British rule
, he served as the first President of the Palestine Arab Medical Association founded in 1944, and as the director of several Jerusalem area hospitals before, during, and after the 1948 war
. Over the course of his medical career, he authored more than 37 studies on topics including tropical medicine
, bacteriology
, malaria
, tuberculosis
and health conditions in Palestine
, and contributed to research that led to a cure for leprosy
.
Deeply interested in Palestinian folklore, popular beliefs, and superstitions, Canaan collected over 1,400 amulet
s and talismanic objects held to have healing and protective properties. His published analyses of these objects, and other popular folk traditions and practices, brought him recognition as an ethnographer and anthropologist
. The several books and more than 50 articles he wrote in English and German serve as valuable resources to researchers of Palestinian and Middle Eastern heritage.
An outspoken public figure, he also wrote two books on the Palestine problem, reflecting his involvement in confronting British imperialism
and Zionism
. Despite his arrest by the British authorities in 1939 and the destruction of his family home and clinic in Jerusalem during the 1948 war, Canaan managed to re-establish his life and career in East Jerusalem
under Jordan
ian rule. First taking sanctuary in a convent in the Old City for two years, he was appointed director of the Augusta Victoria Hospital on the Mount of Olives
, where he lived with his family through his retirement until his death in 1964.
Born in Beit Jala
, Canaan was the second child of Katharina Khairallah (1851–1923) and Bechara Canaan (كنعان بشارة; c. 1850–1899), PhD. Canaan held fond recollections of his early childhood, which he called "the family blessing" that he and his siblings carried with them throughout their lives. His father was the first Arab
pastor of the Arab Lutheran
Church in the Near East
and founder of the Lutheran church, YMCA and first co-ed school in Beit Jala. His influence loomed large, with faith and learning serving as family foundations. A description of his childhood shared by Canaan is illustrative: "We used to go with my father on short and long trips all over the country in order to get acquainted with the country and the people. This continuous contact with the people nurtured in all of us, and particularly in me, love for the country and the people. This feeling of belonging and unshaken loyalty remained with me till this day." In the Jerusalem Quarterly, Khaled Nashef suggests Canaan's knowledge of nature in Palestine as exhibited in writings such as "Plant-lore in Palestinian Superstition" (1928) among others were informed by these trips.
His father was an alumnus
of the Schneller School, where Canaan completed his own secondary school education. In 1899, Canaan went to Beirut to study medicine at the Syrian Protestant College (today the American University of Beirut
). Shortly after his arrival, his father died of pneumonia. To lift the financial burden on his family, he began giving private lessons and undertook other part-time work at the university to supplement his income.
Graduating with honors from the school of medicine, Canaan delivered the valedictory speech for his class on 28 June 1905. Entitled "Modern Treatment", it touched on the medical uses of serums, animal organs, and X-rays, and was published in Al-Muqtataf, likely constituting his first published piece. Canaan began his medical career immediately upon graduation as an assistant to Dr. Grussendorf, the Director of the German Hospital in Jerusalem. When Grussendorf travelled to Germany in 1906, Canaan co-administered the hospital with Dr. Adalbert Einsler (1848–1919). The German-Jewish Hospital (Shaare Zedek) also sought out his services as a manager at this time.
In 1911, Canaan published his first medical article as a practicing doctor on "Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis in Jerusalem", based on studies he conducted with Dr. Wallach, director of the Shaare Zedek hospital. Between 1912 and 1914, he was travelling back and forth between Palestine and Germany to specialize in tropical medicine and microbiology studies with professors Mühlens, Ruge, Otto Huntemüller, and Hans Müch
. The latter was the head of a mission to Palestine studying tuberculosis which published a report to which Canaan contributed three research papers in 1913. That same year, Canaan was appointed director of the Malaria Branch of the International Health Bureau, a world center for medical research and microscopic examination founded by The German Society for Fighting Malaria, The Jewish Health Bureau, and The Jewish Physicians and Scientists for Improving Health in Palestine.
Canaan married Margot Eilender, the daughter of a German importer in January 1912, and the following year they moved into the family home they built in the al-Musrarah
district of Jerusalem, where three of their four children (Theo, Nada, and Leila) were born. There, Canaan opened a clinic, which was the only Arab clinic operating in Jerusalem at the time.
In August 1914, after a four-month stay in Germany, Canaan returned to work in the German Hospital with Grussendorf. As a citizen of the Ottoman Empire
, which administered Palestine
at the time, Canaan was drafted as an officer into the Ottoman army
with the outbreak of World War I that October. First assigned as a physician to a contingent in Nazareth
, he was transferred that same year to 'Awja al-Hafeer. The German chief physician there appointed him Head of the Laboratories on the Sinai Front, a position which afforded Canaan the ability to travel between Bir as-Saba, Beit Hanoun
, Gaza, and Shaykh Nouran, as well as Damascus
, Amman
, and Aleppo
. During this period, he collected more than 200 amulet
s to add to a collection he had begun in the early 20th century.
After the war ended in 1919, Canaan was appointed Director of The Leprosy Hospital (Asylum of the Lepers Jesushilfe, now Hansen Lepers Hospital) in Talbiyyah
—the only leprosy hospital in Syria
, Palestine, and the Transjordan
. Leprosy was considered an incurable disease at the time. Research progress in the field of bacteriology and microscopic examination, to which Canaan contributed, resulted in the discovery of a cure using chaulmoogra oil.
In 1923, the German Hospital reopened and Canaan was placed in charge of the Internal Medicine
Division. He held this position until 1940 when the German Hospital could no longer continue smooth operations, since by 1939, most German citizens had either left Palestine or been arrested by the British Mandatory authorities as enemy alien
s.
Canaan treated people from all social classes and segments of Palestinian and Arab society over the course of his medical career. He was one of a number of physicians from Jerusalem to examine Sherif Hussein of Mecca
in Amman
before his death in 1931, and removed a bullet from the thigh of Abu Jildah, a notorious Palestinian rebel, in 1936. Well regarded within the medical community, an entry on Canaan is included in the book Famous Doctors in Tropical Medicine (1932) by Dr. G. Olpp, director of the tropical medicine center in Tübingen
.
. Entitled "Agriculture in Palestine," the work continues to be recognized as a useful basic reference for information on the development of agriculture in Palestine at the time. In this first article outside the realm of medicine, Canaan revealed himself as a well-versed researcher in the field of "Oriental Studies
", quoting Schumacher, Bauer, Guthe, and Burckhardt
, alongside classical sources, like Strabo
and Josephus
, and Arab sources like Mujir ad-Din
. Canaan's focus on Palestinian peasantry is first apparent here.
Influenced by the Old Testament
studies produced by Gustaf Dalman
, Albrecht Alt
, and Martin Noth
, who along with Hans Wilhelm Hertzberg, were all acquaintances of his, Canaan used the Bible
and particularly the Old Testament, as a basic source to compare past and present agricultural practices. Canaan and Dalman, who headed The Evangelical German Institute
beginning in 1903, apparently shared the idea that it is not possible to understand the Old Testament without studying Palestinian folklore.
Canaan's first work in the field of Palestinian folklore, "The Calendar of Palestinian Peasants," was published by the Journal of the German Palestine Society in 1913. In the article, Canaan focused on the agricultural beliefs and practices of Palestinian fellaheen. He found that people in southern Palestine divided the year into 7 periods of 50 days, a type of pentecontad calendar
. Subsequent scholars referencing his work traced the origins of this calendar system to Western Mesopotamia
circa the 3rd millennium BCE, suggesting it was also used by the Amorites. In 1914, Canaan published his first book, entitled Superstition and Popular Medicine.
, director of the Institute of Jerusalem Studies, Canaan was the most prominent of a school of "nativist" ethnographers
to publish their works in The Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society (1920–1948). This group was driven by the concern that the "native culture of Palestine", and in particular peasant society, was being undermined by the forces of modernity
. Tamari writes that, "Implicit in their scholarship (and made explicit by Canaan himself) was another theme, namely that the peasants of Palestine represent – through their folk norms ... the living heritage of all the accumulated ancient cultures that had appeared in Palestine (principally the Canaan
ite, Philistine, Hebraic, Nabatean, Syrio-Aramaic and Arab)."
