Theridiidae
Encyclopedia
Theridiidae is a large family of spiders, also known as the tangle-web spiders, cobweb spiders and comb-footed spiders. The diverse family includes over 2200 species
in over 100 genera
) of three-dimensional space
-web-builders found throughout the world. Theridiid spider
s are entelegyne
(have a genital plate in the female) araneomorph
ecribellate
(use sticky capture silk instead of woolly silk) spiders that often build tangle space web
s and have a comb of serrated bristle
s (seta
e) on the tarsus
of the fourth leg.
The family includes some model organisms for research, for example, the genus Latrodectus, the medically important widow spider
s. In addition to studies characterizing their venom and its clinical manifestation, widow spiders are broadly used in research on spider silk, and on sexual biology including sexual cannibalism.
Anelosimus spiders are also model organisms, used for the study of sociality, its evolution, and its ecological and evolutionary causes and consequences. They are particularly important for such studies as the genus contains species varying from solitary to permanently social, and because sociality has evolved frequently within the genus allowing comparative studies across species. These spiders are also a promising model for the study of inbreeding as their mating system co-varies with sociality, and all permanently social species are highly inbred.
One species in Theridion, the Hawaii
an T. grallator
, is used as a model to understand the selective forces and the genetic basis of color polymorphism within species. Theridion grallator is known as the "happyface" spider, as certain morph
s have a pattern uncannily resembling a smiley face or a grinning clown
face on their yellow body.
The family also contains the well studied kleptoparasitic
species of the subfamily Argyrodinae (including Argyrodes
, Faiditus, and Neospintharus) which often have triangular bodies. These spiders live in the webs of larger spiders and pilfer small prey caught by their host's web, eat prey killed by the host spider, and may consume silk from the host web, as well as attack and eat the host itself.
The largest genus with over 600 species currently placed in it is Theridion
, but it is not monophyletic. Another large genus is Parasteatoda
, previously Achaearanea
, which includes the common house spider
.
Many theridiids trap ant
s and other ground dwelling insect
s by means of elastic sticky silk
trap lines leading to the soil surface. Despite their name, cobweb or tangle-web spiders have a huge range of web architectures.
with a large diversity of spider web
forms: there is a high within-taxon
diversity (e.g. in Latrodectus), as well as convergence in different taxa. Theridiid gumfoot-webs consist of frame lines that anchor them to surroundings and of support threads, which possess viscid silk. Four main web types are currently recognized: among webs with gumfooted lines, there are webs with a central retreat (Achaearanea
-type) and those with a peripheral retreat (Latrodectus-type). Among webs without gumfooted lines, there are those that contain viscid silk (Theridion
-type) and those with a sheet-like structure, which do not contain visible viscid silk (Coleosoma-type). However, there are many undescribed web forms.
Building of gumfooted lines constitutes a unique stereotyped behaviour and is most probably homologous for Theridiidae and its sister family Nesticidae. Webs remain in place for extended periods and are expanded and repaired, but no regular pattern of web replacement has been observed.
of cobweb spiders with phylogenies reconstructed using both morphological
and molecular data. The following classification is built on these results (see also Joel Hallan's Biology Catalog).
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
in over 100 genera
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
) of three-dimensional space
Three-dimensional space
Three-dimensional space is a geometric 3-parameters model of the physical universe in which we live. These three dimensions are commonly called length, width, and depth , although any three directions can be chosen, provided that they do not lie in the same plane.In physics and mathematics, a...
-web-builders found throughout the world. Theridiid spider
Spider
Spiders are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, and chelicerae with fangs that inject venom. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all other groups of organisms...
s are entelegyne
Entelegynae
The Entelegynae are a subgroup of araneomorph spiders. Almost all members of this group, unlike most members of Haplogynae, have eight eyes, and females have a genital plate....
(have a genital plate in the female) araneomorph
Araneomorphae
The Araneomorphae are a suborder of spiders. They are distinguished by having fangs that oppose each other and cross in a pinching action, in contrast to the Mygalomorphae , which have fangs that are nearly parallel in alignment.- Distinguishing characteristics :Note the difference in the...
ecribellate
Cribellum
The cribellum is a silk spinning organ found in certain spiders. Unlike normal spinnerets, the cribellum consists of one or more plates covered in thousands of tiny spigots. These spigots produce extremely fine fibers which are combed out by the spider's calamistrum, producing silk with a wooly...
