Varpas
Encyclopedia
Lithuanian language
Lithuanian is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognized as one of the official languages of the European Union. There are about 2.96 million native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania and about 170,000 abroad. Lithuanian is a Baltic language, closely related to Latvian, although they...
newspaper
Newspaper
A newspaper is a scheduled publication containing news of current events, informative articles, diverse features and advertising. It usually is printed on relatively inexpensive, low-grade paper such as newsprint. By 2007, there were 6580 daily newspapers in the world selling 395 million copies a...
published during the Lithuanian press ban
Lithuanian press ban
The Lithuanian press ban was a ban on all Lithuanian language publications printed in the Latin alphabet within the Russian Empire, which controlled Lithuania at the time. Lithuanian-language publications that used the Cyrillic alphabet were allowed and even encouraged...
from January 1889 to December 1905. Because its publication was illegal in Lithuania, then part of the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
, it was printed in Tilsit (current Sovetsk
Sovetsk, Kaliningrad Oblast
Sovetsk , known by its historical German name of Tilsit in East Prussia before 1946, is a town in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, located on the south bank of the Neman River. Population: -History of Tilsit:...
) and Ragnit (current Neman
Neman (town)
Neman is a town and the administrative center of Nemansky District of Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia. It is located in the historic Prussia region, east of the town of Sovetsk, on the steep southern bank of the Neman River, where it currently forms the border with the Klaipėda Region in...
) in German East Prussia
East Prussia
East Prussia is the main part of the region of Prussia along the southeastern Baltic Coast from the 13th century to the end of World War II in May 1945. From 1772–1829 and 1878–1945, the Province of East Prussia was part of the German state of Prussia. The capital city was Königsberg.East Prussia...
and smuggled into Lithuania by the knygnešiai
Knygnešiai
Book smugglers were people who transported Lithuanian language books printed in the Latin alphabet into Lithuanian-speaking areas of the Russian Empire, defying a ban on such materials in force from 1866 to 1904...
(book smugglers). Varpas, with circulation of about 500–1,000, played a pivotal role in the Lithuanian National Revival
Lithuanian National Revival
Lithuanian National Revival, alternatively Lithuanian National Awakening , was a period of the history of Lithuania in the 19th century at the time when a major part of Lithuanian inhabited areas belonged to the Russian Empire...
. Tautiška giesmė
Tautiška giesme
Tautiška giesmė is the national anthem of Lithuania, also known by its opening words "Lietuva, Tėvyne mūsų" and as "Lietuvos himnas"...
, one of poems by founder and editor Vincas Kudirka
Vincas Kudirka
Vincas Kudirka was a Lithuanian poet and physician, and the author of both the music and lyrics of the Lithuanian National Anthem, Tautiška giesmė. He is regarded in Lithuania as a National Hero. Kudirka used pen names - V...
written to commemorate the 10th anniversary of Varpas, became the Lithuanian national anthem
National anthem
A national anthem is a generally patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history, traditions and struggles of its people, recognized either by a nation's government as the official national song, or by convention through use by the people.- History :Anthems rose to prominence...
. Editorial staff of Varpas later started two more specialized publications: more practical Ūkininkas
Ūkininkas
Ūkininkas or Ukinįkas was a monthly Lithuanian-language newspaper published during the Lithuanian press ban by the editorial staff of Varpas from 1890 to 1905...
(The Farmer, 1890–1905) for less educated peasants and apolitical Naujienos
Naujienos (apolitical newspaper)
Naujienos was a short-lived Lithuanian-language monthly newspaper published by editorial staff of Varpas and Ūkininkas. Due to the Lithuanian press ban in the Russian Empire, the newspaper was published in Tilsit in East Prussia and then smuggled to Lithuania by knygnešiai...
(News, 1901–1903) for general public.
History
After the first national Lithuanian newspaper AušraAušra
Aušra or Auszra was the first national Lithuanian newspaper. The first issue was published in 1883, in Ragnit, East Prussia, Germany East Prussia's ethnolinguistic part - Lithuania Minor. Later it was published monthly in Tilsit...
ceased publication in 1886 due to financial difficulties, activists sought to either revive or replace Aušra. A group of Lithuanian students in Moscow
Moscow
Moscow is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the continent...
organized publication of short-lived Šviesa
Šviesa
Šviesa or Szviesa was a short-lived Lithuanian-language newspaper printed during the Lithuanian press ban in Tilsit in German East Prussia and smuggled to Lithuania by the knygnešiai. The monthly newspaper was published from August 1887 to August 1888 and from January to August 1890...
, a monthly pro-Catholic newspaper that failed to satisfy liberal activists. Lithuanian students in Warsaw
Warsaw
Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River, roughly from the Baltic Sea and from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population in 2010 was estimated at 1,716,855 residents with a greater metropolitan area of 2,631,902 residents, making Warsaw the 10th most...