A member of the Palestine Oriental Society, (established in 1920 by Albert Tobias Clay
), Canaan was also a member of The American School for Oriental Research (established 1900), the Jerusalem branch of which was headed from 1920 to 1929 by the American archaeologist William Foxwell Albright. In the articles he published for the Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society – such as, "Haunted Springs and Water Demons in Palestine" (1920–1921), "Tasit ar-Radjfeh" ("Fear Cup"; 1923), and "Plant-lore in Palestinian Superstition" (1928) – Canaan exhibited his deep interest in superstition.
Tamari notes that unlike the Canaanite revivalist writings produced by Palestinian writers after 1948, which were in many ways a response to Zionist narratives tracing Jewish connections back to the time of the Israelites (See Canaanite movement), "Canaan and his group, by contrast, were not Canaanites. They contested Zionist claims to biblical patrimonies by stressing present day continuities between the biblical heritage (and occasionally prebiblical roots) and Palestinian popular beliefs and practices."
Meron Benvenisti
idenitifies Canaan's "most outstanding contribution to the ethnography of Arab Palestine and to the annals of his country," as Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine (1927). In the introduction to this work, Canaan writes of how, "The primitive features of Palestine are disappearing so quickly that before long most of them will be forgotten...", a change he attributed to Western
influence and the European educational models being introduced locally. The study objective was to compare the, "simple, crude, but uncontaminated Palestinian atmosphere" with the customs and practices of earlier times.
Thoroughly documented by Canaan in this work are the shrines (awlia), sanctuaries (maqamat) and cults that made up popular Islam and popular religion in Palestine. Outlining some of the local Christian, Jewish and Muslim rituals held in common, Canaan's works on this subject portray, "a local magical adaptation of sacred texts," by the peasants to their needs. While local saints worshipped in Palestine can be said to be rooted in Muslim traditions, "they are actually ennobled sheikhs, who after their death, have been elevated to sainthood." Local Muslims, many of whom had never stepped into a mosque, honoured these village saints at awlia, situated by trees, or other natural features. Canaan saw these practices as evidence that the fellaheen were heirs to the practices of the earlier "heathen" inhabitants of Palestine, "who built the first high places." Some awlia are situated at or nearby ancient sites, and may have been a 'Muslim disguise', as John Wilkinson
puts it, for "the ancient local Baal
s of Canaan
".
Also covered in this work is the fellah
practice of therapeutic bathing to cure fever, fear, or sterility, often carried out at watering spots endowed with a sense of holiness. Canaan noted how people with fevers, many from malaria, would drink from al-Suhada cistern in Hebron
and bathe in springs in Silwan
, Kolonia
(Ein al-Samiya) and Nebi Ayyub (Ein al-Nebi Ayyub) and a well in Beit Jibrin for al-Sheikh Ibrahim. The bathing rituals often related to prayer times, and were variable and complex. Specific swamps were also considered to be sacred healing places, such as al-Matbaa at Tel al-Sammam in the Plain of Esdraelon. Associated with the wali
("saint") al-Sheik Ibrek, al-Matbaa was widely renowned for curing sterility, rheumatism and nervous pains. Canaan noted that after washing in its water, women trying to conceive would offer a present to al-Sheikh Ibrek.
In "Belief in Demons in the Holy Land" (1929, original in German), Canaan gathers together every reference to demons in Palestinian popular belief, detailing their names and classes, food, dress, appearance, and dwellings, such as, for example, the carob tree. Canaan posited that village sanctuaries and rituals to confer protection and blessings were an indication of how supernatural forces are everywhere found, affecting people's lives and bringing good or bad luck and even diseases. He identified the names of some diseases in Arabic as referencing the names of long-forgotten demons, citing examples like, (diphteria), (cholera
or yellow fever
), and (plague). Canaan's perception of the origin of demons was in line with the traditional view that they were once deities within polytheistic systems, which Canaan refers to as the "primitive religions." With the advent of monotheism
, the status of these gods diminished, subsisting nevertheless in the communal unconscious as demons.
In 1929, during a trip to Petra
, Canaan discovered at its northern boundary a Kebaran
shelter which he named Wadi Madamagh. Canaan counted among his acquaintances a number of specialists in the field of Palestinian archaeology, including William Foxwell Albright, Nelson Glueck
, and Kathleen Kenyon
.
Gathered by Canaan beginning in the early 20th century through until 1947, the collection comprises more than 1,400 amulets and other objects related to popular medicine and folk practices. It was donated by Canaan's family to Birzeit University
following his death. Canaan collected some of these objects from patients who came from Palestinian cities and villages, as well as those who came from other Arab locales in Egypt, Syria
, Lebanon
, Jordan
, Saudi Arabia, Iraq
and Yemen
. He also purchased amulets from antiquity dealers, one of these being Ohan, a well-known Armenian
who had a shop in ad-Dabbaghah Quarter in Jerusalem until 1948. Sheikh
s, fortunetellers, and Sufis who prepared amulets could be counted among Canaan's many acquaintances, including Ibrahim Hassan al-Ansari (Ad-Danaf), a custodian of the Haram al-Sharif (Temple Mount), Sheikh 'Atif ad-Disy, a Qadiriyyah follower, and Sheikh Mahmoud al-'Askari al-Falakki from al-Dhahiriyyah, a famous fortuneteller in Jerusalem.
Canaan believed there was a close relationship between popular beliefs and superstitions marshalled to cure diseases, and scientific medicine. Interviews he conducted with the individuals who wore talismans
constituted an important part of his analysis, complemented by the consulting of specialized sources on sorcery
and witchcraft
. He wrote about the meanings of the shapes, writings, letters and numbers used, in his attempts at deciphering some of the symbols, and published an article on his findings in a journal produced by Antiquities Museum of the American University in Beirut in 1937.
Drawing upon his medical background, Canaan classifies amulets under the subheadings of etiology, diagnosis, prognosis, prophylaxis, and treatment which constitute chapter headings in his book Superstition and Popular Medicine (1914). Evil spirits, such as the Qarinah, "Mother of Boys", and the evil eye
are discussed in the chapter on etiology. In the chapter on prophylaxis, he covers charms, amulets, and beads, such as the blue bead, eyes, and alum
. The uses of the branch of the mes-tree (celtis australis
) that grows within the Haram al-Sharif (Temple Mount) compound in Jerusalem, for example, are described in detail. Placed in a necklace or on the head, the branch is said to have a special effect if harvested on Laylat al-Qadr
(27 Ramadan), which in Islamic belief is the night the Quran was revealed. In the chapter on treatment, which includes a comprehensive listing of all kinds of amulets and talismans, such as "the soul's bead", "the cat's eye", "the milk's bead" (to encourage the production of breastmilk), Canaan also discusses jewelry and the special uses of animal parts, such as al-hitit-horn which he identifies as a useful treatment for poisoning.
Canaan's collection is composed of:
The collection is considered a valuable resource for those interested in manifestations of magic in the popular beliefs underpinning folk medicine practices in Palestinian and Arab societies.
, who had been citizens of the Ottoman Empire, from obtaining Palestinian citizenship in Mandate Palestine
.
Conflict in the Land of Peace probes the Palestine problem in greater detail and contains responses to an anonymously authored pamphlet released after the publication of The Palestine Arab Cause that outlined the benefits that Jewish immigration brought to Palestine, such as improvements in agriculture and in the health conditions of the peasantry. Canaan responded to, and deconstructed, the alleged benefits. For example, in addressing the draining of some swamps and streams by Jewish settlers, he concedes that this did contribute to controlling the malaria epidemic in Palestine, but points out that these lands, purchased at a very low prices, were transformed into agricultural land via Arab labour for the sole benefit of the Jewish owners. Recalling that tens of the Egyptian labourers employed to dig the drainage channels died in the process, Canaan writes: "Baron De Rothschild
supplied the money and the Egyptians gave their lives." Drawing attention to what the anonymous pamphleteer did not, Canaan further notes that the draining of swamps was carried out by Palestinians and Arabs in tens of sites throughout Palestine, under the supervision of the Department of Health, with Arab financial support and volunteer labour.
Canaan was also co-signatory to a document sent to the Higher Arab Committee
on 6 August 1936, and there is reason to believe that Canaan strongly supported providing the Arab rebels with arms. From 1936 onward, Canaan, "clearly expressed his rejection of British and Zionist policies, in particular the policy of open-door Jewish immigration to Palestine."
and France declared war
on Germany, Canaan was arrested by the British Mandate authorities. After two court appearances, he was released, but was then imprisoned for nine weeks in Acre
at the behest of the Criminal Investigation Department. His wife Margot was also arrested because she was German, and his sister Badra was arrested on the accusation that she was, "inciting Arab women against Britain." Both were imprisoned with Jewish criminal prisoners at a women's facility in Bethlehem
; his wife for nine months, and his sister for four years. They were then sent to Wilhelma
, a former German colony that had been transformed into a detention camp for German Palestinians.