(use sticky capture silk instead of woolly silk) spiders that often build tangle space web
Spider web
A spider web, spiderweb, spider's web or cobweb is a device built by a spider out of proteinaceous spider silk extruded from its spinnerets....
s and have a comb of serrated bristle
Bristle
A bristle is a stiff hair or feather. Also used are synthetic materials such as nylon in items such as brooms and sweepers. Bristles are often used to make brushes for cleaning uses, as they are strongly abrasive; common examples include the toothbrush and toilet brush...
s (seta
Seta
Seta is a biological term derived from the Latin word for "bristle". It refers to a number of different bristle- or hair-like structures on living organisms.-Animal setae:In zoology, most "setae" occur in invertebrates....
e) on the tarsus
Arthropod leg
The arthropod leg is a form of jointed appendage of arthropods, usually used for walking. Many of the terms used for arthropod leg segments are of Latin origin, and may be confused with terms for bones: coxa , trochanter , femur, tibia, tarsus, ischium, metatarsus, carpus, dactylus ,...
of the fourth leg.
The family includes some model organisms for research, for example, the genus Latrodectus, the medically important widow spider
Widow spider
Latrodectus is a genus of spider, in the family Theridiidae, which contains 31 recognized species. The common name widow spiders is sometimes applied to members of the genus due to the behavior of the female of eating the male after mating, although sometimes the males of some species are not eaten...
s. In addition to studies characterizing their venom and its clinical manifestation, widow spiders are broadly used in research on spider silk, and on sexual biology including sexual cannibalism.
Anelosimus spiders are also model organisms, used for the study of sociality, its evolution, and its ecological and evolutionary causes and consequences. They are particularly important for such studies as the genus contains species varying from solitary to permanently social, and because sociality has evolved frequently within the genus allowing comparative studies across species. These spiders are also a promising model for the study of inbreeding as their mating system co-varies with sociality, and all permanently social species are highly inbred.
One species in Theridion, the Hawaii
Hawaii
Hawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states , and is the only U.S. state made up entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of...
an T. grallator
Theridion grallator
Theridion grallator, also known as the "happy face spider," is a member of the Theridiidae family.The Hawaiian name is nananana makakii...
, is used as a model to understand the selective forces and the genetic basis of color polymorphism within species. Theridion grallator is known as the "happyface" spider, as certain morph
Polymorphism (biology)
Polymorphism in biology occurs when two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species — in other words, the occurrence of more than one form or morph...
s have a pattern uncannily resembling a smiley face or a grinning clown
Clown
Clowns are comic performers stereotypically characterized by the grotesque image of the circus clown's colored wigs, stylistic makeup, outlandish costumes, unusually large footwear, and red nose, which evolved to project their actions to large audiences. Other less grotesque styles have also...
face on their yellow body.
The family also contains the well studied kleptoparasitic
Kleptoparasitism
Kleptoparasitism or cleptoparasitism is a form of feeding in which one animal takes prey or other food from another that has caught, collected, or otherwise prepared the food, including stored food...
species of the subfamily Argyrodinae (including Argyrodes
Argyrodes
Spiders of the genus Argyrodes , also called dewdrop spiders, occur worldwide. They are best known as kleptoparasites: they steal other spiders' prey. They invade and reside in their host's web even though they can spin their own webs...
, Faiditus, and Neospintharus) which often have triangular bodies. These spiders live in the webs of larger spiders and pilfer small prey caught by their host's web, eat prey killed by the host spider, and may consume silk from the host web, as well as attack and eat the host itself.
The largest genus with over 600 species currently placed in it is Theridion
Theridion
The spider genus Theridion, after which the family Theridiidae is named, consists of almost 600 described species that occur all around the world....
, but it is not monophyletic. Another large genus is Parasteatoda
Parasteatoda
Parasteatoda is a genus of spiders in the Theridiidae family.-Distribution:This is mostly an Old World genus, with many species found in Asia and New Guinea, but reaching into Europe. A single species, P. tepidariorum is found in the New World, but P...