, led by Vincas Kudirka, Jonas Gaidamavičius, and Juozas Adomaitis-Šernas
Juozas Adomaitis-Šernas
Juozas Adomaitis-Šernas was a Lithuanian scientific writer and a book smuggler during the Lithuanian press ban....
, organized society Lietuva (Lithuania). The society first thought of reviving secular Aušra, but decided against it as it could have resurrected disputes with the clergy. Thus in January 1889 appeared a brand new newspaper Varpas. It attempted to unite liberal, socialist, and Catholic fractions of the Lithuanian National Revival
Lithuanian National Revival
Lithuanian National Revival, alternatively Lithuanian National Awakening , was a period of the history of Lithuania in the 19th century at the time when a major part of Lithuanian inhabited areas belonged to the Russian Empire...
. Despite various difficulties (financial strains, delivery through underground knygnešiai network) it lasted longer than any other Lithuanian periodical of the period. Varpas played an important role forming ideas of Lithuanian nation and standardizing Lithuanian language. For example, in 1890 Kudirka published recommendations regarding Lithuanian orthography: he suggested to replace common "sz" and "cz" borrowed from Polish with new "š" and "č" borrowed from Czech. Both new letters are now integral part of standard Lithuanian.
Content
Varpas was geared towards intelligentsia with stated goal to rise Lithuanian national consciousness and, ultimately, to achieve autonomy within the Russian EmpireRussian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
. Influenced by Polish positivism
Positivism in Poland
Positivism in Poland was a socio-cultural movement that defined progressive thought in literature and social sciences of Partitioned Poland following the suppression of the 1863 January Uprising against the occupying army of Imperial Russia...
, Varpas argued that Lithuanians could achieve this through work, economic development, education, and other non-violent means. Therefore much of the articles included discussions about improving land reform, school system, health care, transportation network, etc. Some articles were more practical "how to" guides, but most remained theoretical lectures and discussions. About a quarter of Varpas content was related history. However, unlike Aušra, it rejected Romantic
Romanticism
Romanticism was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe, and gained strength in reaction to the Industrial Revolution...
idealization of heroic past (which lead to two failed uprisings in 1830
November Uprising
The November Uprising , Polish–Russian War 1830–31 also known as the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. The uprising began on 29 November 1830 in Warsaw when the young Polish officers from the local Army of the Congress...
and 1863
January Uprising
The January Uprising was an uprising in the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against the Russian Empire...
) and concentrated on more practical and useful contemporary history. Writers believed that understanding of current European politics could provide more beneficial than glorification of the old Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
.
Varpas was also a political newspaper, criticizing Tsar
Tsar
Tsar is a title used to designate certain European Slavic monarchs or supreme rulers. As a system of government in the Tsardom of Russia and Russian Empire, it is known as Tsarist autocracy, or Tsarism...
ist policies, demanding abolition of the Lithuanian press ban
Lithuanian press ban
The Lithuanian press ban was a ban on all Lithuanian language publications printed in the Latin alphabet within the Russian Empire, which controlled Lithuania at the time. Lithuanian-language publications that used the Cyrillic alphabet were allowed and even encouraged...
and other Russification
Russification
Russification is an adoption of the Russian language or some other Russian attributes by non-Russian communities...
practices, and requesting equal cultural and political rights for all nations within the Russian empire. Varpas also maintained an anti-Polish position, but abandoned some over-simplified prejudice against Poles and Polonized Lithuanians that was apparent in Aušra. For example, instead of blaming foreigners (Poles or Russians) for the demise of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, writers looked for internal reasons for the historical failures. However, the newspaper still called for development and strengthening of distinctively Lithuanian culture separate from Polish. Political demands included autonomy for Lithuania, but not resurrection of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Towards the end of its publication and the Russian Revolution of 1905
Russian Revolution of 1905
The 1905 Russian Revolution was a wave of mass political and social unrest that spread through vast areas of the Russian Empire. Some of it was directed against the government, while some was undirected. It included worker strikes, peasant unrest, and military mutinies...
, Varpas became more socialist, including co-editor Vincas Mickevičius-Kapsukas
Vincas Mickevicius-Kapsukas
Vincas Mickevičius-Kapsukas was a Lithuanian political activist, one of the founders and leaders of the Communist Party of Lithuania and the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic ....
, future leader of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–1919)
Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–1919)
The Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic was an early short-lived Soviet republic declared on December 16, 1918 by the provisional revolutionary government, led by Vincas Mickevičius-Kapsukas...
.
Overall, the content of Varpas was extremely varied. In an attempt to unite various political fractions, efforts were made to include liberal, socialist, Catholic, and other articles. One column could contradict another.