Margot and Badra were among those who founded the Arab Women's Committee in Jerusalem in 1934. Initially a charitable society, it soon took on a political orientation; by May 1936, the Committee was calling for civil disobedience
and the continuation of the general strike
that kicked off the 1936 revolt. Badra's political involvement also included serving as the assistant secretary in the Palestinian delegation to The Eastern Women's Conference that was held in support of Palestine in Cairo
in October 1938.
in 1934, the Arab Medical Society of Palestine was an umbrella group for medical associations in various cities. Canaan was the first president of the Society which published the first issue of its journal ("The Palestinian Arab Medical Journal") in Arabic and English in December 1945. Canaan was also a member of the journal's editorial board, with Mahmoud ad-Dajani serving as editor-in-chief. The Society organized its first medical conference in Palestine in July 1945; among the invitees was Howard Walter Florey
, the Nobel laureate
in Physiology and Medicine for isolating and purifying penicillin
.
When the political and security situation in Palestine deteriorated, the Society trained and organized relief units and centers to provide medical aid to Palestinian and Arab fighters. Contacting and coordinating with the Red Cross to protect hospitals and other humanitarian institutions, the Society also appealed to medical associations and Red Crescent and Red Cross organizations in the Arab world
to send help, and limited medical aid was sent by some. Canaan was also a founding member of the Higher Arab Relief Committee, established on 24 January 1948, to receive aid coming to the country and supervise its distribution.
. The Greek Orthodox Patriarch gave the family a room where they lived for two and a half years. Canaan's daughter Leila Mantoura wrote of this time:
Continuing his work as physician, treating patients out of his new temporary home, Canaan also continued to head the Arab Medical Society of Palestine and serve his country. After difficult negotiations with the Mandate Government, the Arab Medical Society of Palestine succeeded in taking over operations at the Central Hospital and the Hospice Hospital in Jerusalem, the Infectious Diseases Hospital near Beit Safafa
, and the Mental Hospital in Bethlehem
. The Central Hospital and its facilities in the Russian Compound , together with the Austrian Hospice Hospital, were officially under the Society's administration by May 1948, and both facilities received the wounded and the sick during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. A large Red Cross flag flew over the Central Hospital which was run by one of Canaan's colleagues. Jewish militias nevertheless shelled the hospital, destroying a large section. After the surrounding houses and a part of the hospital were occupied by Jewish militants, who continually shelled the remainder of the medical facility preventing patient access, the Society was finally forced to evacuate in October 1948.
Canaan personally managed the Austrian Hospice, transformed into a hospital in early 1948, with the agreement of the Mandatory authorities. He and the hospital staff were able to keep it running during the battle for Jerusalem until they too were forced to evacuate because of the continuous shelling.
After the war ended, and with the influx of Palestinian refugees in East Jerusalem
, the Lutheran World Federation
(LWF) appointed Canaan manager of its medical operations in the area. He helped establish clinics at the Saint John Hospice in the Old City of Jerusalem, and in 'Aizariyyeh
, Hebron
, Beit Jala, and Taybeh
in the West Bank
. He also oversaw operations at the mobile clinics established by the LWF in rural areas.
In 1950, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) and the LWF jointly reestablished the Augusta Victoria Hospital in the same building it had occupied before the war on the Mount of Olives
. Involved in realizing the project, Canaan was appointed its first medical director.
His son Theo's death in 1954 while renovating an archaeological monument in Jerash
left Canaan and his wife bereft. When he retired from his position as medical director in 1957 at the age of 75, Canaan was given a home on the hospital grounds of called Gardner's House. He lived there with his family, continuing to write, until his death on 15 January 1964. His last article, "Crime in the Traditions and Customs of the Arabs in Jordan," was published in German in that same year. Canaan was buried in the Evangelical Lutheran Cemetery in Bethlehem, near Beit Jala, his childhood home.
Ethnography
Ethnography is a qualitative method aimed to learn and understand cultural phenomena which reflect the knowledge and system of meanings guiding the life of a cultural group...
and Palestinian nationalist. Born in Beit Jala
Beit Jala
Beit Jala is an Arab Christian town in the Bethlehem Governorate of the West Bank. Beit Jala is located 10 km south of Jerusalem, on the western side of the Hebron road, opposite Bethlehem, at altitude...
during the rule of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, he served as a medical officer in the Ottoman army during World War I. During British rule
Mandate Palestine
Mandate Palestine existed while the British Mandate for Palestine, which formally began in September 1923 and terminated in May 1948, was in effect...
, he served as the first President of the Palestine Arab Medical Association founded in 1944, and as the director of several Jerusalem area hospitals before, during, and after the 1948 war
1948 Palestine war
The 1948 Palestine war refers to the events in the British Mandate of Palestine between the United Nations vote on the partition plan on November 30, 1947, to the end of the first Arab-Israeli war on July 20, 1949.The war is divided into two phases:...
. Over the course of his medical career, he authored more than 37 studies on topics including tropical medicine
Tropical medicine
Tropical medicine is the branch of medicine that deals with health problems that occur uniquely, are more widespread, or prove more difficult to control in tropical and subtropical regions....
, bacteriology
Bacteriology
Bacteriology is the study of bacteria. This subdivision of microbiology involves the identification, classification, and characterization of bacterial species...
, malaria
Malaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by eukaryotic protists of the genus Plasmodium. The disease results from the multiplication of Plasmodium parasites within red blood cells, causing symptoms that typically include fever and headache, in severe cases...
, tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis, MTB, or TB is a common, and in many cases lethal, infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis usually attacks the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body...
and health conditions in Palestine
Palestine
Palestine is a conventional name, among others, used to describe the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River, and various adjoining lands....
, and contributed to research that led to a cure for leprosy
Leprosy
Leprosy or Hansen's disease is a chronic disease caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis. Named after physician Gerhard Armauer Hansen, leprosy is primarily a granulomatous disease of the peripheral nerves and mucosa of the upper respiratory tract; skin lesions...
.
Deeply interested in Palestinian folklore, popular beliefs, and superstitions, Canaan collected over 1,400 amulet
Amulet
An amulet, similar to a talisman , is any object intended to bring good luck or protection to its owner.Potential amulets include gems, especially engraved gems, statues, coins, drawings, pendants, rings, plants and animals; even words said in certain occasions—for example: vade retro satana—, to...
s and talismanic objects held to have healing and protective properties. His published analyses of these objects, and other popular folk traditions and practices, brought him recognition as an ethnographer and anthropologist
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humanity. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean mankind or humanity, and -logia , "discourse" or "study", and was first used in 1501 by German...
. The several books and more than 50 articles he wrote in English and German serve as valuable resources to researchers of Palestinian and Middle Eastern heritage.
An outspoken public figure, he also wrote two books on the Palestine problem, reflecting his involvement in confronting British imperialism
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
and Zionism
Zionism
Zionism is a Jewish political movement that, in its broadest sense, has supported the self-determination of the Jewish people in a sovereign Jewish national homeland. Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the Zionist movement continues primarily to advocate on behalf of the Jewish state...
. Despite his arrest by the British authorities in 1939 and the destruction of his family home and clinic in Jerusalem during the 1948 war, Canaan managed to re-establish his life and career in East Jerusalem
East Jerusalem
East Jerusalem or Eastern Jerusalem refer to the parts of Jerusalem captured and annexed by Jordan in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and then captured and annexed by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War...
under Jordan
Jordan
Jordan , officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan , Al-Mamlaka al-Urduniyya al-Hashemiyya) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing...
ian rule. First taking sanctuary in a convent in the Old City for two years, he was appointed director of the Augusta Victoria Hospital on the Mount of Olives
Mount of Olives
The Mount of Olives is a mountain ridge in East Jerusalem with three peaks running from north to south. The highest, at-Tur, rises to 818 meters . It is named for the olive groves that once covered its slopes...
, where he lived with his family through his retirement until his death in 1964.
Early life
Beit Jala
Beit Jala is an Arab Christian town in the Bethlehem Governorate of the West Bank. Beit Jala is located 10 km south of Jerusalem, on the western side of the Hebron road, opposite Bethlehem, at altitude...