, previously Achaearanea
Achaearanea
Achaearanea is a genus of spiders in the Theridiidae family.-Taxonomy:This genus used to include the extremely abundant common house spider, which was transferred to genus Parasteatoda in 2006, together with many other species. A. veruculata and many more species were moved to genus Cryptachaea in...
, which includes the common house spider
Common house spider
The common house spider , referred to as American house spider internationally, is a spider species of the genus Parasteatoda which is mainly indigenous to the New World, with P. tepidariorum australis also encountered in some parts of Myanmar and Pakistan...
.
Many theridiids trap ant
Ant
Ants are social insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the mid-Cretaceous period between 110 and 130 million years ago and diversified after the rise of flowering plants. More than...
s and other ground dwelling insect
Insect
Insects are a class of living creatures within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body , three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae...
s by means of elastic sticky silk
Silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity...
trap lines leading to the soil surface. Despite their name, cobweb or tangle-web spiders have a huge range of web architectures.
Webs
Theridiid are probably the only familyFamily (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
with a large diversity of spider web
Spider web
A spider web, spiderweb, spider's web or cobweb is a device built by a spider out of proteinaceous spider silk extruded from its spinnerets....
forms: there is a high within-taxon
Taxon
|thumb|270px|[[African elephants]] form a widely-accepted taxon, the [[genus]] LoxodontaA taxon is a group of organisms, which a taxonomist adjudges to be a unit. Usually a taxon is given a name and a rank, although neither is a requirement...
diversity (e.g. in Latrodectus), as well as convergence in different taxa. Theridiid gumfoot-webs consist of frame lines that anchor them to surroundings and of support threads, which possess viscid silk. Four main web types are currently recognized: among webs with gumfooted lines, there are webs with a central retreat (Achaearanea
Achaearanea
Achaearanea is a genus of spiders in the Theridiidae family.-Taxonomy:This genus used to include the extremely abundant common house spider, which was transferred to genus Parasteatoda in 2006, together with many other species. A. veruculata and many more species were moved to genus Cryptachaea in...
-type) and those with a peripheral retreat (Latrodectus-type). Among webs without gumfooted lines, there are those that contain viscid silk (Theridion
Theridion
The spider genus Theridion, after which the family Theridiidae is named, consists of almost 600 described species that occur all around the world....
-type) and those with a sheet-like structure, which do not contain visible viscid silk (Coleosoma-type). However, there are many undescribed web forms.
Building of gumfooted lines constitutes a unique stereotyped behaviour and is most probably homologous for Theridiidae and its sister family Nesticidae. Webs remain in place for extended periods and are expanded and repaired, but no regular pattern of web replacement has been observed.
Genera
Recent years have seen advances in the systematicsSystematics
Biological systematics is the study of the diversification of terrestrial life, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time. Relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees...
of cobweb spiders with phylogenies reconstructed using both morphological
Morphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
and molecular data. The following classification is built on these results (see also Joel Hallan's Biology Catalog).
- Argyrodinae
- ArgyrodesArgyrodesSpiders of the genus Argyrodes , also called dewdrop spiders, occur worldwide. They are best known as kleptoparasites: they steal other spiders' prey. They invade and reside in their host's web even though they can spin their own webs...
Simon, 1864 - Neospintharus Exline, 1950
- Ariamnes Thorell, 1869
- Deelemanella Yoshida, 2003
- Faiditus Keyserling, 1884
- Rhomphaea L. Koch, 1872
- Spheropistha Yaginuma, 1957
- Hadrotarsinae
- AnateaAnateaAnatea formicaria is an ant-mimicking spider, only known from the rain forest of New Caledonia. Before 1967, it was considered to belong to the family Clubionidae...
Berland, 1927 - Audifia Keyserling, 1884
- Dipoena Thorell, 1869
- Dipoenata Wunderlich, 1988
- Emertonella Bryant, 1945
- Euryopis Menge, 1868
- Eurypoena Wunderlich, 1992
- Gmogala Keyserling, 1890
- Guaraniella Baert, 1984
- Hadrotarsus Thorell, 1881
- Lasaeola Simon, 1881
- Phycosoma O. P.-Cambridge, 1879
- Yaginumena Yoshida, 2002
- Yoroa Baert, 1984
- Latrodectinae Petrunkevitch, 1928
- Crustulina Menge, 1868
- Latrodectus Walckenaer, 1805
- SteatodaSteatodaThe spider genus Steatoda, in the family Theridiidae, includes over 120 recognized species, distributed around the world ....