Editors and contributors
Even though Kudirka officially edited just the first few issues of Varpas, he is widely considered to be the driving force behind the newspaper. Up until his death in 1899, Kudirka wrote and edited influential column Tėvynės varpai (Bells of the Homeland) where he published articles on a variety of subjects: advocating unity among various social classes and political fractions for the greater benefit of the entire nation, satirical short stories mocking Russian authorities, theoretical articles about journalism and literature, etc. Other editors included Juozas Adomaitis-ŠernasJuozas Adomaitis-Šernas
Juozas Adomaitis-Šernas was a Lithuanian scientific writer and a book smuggler during the Lithuanian press ban....
, Jurgis Šaulys
Jurgis Šaulys
Jurgis Šaulys was a Lithuanian economist, diplomat, and politician, and one of the twenty signatories to the 1918 Act of Independence of Lithuania.Šaulys attended secondary school in Palanga and attended the Kaunas Theological Seminary...
, Antanas Milukas, Petras Mikolainis, Martynas Jankus
Martynas Jankus
Martin Jankus was a Prussian-Lithuanian printer, social activist and publisher in East Prussia, called the Patriarch of Lithuania Minor. He was one of the publishers of Aušra, the first Lithuanian-language newspaper...
, Juozas Bagdonas
Juozas Bagdonas
Juozas Bagdonas was a Lithuanian painter and founder of the Samogitian Museum of Art.-References:*Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia...
, Povilas Višinskis
Povilas Višinskis
Povilas Višinskis was a Lithuanian writer, journalist, theatre director, and politician. His pen names include A. – s, Blinda, P – V, P. A., Apaštalas, P. Šiaulietis. He was one of the founders of the Lithuanian Democratic Party...
.
The newspaper, in line with its goal to promote Lithuanian language and literature, also published a number of literary works by various Lithuanian authors: Pranas Mašiotas, Vincas Kapsukas, Gabrielė Petkevičaitė-Bitė
Gabrielė Petkevičaitė-Bitė
Gabrielė Petkevičaitė was a Lithuanian writer and activist. Her pen name Bitė eventually became part of her last name.-Biography:...
, Jonas Vileišis
Jonas Vileišis
Jonas Vileišis was a Lithuanian lawyer, politician, and diplomat.-Early life and career:Vileišis was born in Mediniai, near Pasvalys. In 1892 he graduated from the Šiauliai gymnasium. During 1892-1894, he studied physics and mathematics at Saint Petersburg University. Later he transferred to the...
, Žemaitė
Žemaite
Žemaitė - a pen name of Julija Beniuševičiūtė-Žymantienė; in Bukantė near Plungė — 7 December 1921 in Marijampolė) was a Lithuanian writer. Born to impoverished gentry, she became one of the major participants in the Lithuanian National Revival...
, Šatrijos Ragana
Šatrijos Ragana
Šatrijos Ragana was a pen name of Marija Pečkauskaitė , a Lithuanian humanist and romantic writer and educator...
, Jonas Biliūnas
Jonas Biliunas
Jonas Biliūnas was a Lithuanian writer, poet, and a significant contributor to the national awakening of Lithuania in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.-Biography:...
, Povilas Višinskis
Povilas Višinskis
Povilas Višinskis was a Lithuanian writer, journalist, theatre director, and politician. His pen names include A. – s, Blinda, P – V, P. A., Apaštalas, P. Šiaulietis. He was one of the founders of the Lithuanian Democratic Party...
, Sofija Pšibiliauskienė
Sofija Pšibiliauskienė
Sofija Pšibiliauskienė née Ivanauskaitė and Marija Lastauskienė were two Lithuanian sister writers of Polish origin, using the same pen name Lazdynų Pelėda .-Biography:Pšibiliauskienė was born to an impractical painter Nikodem Iwanowski of...
, and others. Hoping to raise artistic quality, their works were reviewed by Kudirka and Stasys Matulaitis. Works by foreign authors were also translated and published in Varpas. Academic articles on Lithuanian language and attempts to standardize it were published by Jonas Jablonskis
Jonas Jablonskis
Jonas Jablonskis was a distinguished Lithuanian linguist and one of the founders of the standard Lithuanian language...
. Future President of Lithuania Kazys Grinius
Kazys Grinius
Kazys Grinius was the third President of Lithuania, and held that office from 7 June 1926 to 17 December 1926.When Grinius was born in Selema, near Marijampolė, Lithuania was part of the Russian empire. He studied medicine at the University of Moscow and became a physician...
also contributed to the newspaper. Because the publication was illegal, many authors used various pen names and pseudonyms that changed frequently; a few articles were unsigned. Therefore it is sometimes difficult to determine actual authors. Overall, about 90 to 150 people (called varpininkai) contributed to Varpas, including a number of the contributors to Aušra. Varpininkai organized annual conferences and meetings to discuss direction of the newspaper.