, Canaan was the second child of Katharina Khairallah (1851–1923) and Bechara Canaan (كنعان بشارة; c. 1850–1899), PhD. Canaan held fond recollections of his early childhood, which he called "the family blessing" that he and his siblings carried with them throughout their lives. His father was the first Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
pastor of the Arab Lutheran
Arab Christians
Arab Christians are ethnic Arabs of Christian faith, sometimes also including those, who are identified with Arab panethnicity. They are the remnants of ancient Arab Christian clans or Arabized Christians. Many of the modern Arab Christians are descendants of pre-Islamic Christian Arabian tribes,...
Church in the Near East
Near East
The Near East is a geographical term that covers different countries for geographers, archeologists, and historians, on the one hand, and for political scientists, economists, and journalists, on the other...
and founder of the Lutheran church, YMCA and first co-ed school in Beit Jala. His influence loomed large, with faith and learning serving as family foundations. A description of his childhood shared by Canaan is illustrative: "We used to go with my father on short and long trips all over the country in order to get acquainted with the country and the people. This continuous contact with the people nurtured in all of us, and particularly in me, love for the country and the people. This feeling of belonging and unshaken loyalty remained with me till this day." In the Jerusalem Quarterly, Khaled Nashef suggests Canaan's knowledge of nature in Palestine as exhibited in writings such as "Plant-lore in Palestinian Superstition" (1928) among others were informed by these trips.
His father was an alumnus
Alumnus
An alumnus , according to the American Heritage Dictionary, is "a graduate of a school, college, or university." An alumnus can also be a former member, employee, contributor or inmate as well as a former student. In addition, an alumna is "a female graduate or former student of a school, college,...
of the Schneller School, where Canaan completed his own secondary school education. In 1899, Canaan went to Beirut to study medicine at the Syrian Protestant College (today the American University of Beirut
American University of Beirut
The American University of Beirut is a private, independent university in Beirut, Lebanon. It was founded as the Syrian Protestant College by American missionaries in 1866...
). Shortly after his arrival, his father died of pneumonia. To lift the financial burden on his family, he began giving private lessons and undertook other part-time work at the university to supplement his income.
Medical career
In 1911, Canaan published his first medical article as a practicing doctor on "Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis in Jerusalem", based on studies he conducted with Dr. Wallach, director of the Shaare Zedek hospital. Between 1912 and 1914, he was travelling back and forth between Palestine and Germany to specialize in tropical medicine and microbiology studies with professors Mühlens, Ruge, Otto Huntemüller, and Hans Müch
Hans Much
Hans Much was a German author, writer and physician....
. The latter was the head of a mission to Palestine studying tuberculosis which published a report to which Canaan contributed three research papers in 1913. That same year, Canaan was appointed director of the Malaria Branch of the International Health Bureau, a world center for medical research and microscopic examination founded by The German Society for Fighting Malaria, The Jewish Health Bureau, and The Jewish Physicians and Scientists for Improving Health in Palestine.
Canaan married Margot Eilender, the daughter of a German importer in January 1912, and the following year they moved into the family home they built in the al-Musrarah
Musrara, Jerusalem
Musrara also known by its Hebrew name, Morasha is a neighborhood in Jerusalem. It is bordered by Meah Shearim and Beit Yisrael on the north, the Old City on the south and east, and the Russian Compound and Kikar Safra to the west.-History:...
district of Jerusalem, where three of their four children (Theo, Nada, and Leila) were born. There, Canaan opened a clinic, which was the only Arab clinic operating in Jerusalem at the time.
In August 1914, after a four-month stay in Germany, Canaan returned to work in the German Hospital with Grussendorf. As a citizen of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, which administered Palestine
Palestine
Palestine is a conventional name, among others, used to describe the geographic region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River, and various adjoining lands....
at the time, Canaan was drafted as an officer into the Ottoman army
Military of the Ottoman Empire
The history of military of the Ottoman Empire can be divided in five main periods. The foundation era covers the years between 1300 and 1453 , the classical period covers the years between 1451 and 1606 , the reformation period covers the years between 1606 and 1826 ,...
with the outbreak of World War I that October. First assigned as a physician to a contingent in Nazareth
Nazareth
Nazareth is the largest city in the North District of Israel. Known as "the Arab capital of Israel," the population is made up predominantly of Palestinian Arab citizens of Israel...
, he was transferred that same year to 'Awja al-Hafeer. The German chief physician there appointed him Head of the Laboratories on the Sinai Front, a position which afforded Canaan the ability to travel between Bir as-Saba, Beit Hanoun
Beit Hanoun
Beit Hanoun is a city on the north-east edge of the Gaza Strip. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, the town had a population of 32,187 in mid-year 2006. It is administered by the Palestinian Authority...
, Gaza, and Shaykh Nouran, as well as Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
, Amman
Amman
Amman is the capital of Jordan. It is the country's political, cultural and commercial centre and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. The Greater Amman area has a population of 2,842,629 as of 2010. The population of Amman is expected to jump from 2.8 million to almost...
, and Aleppo
Aleppo
Aleppo is the largest city in Syria and the capital of Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Syrian governorate. With an official population of 2,301,570 , expanding to over 2.5 million in the metropolitan area, it is also one of the largest cities in the Levant...
. During this period, he collected more than 200 amulet
Amulet
An amulet, similar to a talisman , is any object intended to bring good luck or protection to its owner.Potential amulets include gems, especially engraved gems, statues, coins, drawings, pendants, rings, plants and animals; even words said in certain occasions—for example: vade retro satana—, to...
s to add to a collection he had begun in the early 20th century.
After the war ended in 1919, Canaan was appointed Director of The Leprosy Hospital (Asylum of the Lepers Jesushilfe, now Hansen Lepers Hospital) in Talbiyyah
Talbiya
Talbiya or Talbiyeh , officially Komemiyut, is an upscale neighborhood in Jerusalem, Israel, located between Rehavia and Katamon. It was built in the 1920s and 1930s on land purchased from the Greek Patriarchate...
—the only leprosy hospital in Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
, Palestine, and the Transjordan
Transjordan
The Emirate of Transjordan was a former Ottoman territory in the Southern Levant that was part of the British Mandate of Palestine...
. Leprosy was considered an incurable disease at the time. Research progress in the field of bacteriology and microscopic examination, to which Canaan contributed, resulted in the discovery of a cure using chaulmoogra oil.
In 1923, the German Hospital reopened and Canaan was placed in charge of the Internal Medicine
Internal medicine
Internal medicine is the medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of adult diseases. Physicians specializing in internal medicine are called internists. They are especially skilled in the management of patients who have undifferentiated or multi-system disease processes...
Division. He held this position until 1940 when the German Hospital could no longer continue smooth operations, since by 1939, most German citizens had either left Palestine or been arrested by the British Mandatory authorities as enemy alien
Enemy alien
In law, an enemy alien is a citizen of a country which is in a state of conflict with the land in which he or she is located. Usually, but not always, the countries are in a state of declared war.-United Kingdom:...
s.
Canaan treated people from all social classes and segments of Palestinian and Arab society over the course of his medical career. He was one of a number of physicians from Jerusalem to examine Sherif Hussein of Mecca
Mecca
Mecca is a city in the Hijaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of above sea level...
in Amman
Amman
Amman is the capital of Jordan. It is the country's political, cultural and commercial centre and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. The Greater Amman area has a population of 2,842,629 as of 2010. The population of Amman is expected to jump from 2.8 million to almost...
before his death in 1931, and removed a bullet from the thigh of Abu Jildah, a notorious Palestinian rebel, in 1936. Well regarded within the medical community, an entry on Canaan is included in the book Famous Doctors in Tropical Medicine (1932) by Dr. G. Olpp, director of the tropical medicine center in Tübingen
Tübingen
Tübingen is a traditional university town in central Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is situated south of the state capital, Stuttgart, on a ridge between the Neckar and Ammer rivers.-Geography:...
.
Beginnings
In 1911, the geographical journal Globus published a German translation of a lecture Canaan first delivered on 22 May 1909 in ArabicArabic language
Arabic is a name applied to the descendants of the Classical Arabic language of the 6th century AD, used most prominently in the Quran, the Islamic Holy Book...
. Entitled "Agriculture in Palestine," the work continues to be recognized as a useful basic reference for information on the development of agriculture in Palestine at the time. In this first article outside the realm of medicine, Canaan revealed himself as a well-versed researcher in the field of "Oriental Studies
Oriental studies
Oriental studies is the academic field of study that embraces Near Eastern and Far Eastern societies and cultures, languages, peoples, history and archaeology; in recent years the subject has often been turned into the newer terms of Asian studies and Middle Eastern studies...