Sundevall, 1833
- Pholcommatinae Simon, 1894
- Asygyna Agnarsson, 2006
- Carniella Thaler & Steinberger, 1988
- CerocidaCerocidaCerocida is a spider genus known only from tropical South America.Both sexes of C. strigosa have a cephalothorax with posterior stalk and raised reticulate pattern, and long legs. The female has a body length of 1.5mm, while males are even 1.7mm; normally spider males are at least slightly smaller...
Simon, 1894 - CraspedisiaCraspedisiaCraspedisia is a genus of small spiders formerly known only from Brazil and Hispaniola. In 2003, a species was found in China.The female C. cornuta is 3.1mm long, the male 2,9mm. C...
Simon, 1894 - EnoplognathaEnoplognathaSpiders in the genus Enoplognatha are, for theridiids, medium to large sized. Like Steatoda, they have a large colulus and a subspherical abdomen. Males usually have enlarged chelicerae.They can be found almost everywhere on earth....
Pavesi, 1880 - Helvidia Thorell, 1890
- Pholcomma Thorell, 1869
- Phoroncidia Westwood, 1835
- Proboscidula Miller, 1970
- Robertus O. P.-Cambridge, 1879
- Selkirkiella Berland, 1924
- StyposisStyposisSpiders in the genus Styposis are small and unpigmented with fairly long legs, and measure less than 2mm in total.Most species have six large eyes, unlike most spiders of the family Theridiidae, which have eight eyes. The anterior median eyes are always absent or minute...
Simon, 1894 - TheonoeTheonoeIn Greek mythology, Theonoe is a name that may refer to:*A daughter of the prophet Thestor, sister to Calchas and Leucippe. Her story, told by Hyginus, is as follows....
Simon, 1881 - WiradaWiradaWirada is a small dark brown spider genus from South America, with short legs and no colulus . It resembles spiders of the genus Crustulina....
Keyserling, 1886
- Sphintharinae
- ChrosiothesChrosiothesChrosiothes is a spider genus that occurs almost exclusively in the New World from the USA to Brazil, with one species found in China, Korea and Japan, and two species endemic to Taiwan....
Simon, 1894 - EpisinusEpisinusEpisinus is a spider genus of the family Theridiidae.These spiders reach about 5mm in size. They occur almost worldwide.-Species:* Episinus affinis Bösenberg & Strand, 1906...
Walckenaer, in Latreille, 1809 - MonetaMoneta (spider)Moneta is a spider species in the family Theridiidae....
O. P.-Cambridge, 1870 - SpintharusSpintharusThe spider genus Spintharus occurs from the northeastern USA to Brazil, with one species found in Pakistan.It is very similar to the genus Thwaitesia, and both are similar to Episinus. Unlike Argyrodes, they have two setae in place of a colulus.Specimens of S. flavidus are variable in structure...
Hentz, 1850 - ThwaitesiaThwaitesiaThwaitesia is a genus of spider that occurs worldwide in the tropics.It is very similar to the genus Spintharus, and both are similar to Episinus....
O. P.-Cambridge, 1881 - StemmopsStemmopsStemmops is a genus of small theridiid spiders that mostly occur in America, from the USA to Brazil. In 1998 two species were found in China, in addition to S. nipponicus, which is found in Japan, Korea and China.-Species:...
O. P.-Cambridge, 1894
- Theridiinae
- AchaearaneaAchaearaneaAchaearanea is a genus of spiders in the Theridiidae family.-Taxonomy:This genus used to include the extremely abundant common house spider, which was transferred to genus Parasteatoda in 2006, together with many other species. A. veruculata and many more species were moved to genus Cryptachaea in...
Strand, 1929 - Achaearyopa Barrion & Litsinger, 1995
- Ameridion Wunderlich, 1995
- CabelloCabelloThe spider genus Cabello consists of only one species, Cabello eugeni. It is a small yellow-white spider, with females 2 mm long, and males 1.6 mm. The eye region is reddish with a dusky median longitudinal band, the sternum whitish, with grey sides. The yellow-white legs have scattered...