", quoting Schumacher, Bauer, Guthe, and Burckhardt
Johann Ludwig Burckhardt
Johann Ludwig Burckhardt was a Swiss traveller and orientalist. He wrote his letters in French and signed Louis...
, alongside classical sources, like Strabo
Strabo
Strabo, also written Strabon was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.-Life:Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus , a city which he said was situated the approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea...
and Josephus
Josephus
Titus Flavius Josephus , also called Joseph ben Matityahu , was a 1st-century Romano-Jewish historian and hagiographer of priestly and royal ancestry who recorded Jewish history, with special emphasis on the 1st century AD and the First Jewish–Roman War, which resulted in the Destruction of...
, and Arab sources like Mujir ad-Din
Mujir al-Din al-'Ulaymi
Mujīr al-Dīn al-'Ulaymī , often simply Mujir al-Din, was a Jerusalemite qadi and Arab historian whose principal work chronicled the history of Jerusalem and Hebron in the Middle Ages. Entitled al-Uns al-Jalil bi-tarikh al-Quds wal-Khalil Mujīr al-Dīn al-'Ulaymī (Arabic: ) (1456–1522), often...
. Canaan's focus on Palestinian peasantry is first apparent here.
Influenced by the Old Testament
Old Testament
The Old Testament, of which Christians hold different views, is a Christian term for the religious writings of ancient Israel held sacred and inspired by Christians which overlaps with the 24-book canon of the Masoretic Text of Judaism...
studies produced by Gustaf Dalman
Gustaf Dalman
Gustaf Hermann Dalman was a German Lutheran theologian and orientalist. He did extensive field work in Palestine, collecting poetry and proverbs.-Works:...
, Albrecht Alt
Albrecht Alt
Albrecht Alt , was a leading German Protestant theologian.Eldest son of a Lutheran minister, he completed high school in Ansbach and studied theology at the Friedrich-Alexander-University in Erlangen and the University of Leipzig...
, and Martin Noth
Martin Noth
Martin Noth was a German scholar of the Hebrew Bible who specialized in the pre-Exilic history of the Hebrews. With Gerhard von Rad he pioneered the traditional-historical approach to biblical studies, emphasising the role of oral traditions in the formation of the biblical texts.-Life:Noth was...
, who along with Hans Wilhelm Hertzberg, were all acquaintances of his, Canaan used the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
and particularly the Old Testament, as a basic source to compare past and present agricultural practices. Canaan and Dalman, who headed The Evangelical German Institute
German Protestant Institute
The German Protestant Institute of Archaeology , Research Unit of the German Archaeological Institute, founded in 1900 is one of the most important biblical archaeological institutes in the Near East...
beginning in 1903, apparently shared the idea that it is not possible to understand the Old Testament without studying Palestinian folklore.
Canaan's first work in the field of Palestinian folklore, "The Calendar of Palestinian Peasants," was published by the Journal of the German Palestine Society in 1913. In the article, Canaan focused on the agricultural beliefs and practices of Palestinian fellaheen. He found that people in southern Palestine divided the year into 7 periods of 50 days, a type of pentecontad calendar
Pentecontad calendar
The Pentecontad Calendar is a unique agricultural calendar system thought to be of Amorite origin in which the year is broken down into seven periods of fifty days , with an annual supplement of fifteen or sixteen days...
. Subsequent scholars referencing his work traced the origins of this calendar system to Western Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
circa the 3rd millennium BCE, suggesting it was also used by the Amorites. In 1914, Canaan published his first book, entitled Superstition and Popular Medicine.
"Nativist" ethnography
According to Salim TamariSalim Tamari
Salim Tamari is the director of the Institute of Jerusalem Studies and is an associate professor of sociology at Birzeit University, near Ramallah in the West Bank. Rashid Khalidi, Edward Said Professor of Arab Studies at Columbia University, has called Tamari "the preeminent Palestinian historical...
, director of the Institute of Jerusalem Studies, Canaan was the most prominent of a school of "nativist" ethnographers
Ethnography
Ethnography is a qualitative method aimed to learn and understand cultural phenomena which reflect the knowledge and system of meanings guiding the life of a cultural group...
to publish their works in The Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society (1920–1948). This group was driven by the concern that the "native culture of Palestine", and in particular peasant society, was being undermined by the forces of modernity
Modernity
Modernity typically refers to a post-traditional, post-medieval historical period, one marked by the move from feudalism toward capitalism, industrialization, secularization, rationalization, the nation-state and its constituent institutions and forms of surveillance...
. Tamari writes that, "Implicit in their scholarship (and made explicit by Canaan himself) was another theme, namely that the peasants of Palestine represent – through their folk norms ... the living heritage of all the accumulated ancient cultures that had appeared in Palestine (principally the Canaan
Canaan
Canaan is a historical region roughly corresponding to modern-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, and the western parts of Jordan...
ite, Philistine, Hebraic, Nabatean, Syrio-Aramaic and Arab)."
A member of the Palestine Oriental Society, (established in 1920 by Albert Tobias Clay
Albert Tobias Clay
Albert Tobias Clay was an American Semitic archaeologist, born in Hanover, Penna.He graduated at Franklin and Marshall College in 1889, and at the Lutheran Theological Seminary in 1892; was ordained to the Lutheran ministry in the latter year; was fellow in Assyrian and instructor in Hebrew at...
), Canaan was also a member of The American School for Oriental Research (established 1900), the Jerusalem branch of which was headed from 1920 to 1929 by the American archaeologist William Foxwell Albright. In the articles he published for the Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society – such as, "Haunted Springs and Water Demons in Palestine" (1920–1921), "Tasit ar-Radjfeh" ("Fear Cup"; 1923), and "Plant-lore in Palestinian Superstition" (1928) – Canaan exhibited his deep interest in superstition.
Meron Benvenisti
Meron Benvenisti
Meron Benvenisti is an Israeli political scientist who was Deputy Mayor of Jerusalem under Teddy Kollek from 1971 to 1978, during which he administered East Jerusalem and served as Jerusalem's Chief Planning Officer. He is a medieval scholar and published books and maps on the Crusader period in...
idenitifies Canaan's "most outstanding contribution to the ethnography of Arab Palestine and to the annals of his country," as Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine (1927). In the introduction to this work, Canaan writes of how, "The primitive features of Palestine are disappearing so quickly that before long most of them will be forgotten...", a change he attributed to Western
Western culture
Western culture, sometimes equated with Western civilization or European civilization, refers to cultures of European origin and is used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, religious beliefs, political systems, and specific artifacts and...
influence and the European educational models being introduced locally. The study objective was to compare the, "simple, crude, but uncontaminated Palestinian atmosphere" with the customs and practices of earlier times.
Thoroughly documented by Canaan in this work are the shrines (awlia), sanctuaries (maqamat) and cults that made up popular Islam and popular religion in Palestine. Outlining some of the local Christian, Jewish and Muslim rituals held in common, Canaan's works on this subject portray, "a local magical adaptation of sacred texts," by the peasants to their needs. While local saints worshipped in Palestine can be said to be rooted in Muslim traditions, "they are actually ennobled sheikhs, who after their death, have been elevated to sainthood." Local Muslims, many of whom had never stepped into a mosque, honoured these village saints at awlia, situated by trees, or other natural features. Canaan saw these practices as evidence that the fellaheen were heirs to the practices of the earlier "heathen" inhabitants of Palestine, "who built the first high places." Some awlia are situated at or nearby ancient sites, and may have been a 'Muslim disguise', as John Wilkinson
John Wilkinson
John Wilkinson may refer to:* John Wilkinson * John Wilkinson , British industrialist who suggested the use of iron for many roles where other materials had previously been used...
puts it, for "the ancient local Baal
Baal
Baʿal is a Northwest Semitic title and honorific meaning "master" or "lord" that is used for various gods who were patrons of cities in the Levant and Asia Minor, cognate to Akkadian Bēlu...
s of Canaan
Canaan
Canaan is a historical region roughly corresponding to modern-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, and the western parts of Jordan...
".
Also covered in this work is the fellah
Fellah
Fellah , also alternatively known as Fallah is a peasant, farmer or agricultural laborer in the Middle East and North Africa...
practice of therapeutic bathing to cure fever, fear, or sterility, often carried out at watering spots endowed with a sense of holiness. Canaan noted how people with fevers, many from malaria, would drink from al-Suhada cistern in Hebron
Hebron
Hebron , is located in the southern West Bank, south of Jerusalem. Nestled in the Judean Mountains, it lies 930 meters above sea level. It is the largest city in the West Bank and home to around 165,000 Palestinians, and over 500 Jewish settlers concentrated in and around the old quarter...
and bathe in springs in Silwan
Silwan
Silwan or Wadi Hilweh is a predominantly Palestinian village adjacent to the Old City of Jerusalem. In recent years a small Jewish minority of 40 families has settled in the area. The village is located in East Jerusalem, an area occupied by Jordan from 1948 until the 1967 Six-day War and by Israel...
, Kolonia
Kolonia
Kolonia is a coastal town and the capital of Pohnpei State in the Federated States of Micronesia . It was also the former FSM capital before being replaced by Palikir in 1989, located nearby to the southwest in the municipality of Sokehs.-Description:...
(Ein al-Samiya) and Nebi Ayyub (Ein al-Nebi Ayyub) and a well in Beit Jibrin for al-Sheikh Ibrahim. The bathing rituals often related to prayer times, and were variable and complex. Specific swamps were also considered to be sacred healing places, such as al-Matbaa at Tel al-Sammam in the Plain of Esdraelon. Associated with the wali
Wali
Walī , is an Arabic word meaning "custodian", "protector", "sponsor", or authority as denoted by its definition "crown". "Wali" is someone who has "Walayah" over somebody else. For example, in Fiqh the father is wali of his children. In Islam, the phrase ولي الله walīyu 'llāh...
("saint") al-Sheik Ibrek, al-Matbaa was widely renowned for curing sterility, rheumatism and nervous pains. Canaan noted that after washing in its water, women trying to conceive would offer a present to al-Sheikh Ibrek.
In "Belief in Demons in the Holy Land" (1929, original in German), Canaan gathers together every reference to demons in Palestinian popular belief, detailing their names and classes, food, dress, appearance, and dwellings, such as, for example, the carob tree. Canaan posited that village sanctuaries and rituals to confer protection and blessings were an indication of how supernatural forces are everywhere found, affecting people's lives and bringing good or bad luck and even diseases. He identified the names of some diseases in Arabic as referencing the names of long-forgotten demons, citing examples like, (diphteria), (cholera
Cholera
Cholera is an infection of the small intestine that is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. The main symptoms are profuse watery diarrhea and vomiting. Transmission occurs primarily by drinking or eating water or food that has been contaminated by the diarrhea of an infected person or the feces...
or yellow fever
Yellow fever
Yellow fever is an acute viral hemorrhagic disease. The virus is a 40 to 50 nm enveloped RNA virus with positive sense of the Flaviviridae family....
), and (plague). Canaan's perception of the origin of demons was in line with the traditional view that they were once deities within polytheistic systems, which Canaan refers to as the "primitive religions." With the advent of monotheism
Monotheism
Monotheism is the belief in the existence of one and only one god. Monotheism is characteristic of the Baha'i Faith, Christianity, Druzism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Samaritanism, Sikhism and Zoroastrianism.While they profess the existence of only one deity, monotheistic religions may still...
, the status of these gods diminished, subsisting nevertheless in the communal unconscious as demons.
In 1929, during a trip to Petra
Petra
Petra is a historical and archaeological city in the Jordanian governorate of Ma'an that is famous for its rock cut architecture and water conduits system. Established sometime around the 6th century BC as the capital city of the Nabataeans, it is a symbol of Jordan as well as its most visited...
, Canaan discovered at its northern boundary a Kebaran
Kebaran
The Kebaran or Kebarian culture was an archaeological culture in the eastern Mediterranean area , named after its type site, Kebara Cave south of Haifa...
shelter which he named Wadi Madamagh. Canaan counted among his acquaintances a number of specialists in the field of Palestinian archaeology, including William Foxwell Albright, Nelson Glueck
Nelson Glueck
Nelson Glueck was an American rabbi, academic and archaeologist. Dr Glueck served as president of Hebrew Union College from 1947 until his death, and his pioneering work in biblical archaeology resulted in the discovery of 1,500 ancient sites....
, and Kathleen Kenyon
Kathleen Kenyon
Dame Kathleen Mary Kenyon , was a leading archaeologist of Neolithic culture in the Fertile Crescent. She is best known for her excavations in Jericho in 1952-1958.-Early life:...
.
Collection of Palestinian amulets
Birzeit University
Birzeit University is a university located in Birzeit near Ramallah, Palestinian territories. BZU is among the foremost tertiary educational institutes in the Palestinian territories and has played a significant role in the Palestinian political dialogue.- History :The institution was originally...
following his death. Canaan collected some of these objects from patients who came from Palestinian cities and villages, as well as those who came from other Arab locales in Egypt, Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
, Lebanon
Lebanon
Lebanon , officially the Republic of LebanonRepublic of Lebanon is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies. The term Lebanese Republic, a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names that is not used in today's world. Arabic is the most common language spoken among...
, Jordan
Jordan
Jordan , officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan , Al-Mamlaka al-Urduniyya al-Hashemiyya) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing...
, Saudi Arabia, Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
and Yemen
Yemen
The Republic of Yemen , commonly known as Yemen , is a country located in the Middle East, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and Oman to the east....
. He also purchased amulets from antiquity dealers, one of these being Ohan, a well-known Armenian
Armenians
Armenian people or Armenians are a nation and ethnic group native to the Armenian Highland.The largest concentration is in Armenia having a nearly-homogeneous population with 97.9% or 3,145,354 being ethnic Armenian....
who had a shop in ad-Dabbaghah Quarter in Jerusalem until 1948. Sheikh
Sheikh
Not to be confused with sikhSheikh — also spelled Sheik or Shaikh, or transliterated as Shaykh — is an honorific in the Arabic language that literally means "elder" and carries the meaning "leader and/or governor"...
s, fortunetellers, and Sufis who prepared amulets could be counted among Canaan's many acquaintances, including Ibrahim Hassan al-Ansari (Ad-Danaf), a custodian of the Haram al-Sharif (Temple Mount), Sheikh 'Atif ad-Disy, a Qadiriyyah follower, and Sheikh Mahmoud al-'Askari al-Falakki from al-Dhahiriyyah, a famous fortuneteller in Jerusalem.
Canaan believed there was a close relationship between popular beliefs and superstitions marshalled to cure diseases, and scientific medicine. Interviews he conducted with the individuals who wore talismans
Amulet
An amulet, similar to a talisman , is any object intended to bring good luck or protection to its owner.Potential amulets include gems, especially engraved gems, statues, coins, drawings, pendants, rings, plants and animals; even words said in certain occasions—for example: vade retro satana—, to...
constituted an important part of his analysis, complemented by the consulting of specialized sources on sorcery
Magic (paranormal)
Magic is the claimed art of manipulating aspects of reality either by supernatural means or through knowledge of occult laws unknown to science. It is in contrast to science, in that science does not accept anything not subject to either direct or indirect observation, and subject to logical...
and witchcraft
Witchcraft
Witchcraft, in historical, anthropological, religious, and mythological contexts, is the alleged use of supernatural or magical powers. A witch is a practitioner of witchcraft...
. He wrote about the meanings of the shapes, writings, letters and numbers used, in his attempts at deciphering some of the symbols, and published an article on his findings in a journal produced by Antiquities Museum of the American University in Beirut in 1937.
Drawing upon his medical background, Canaan classifies amulets under the subheadings of etiology, diagnosis, prognosis, prophylaxis, and treatment which constitute chapter headings in his book Superstition and Popular Medicine (1914). Evil spirits, such as the Qarinah, "Mother of Boys", and the evil eye
Evil eye
The evil eye is a look that is believed by many cultures to be able to cause injury or bad luck for the person at whom it is directed for reasons of envy or dislike...
are discussed in the chapter on etiology. In the chapter on prophylaxis, he covers charms, amulets, and beads, such as the blue bead, eyes, and alum
Alum
Alum is both a specific chemical compound and a class of chemical compounds. The specific compound is the hydrated potassium aluminium sulfate with the formula KAl2.12H2O. The wider class of compounds known as alums have the related empirical formula, AB2.12H2O.-Chemical properties:Alums are...
. The uses of the branch of the mes-tree (celtis australis
Celtis australis
Celtis australis, commonly known as the European nettle tree, Mediterranean hackberry, lote tree, or honeyberry, is a deciduous tree that can grow 20 or 25 meters in height....