Levi, 1964 - Cephalobares O. P.-Cambridge, 1870
- ChryssoChryssoChrysso is a spider genus that mostly occurs in the Americas and Asia. C. pulcherrima is pantropical, C. nordica occurs from Hungary to Mongolia, and in North America, and C. spiniventris has been intruced in Europe....
O. P.-Cambridge, 1882 - Coleosoma O. P.-Cambridge, 1882
- Cyllognatha L. Koch, 1872
- Dipoenura Simon, 1908
- Echinotheridion Levi, 1963
- Exalbidion Wunderlich, 1995
- Helvibis Keyserling, 1884
- Histagonia Simon, 1895
- Jamaitidion Wunderlich, 1995
- Keijia Yoshida, 2001
- Macaridion Wunderlich, 1992
- Molione Thorell, 1892
- Neottiura Menge, 1868
- Nesticodes Archer, 1950
- Nipponidion Yoshida, 2001
- ParatheridulaParatheridulaThe spider genus Paratheridula with its single species P. perniciosa is widely distributed; it is suspected that it is introduced. The female epigyne is covered with a secretion.-Distribution:...
Levi, 1957 - Propostira Simon, 1894
- RugathodesRugathodesRugathodes is a genus of theridiid spiders. They have a mainly paleotropical distribution, but R. acoreensis and R. pico are endemic to the Azores, and R. aurantius is holarctic. R. sexpunctatus is found in North America as well as Russia....
Archer, 1950 - Sardinidion Wunderlich, 1995
- Simitidion Wunderlich, 1992
- Takayus Yoshida, 2001
- Tekellina Levi, 1957
- TheridionTheridionThe spider genus Theridion, after which the family Theridiidae is named, consists of almost 600 described species that occur all around the world....
Walckenaer, 1805 - TheridulaTheridulaTheridula is a genus of cobweb spiders, found in many parts of the world. Species vary in size from 1 to 3.5 mm in length....
Emerton, 1882 - Thymoites Keyserling, 1884
- TidarrenTidarrenTidarren is a genus of spiders. The males are much smaller than females.The males of this genus amputate one of their palps before maturation and enter their adult life with one palp only...
Chamberlin & Ivie, 1934 - Wamba O. P.-Cambridge, 1896
- incertae sedisIncertae sedis, is a term used to define a taxonomic group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined. Uncertainty at specific taxonomic levels is attributed by , , and similar terms.-Examples:*The fossil plant Paradinandra suecica could not be assigned to any...
- AnelosimusAnelosimus studiosusAnelosimus studiosus is a subsocial tangle web spider or theridiid spider living in both North America and South America.-External links:* * * * * *...
Simon, 1891 - Astodipoena Petrunkevitch, 1958 † (fossil, EoceneEoceneThe Eocene Epoch, lasting from about 56 to 34 million years ago , is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era. The Eocene spans the time from the end of the Palaeocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch. The start of the...
) - Chorizopella Lawrence, 1947
- Clya Koch & Berendt, 1854 † (fossil, Eocene)
- Coscinida Simon, 1895
- Eodipoena Petrunkevitch, 1942 † (fossil, Eocene)
- Eoysmena Petrunkevitch, 1942 † (fossil, Eocene)
- Flegia Koch & Berendt, 1854 † (fossil, Eocene)
- HetschkiaHetschkiaHetschkia is a spider genus from Brazil, with the only known species Hetschkia gracilis.The female has a body length of 2.2mm.-References:...
Keyserling, 1886 - IconaICONAInstituto para la Conservación de la Naturaleza , better known by its acronym ICONA was the administrative entity that was established in Spain in order to preserve and research the natural environment in the Spanish territory.Founded four years before General Franco's death, ICONA played an...
Forster, 1955 - Kochiura Archer, 1950
- Landoppo Barrion & Litsinger, 1995
- Marianana Georgescu, 1989
- Mictodipoena Petrunkevitch, 1958 † (fossil, Eocene)
- Municeps Petrunkevitch, 1942 † (fossil, Eocene)
- Nactodipoena Petrunkevitch, 1942 † (fossil, Eocene)
- Paidiscura Archer, 1950
- Tomoxena Simon, 1895
- Zercidium Benoit, 1977