) that grows within the Haram al-Sharif (Temple Mount) compound in Jerusalem, for example, are described in detail. Placed in a necklace or on the head, the branch is said to have a special effect if harvested on Laylat al-Qadr
Laylat al-Qadr
Lailatul Qadr , the Night of Destiny, Night of Power, Night of Value, the Night of Decree or Night of Measures, is the anniversary of two very important dates in Islam that occurred in the month of Ramadan...
(27 Ramadan), which in Islamic belief is the night the Quran was revealed. In the chapter on treatment, which includes a comprehensive listing of all kinds of amulets and talismans, such as "the soul's bead", "the cat's eye", "the milk's bead" (to encourage the production of breastmilk), Canaan also discusses jewelry and the special uses of animal parts, such as al-hitit-horn which he identifies as a useful treatment for poisoning.
Canaan's collection is composed of:
- Amulets (Arabic: hujub) or talismans written on paper and placed in triangular cloth, leather wraps, cylinders or silver cases.
- Jewelry, including necklaces, bracelets, rings and semiprecious stones. These items are still worn today although their status as amulets has since waned.
- Glass beads and stones of all types and colors used for healing and repelling the evil eye. Hebron glassHebron glassHebron glass refers to glass produced in Hebron as part of a flourishing art industry established in the city during Roman rule in Palestine. For centuries, Hebron has been associated with glass production in the same way as Nablus has been associated with the production of soap...
beads in the shape of eyes of various sizes were given names including rooster eye, baby camel eye and camel eye. - Paper amulets that include talismans, supplications and prayers, which were hung in homes for protection.
- PilgrimPilgrimA pilgrim is a traveler who is on a journey to a holy place. Typically, this is a physical journeying to some place of special significance to the adherent of a particular religious belief system...
s' certificates bearing religious symbols of the three SemiticSemiticIn linguistics and ethnology, Semitic was first used to refer to a language family of largely Middle Eastern origin, now called the Semitic languages...
religions, in stamp or written form which were given to pilgrims who visited holy sites in Jerusalem and Hebron. - Silver votive offeringVotive offeringA votive deposit or votive offering is one or more objects displayed or deposited, without the intention of recovery or use, in a sacred place for broadly religious purposes. Such items are a feature of modern and ancient societies and are generally made in order to gain favor with supernatural...
s, most of which are from Aleppo, Syria, and shaped in the form of the human body or its parts. These were hung in churches and on religious icons to heal illnesses and protect the health of children. - Organic materials like animal bones and tortoise shells, sometimes inscribed with talismanic writings and used primarily for treating epilepsyEpilepsyEpilepsy is a common chronic neurological disorder characterized by seizures. These seizures are transient signs and/or symptoms of abnormal, excessive or hypersynchronous neuronal activity in the brain.About 50 million people worldwide have epilepsy, and nearly two out of every three new cases...
. - Vessels such as "fear cups" inscribed with Quranic verses and supplications. Water was placed in the cup and left under the light of the moon and stars for several nights before being given to an afflicted person to drink.
- Ceramic dishes inscribed with talismans for curing diseases and facilitating childbirth.
The collection is considered a valuable resource for those interested in manifestations of magic in the popular beliefs underpinning folk medicine practices in Palestinian and Arab societies.
Nationalist writings
Canaan's political positions and his strong sense of nationalism find clear expression in two of his published works: The Palestine Arab Cause (1936) and Conflict in the Land of Peace (1936). Published in English, Arabic, and French, The Palestine Arab Cause was a 48-page booklet that "resembled a political pamphlet directed at British public opinion". First published as a series of articles in the local and foreign press after the outbreak of the 1936 Arab revolt, the writings were considered by the Mandatory authorities to be subversive. Canaan described British policy as, "a destructive campaign against the Arabs with the ultimate aim of exterminating them from their country." He also questioned the nationality laws enacted by the Mandatory authorities which prevented Palestinian immigrants in the AmericasAmericas
The Americas, or America , are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World. In English, the plural form the Americas is often used to refer to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, while the singular form America is primarily...
, who had been citizens of the Ottoman Empire, from obtaining Palestinian citizenship in Mandate Palestine
Mandate Palestine
Mandate Palestine existed while the British Mandate for Palestine, which formally began in September 1923 and terminated in May 1948, was in effect...
.
Conflict in the Land of Peace probes the Palestine problem in greater detail and contains responses to an anonymously authored pamphlet released after the publication of The Palestine Arab Cause that outlined the benefits that Jewish immigration brought to Palestine, such as improvements in agriculture and in the health conditions of the peasantry. Canaan responded to, and deconstructed, the alleged benefits. For example, in addressing the draining of some swamps and streams by Jewish settlers, he concedes that this did contribute to controlling the malaria epidemic in Palestine, but points out that these lands, purchased at a very low prices, were transformed into agricultural land via Arab labour for the sole benefit of the Jewish owners. Recalling that tens of the Egyptian labourers employed to dig the drainage channels died in the process, Canaan writes: "Baron De Rothschild
Rothschild family
The Rothschild family , known as The House of Rothschild, or more simply as the Rothschilds, is a Jewish-German family that established European banking and finance houses starting in the late 18th century...
supplied the money and the Egyptians gave their lives." Drawing attention to what the anonymous pamphleteer did not, Canaan further notes that the draining of swamps was carried out by Palestinians and Arabs in tens of sites throughout Palestine, under the supervision of the Department of Health, with Arab financial support and volunteer labour.
Canaan was also co-signatory to a document sent to the Higher Arab Committee
Arab Higher Committee
The Arab Higher Committee was the central political organ of the Arab community of Mandate Palestine. It was established on 25 April 1936, on the initiative of Hajj Amin al-Husayni, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, and comprised the leaders of Palestinian Arab clans under the mufti's...
on 6 August 1936, and there is reason to believe that Canaan strongly supported providing the Arab rebels with arms. From 1936 onward, Canaan, "clearly expressed his rejection of British and Zionist policies, in particular the policy of open-door Jewish immigration to Palestine."
Imprisonment of Canaan, his wife, and his sister
On 3 September 1939, the day that BritainUnited Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and France declared war
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
on Germany, Canaan was arrested by the British Mandate authorities. After two court appearances, he was released, but was then imprisoned for nine weeks in Acre
Acre, Israel
Acre , is a city in the Western Galilee region of northern Israel at the northern extremity of Haifa Bay. Acre is one of the oldest continuously inhabited sites in the country....
at the behest of the Criminal Investigation Department. His wife Margot was also arrested because she was German, and his sister Badra was arrested on the accusation that she was, "inciting Arab women against Britain." Both were imprisoned with Jewish criminal prisoners at a women's facility in Bethlehem
Bethlehem
Bethlehem is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank of the Jordan River, near Israel and approximately south of Jerusalem, with a population of about 30,000 people. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate of the Palestinian National Authority and a hub of Palestinian culture and tourism...
; his wife for nine months, and his sister for four years. They were then sent to Wilhelma
Wilhelma, Palestine
Wilhelma was a German Templer colony in Palestine located southwest of al-'Abbasiyyah near Jaffa.Wilhelma-Hamîdije was named in honour of King William II of Württemberg, Emperor Wilhelm II and Sultan Abdul Hamid II, however, only the first half of the name prevailed...
, a former German colony that had been transformed into a detention camp for German Palestinians.
Margot and Badra were among those who founded the Arab Women's Committee in Jerusalem in 1934. Initially a charitable society, it soon took on a political orientation; by May 1936, the Committee was calling for civil disobedience
Civil disobedience
Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a government, or of an occupying international power. Civil disobedience is commonly, though not always, defined as being nonviolent resistance. It is one form of civil resistance...
and the continuation of the general strike
General strike
A general strike is a strike action by a critical mass of the labour force in a city, region, or country. While a general strike can be for political goals, economic goals, or both, it tends to gain its momentum from the ideological or class sympathies of the participants...
that kicked off the 1936 revolt. Badra's political involvement also included serving as the assistant secretary in the Palestinian delegation to The Eastern Women's Conference that was held in support of Palestine in Cairo
Cairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
in October 1938.
Founding of the Arab Medical Society of Palestine
Established on 4 August 1944 by way of a decision adopted at the Arab Medical Conference in HaifaHaifa
Haifa is the largest city in northern Israel, and the third-largest city in the country, with a population of over 268,000. Another 300,000 people live in towns directly adjacent to the city including the cities of the Krayot, as well as, Tirat Carmel, Daliyat al-Karmel and Nesher...
in 1934, the Arab Medical Society of Palestine was an umbrella group for medical associations in various cities. Canaan was the first president of the Society which published the first issue of its journal ("The Palestinian Arab Medical Journal") in Arabic and English in December 1945. Canaan was also a member of the journal's editorial board, with Mahmoud ad-Dajani serving as editor-in-chief. The Society organized its first medical conference in Palestine in July 1945; among the invitees was Howard Walter Florey
Howard Walter Florey
Howard Walter Florey, Baron Florey OM FRS was an Australian pharmacologist and pathologist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 with Sir Ernst Boris Chain and Sir Alexander Fleming for his role in the making of penicillin. Florey's discoveries are estimated to have saved...
, the Nobel laureate
Nobel Prize
The Nobel Prizes are annual international awards bestowed by Scandinavian committees in recognition of cultural and scientific advances. The will of the Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, established the prizes in 1895...
in Physiology and Medicine for isolating and purifying penicillin
Penicillin
Penicillin is a group of antibiotics derived from Penicillium fungi. They include penicillin G, procaine penicillin, benzathine penicillin, and penicillin V....
.
When the political and security situation in Palestine deteriorated, the Society trained and organized relief units and centers to provide medical aid to Palestinian and Arab fighters. Contacting and coordinating with the Red Cross to protect hospitals and other humanitarian institutions, the Society also appealed to medical associations and Red Crescent and Red Cross organizations in the Arab world
Arab world
The Arab world refers to Arabic-speaking states, territories and populations in North Africa, Western Asia and elsewhere.The standard definition of the Arab world comprises the 22 states and territories of the Arab League stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the...
to send help, and limited medical aid was sent by some. Canaan was also a founding member of the Higher Arab Relief Committee, established on 24 January 1948, to receive aid coming to the country and supervise its distribution.
1948 war
Bombs and mortar shells hit some Arab houses in al-Musrarah quarter of Jerusalem where the Canaan family home was located on 22 February 1948. Shortly thereafter, the Canaan's children were moved out of the house to a safer location, but Tawfiq, Margot, Badra, and Nora (his sister-in-law) remained there. Canaan had deposited his collection of amulets and 250 icons with an international organization in the western part of Jerusalem earlier that same year for safekeeping. After the house sustained a direct hit on 9 May 1948, Canaan and those who remained went to the Old City where they had arranged to stay at a conventConvent
A convent is either a community of priests, religious brothers, religious sisters, or nuns, or the building used by the community, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church and in the Anglican Communion...
. The Greek Orthodox Patriarch gave the family a room where they lived for two and a half years. Canaan's daughter Leila Mantoura wrote of this time:
"Mother and father would go daily to the top of the Wall of Jerusalem to look at their home. They witnessed it being ransacked, together with the wonderful priceless library and manuscriptCanaan's family home, library, and three manuscripts ready for publication were destroyed in the process.ManuscriptA manuscript or handwrite is written information that has been manually created by someone or some people, such as a hand-written letter, as opposed to being printed or reproduced some other way...
s, which mother guarded jealously and with great pride. They saw mother's Biedermeyer furniture being loaded into trucks and then their home being set on fire."
Continuing his work as physician, treating patients out of his new temporary home, Canaan also continued to head the Arab Medical Society of Palestine and serve his country. After difficult negotiations with the Mandate Government, the Arab Medical Society of Palestine succeeded in taking over operations at the Central Hospital and the Hospice Hospital in Jerusalem, the Infectious Diseases Hospital near Beit Safafa
Beit Safafa
Beit Safafa is an Arab neighborhood in south Jerusalem midway between the Jerusalem neighborhoods of Patt and Gilo, on the outskirts of Bethlehem. Beit Safafa had a population of 5,463 in 2000. It covers an area of 1,577 dunams.-History:...
, and the Mental Hospital in Bethlehem
Bethlehem
Bethlehem is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank of the Jordan River, near Israel and approximately south of Jerusalem, with a population of about 30,000 people. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate of the Palestinian National Authority and a hub of Palestinian culture and tourism...
. The Central Hospital and its facilities in the Russian Compound , together with the Austrian Hospice Hospital, were officially under the Society's administration by May 1948, and both facilities received the wounded and the sick during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. A large Red Cross flag flew over the Central Hospital which was run by one of Canaan's colleagues. Jewish militias nevertheless shelled the hospital, destroying a large section. After the surrounding houses and a part of the hospital were occupied by Jewish militants, who continually shelled the remainder of the medical facility preventing patient access, the Society was finally forced to evacuate in October 1948.
Canaan personally managed the Austrian Hospice, transformed into a hospital in early 1948, with the agreement of the Mandatory authorities. He and the hospital staff were able to keep it running during the battle for Jerusalem until they too were forced to evacuate because of the continuous shelling.
Post-1948
East Jerusalem
East Jerusalem or Eastern Jerusalem refer to the parts of Jerusalem captured and annexed by Jordan in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and then captured and annexed by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War...
, the Lutheran World Federation
Lutheran World Federation
The Lutheran World Federation is a global communion of national and regional Lutheran churches headquartered in the Ecumenical Centre in Geneva, Switzerland. The federation was founded in the Swedish city of Lund in the aftermath of the Second World War in 1947 to coordinate the activities of the...
(LWF) appointed Canaan manager of its medical operations in the area. He helped establish clinics at the Saint John Hospice in the Old City of Jerusalem, and in 'Aizariyyeh
Al-Eizariya
Al-Eizariya or al-Izzariya , sometimes referred to by its medieval name of Bethany, is a city in the West Bank. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, it is the second largest Palestinian city in the Jerusalem Governorate , with a population of 17,606 inhabitants.Located on the...
, Hebron
Hebron
Hebron , is located in the southern West Bank, south of Jerusalem. Nestled in the Judean Mountains, it lies 930 meters above sea level. It is the largest city in the West Bank and home to around 165,000 Palestinians, and over 500 Jewish settlers concentrated in and around the old quarter...
, Beit Jala, and Taybeh
Taybeh
Taybeh is a Palestinian village in the West Bank, 35 kilometers north of Jerusalem and 12 kilometers northeast of Ramallah in the Ramallah and al-Bireh Governorate, 850 meters above sea level. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, Taybeh had a population of 1,452 in 2007...
in the West Bank
West Bank
The West Bank ) of the Jordan River is the landlocked geographical eastern part of the Palestinian territories located in Western Asia. To the west, north, and south, the West Bank shares borders with the state of Israel. To the east, across the Jordan River, lies the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan...
. He also oversaw operations at the mobile clinics established by the LWF in rural areas.
In 1950, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) and the LWF jointly reestablished the Augusta Victoria Hospital in the same building it had occupied before the war on the Mount of Olives
Mount of Olives
The Mount of Olives is a mountain ridge in East Jerusalem with three peaks running from north to south. The highest, at-Tur, rises to 818 meters . It is named for the olive groves that once covered its slopes...
. Involved in realizing the project, Canaan was appointed its first medical director.
His son Theo's death in 1954 while renovating an archaeological monument in Jerash
Jerash
Jerash, the Gerasa of Antiquity, is the capital and largest city of Jerash Governorate , which is situated in the north of Jordan, north of the capital Amman towards Syria...
left Canaan and his wife bereft. When he retired from his position as medical director in 1957 at the age of 75, Canaan was given a home on the hospital grounds of called Gardner's House. He lived there with his family, continuing to write, until his death on 15 January 1964. His last article, "Crime in the Traditions and Customs of the Arabs in Jordan," was published in German in that same year. Canaan was buried in the Evangelical Lutheran Cemetery in Bethlehem, near Beit Jala, his childhood home.
Folklore and ethnography
(translated from German by William Templer)Medical
Awards
- The Order of the Red Crescent in World War I.
- The Iron CrossIron CrossThe Iron Cross is a cross symbol typically in black with a white or silver outline that originated after 1219 when the Kingdom of Jerusalem granted the Teutonic Order the right to combine the Teutonic Black Cross placed above a silver Cross of Jerusalem....
in World War I. - The Holy Sepulchre Cross with a red ribbon, awarded by the Greek Orthodox Patriarch in 1951.
- The Federal Merit Cross from the Federal Republic of Germany in 1951.
See also
- Saint George Interfaith shrine
- Palestinian ChristiansPalestinian ChristiansPalestinian Christians are Arabic-speaking Christians descended from the people of the geographical area of Palestine. Within Palestine, there are churches and believers from many Christian denominations, including Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholic , Protestant, and others...