Warmed over flavor
Encyclopedia
Warmed-over flavor is an unpleasant flavor which develops in cooked meat
which is subsequently refrigerated prior to reheating. As cooking and subsequent refrigeration is the case with most convenience food
s containing meat, it is a significant challenge to the processed food
industry
. The flavor is variously described as "rancid," "stale," like "cardboard," and even compared to "damp dog hair." Warmed-over flavor is caused by the oxidative decomposition
of lipids (fatty substances) in the meat into chemicals which have a displeasing taste or odor. This decomposition process begins after cooking or processing and is aided by the release of naturally occurring iron
in the meat.
of cells in the meat, are attacked by oxygen
. This process is aided by the release of iron
from iron-containing proteins in the meat, including myoglobin
and hemoglobin
. The iron is released by the heat of cooking, or by mechanical grinding used to prepare products such as Spam
. The free iron then acts as a catalyst, or promoter, of oxidation reactions. The reactions break down some of the fats in the meat to form primary oxidation products. These chemicals are not directly responsible for the objectionable taste. Instead, they subsequently further decompose to secondary oxidation products including "alcohol
s, acid
s, ketone
s, lactone
s and unsaturated hydrocarbon
s which produce the [warmed-over flavor]." Many of these compounds, including pentanal
, hexanal, pentylfuran, 2-pentylfuran, 2-octenal and 2,3-octanedione have a strong odor and can be tasted at concentrations as low as 1 part per billion.
s, ranging from tocopherol
s (related to vitamin E) to plum
juice to industrial additives such as butylated hydroxytoluene
(BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole
(BHA) and propyl gallate
. Other preservatives such as sodium pyrophosphate
and sodium hexametaphosphate
may work by binding iron and preventing it from catalyzing the chemical reactions which lead to warmed-over flavor; as these compounds are generally more soluble in water than the fat-soluble antioxidant preservatives, they may be more readily used to prevent oxidative decomposition in meat. Nitrite
s, a curing agent for meat, may prevent the development of warmed-over flavor by preventing the release of iron during cooking.
Meat
Meat is animal flesh that is used as food. Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs and offal...
which is subsequently refrigerated prior to reheating. As cooking and subsequent refrigeration is the case with most convenience food
Convenience food
Convenience food, or tertiary processed food, is commercially prepared food designed for ease of consumption. Products designated as convenience foods are often prepared food stuffs that can be sold as hot, ready-to-eat dishes; as room-temperature, shelf-stable products; or as refrigerated or...
s containing meat, it is a significant challenge to the processed food
Food processing
Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food or to transform food into other forms for consumption by humans or animals either in the home or by the food processing industry...
industry
Food industry
The food production is a complex, global collective of diverse businesses that together supply much of the food energy consumed by the world population...
. The flavor is variously described as "rancid," "stale," like "cardboard," and even compared to "damp dog hair." Warmed-over flavor is caused by the oxidative decomposition
Decomposition
Decomposition is the process by which organic material is broken down into simpler forms of matter. The process is essential for recycling the finite matter that occupies physical space in the biome. Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death...
of lipids (fatty substances) in the meat into chemicals which have a displeasing taste or odor. This decomposition process begins after cooking or processing and is aided by the release of naturally occurring iron
Iron
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust...
in the meat.
Appearance of warmed-over flavor
The appearance of warmed-over flavor begins as lipids, primarily lipids from the cell membraneCell membrane
The cell membrane or plasma membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. It basically protects the cell...
of cells in the meat, are attacked by oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς and -γενής , because at the time of naming, it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition...
. This process is aided by the release of iron
Iron
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust...
from iron-containing proteins in the meat, including myoglobin
Myoglobin
Myoglobin is an iron- and oxygen-binding protein found in the muscle tissue of vertebrates in general and in almost all mammals. It is related to hemoglobin, which is the iron- and oxygen-binding protein in blood, specifically in the red blood cells. The only time myoglobin is found in the...
and hemoglobin
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is the iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells of all vertebrates, with the exception of the fish family Channichthyidae, as well as the tissues of some invertebrates...
. The iron is released by the heat of cooking, or by mechanical grinding used to prepare products such as Spam
Spam (food)
Spam is a canned precooked meat product made by the Hormel Foods Corporation, first introduced in 1937. The labeled ingredients in the classic variety of Spam are chopped pork shoulder meat, with ham meat added, salt, water, modified potato starch as a binder, and sodium nitrite as a preservative...
. The free iron then acts as a catalyst, or promoter, of oxidation reactions. The reactions break down some of the fats in the meat to form primary oxidation products. These chemicals are not directly responsible for the objectionable taste. Instead, they subsequently further decompose to secondary oxidation products including "alcohol
Alcohol
In chemistry, an alcohol is an organic compound in which the hydroxy functional group is bound to a carbon atom. In particular, this carbon center should be saturated, having single bonds to three other atoms....
s, acid
Acid
An acid is a substance which reacts with a base. Commonly, acids can be identified as tasting sour, reacting with metals such as calcium, and bases like sodium carbonate. Aqueous acids have a pH of less than 7, where an acid of lower pH is typically stronger, and turn blue litmus paper red...
s, ketone
Ketone
In organic chemistry, a ketone is an organic compound with the structure RCR', where R and R' can be a variety of atoms and groups of atoms. It features a carbonyl group bonded to two other carbon atoms. Many ketones are known and many are of great importance in industry and in biology...
s, lactone
Lactone
In chemistry, a lactone is a cyclic ester which can be seen as the condensation product of an alcohol group -OH and a carboxylic acid group -COOH in the same molecule...
s and unsaturated hydrocarbon
Unsaturated hydrocarbon
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that have double or triple covalent bonds between adjacent carbon atoms. Those with at least one double bond are called alkenes and those with at least one triple bond are called alkynes...
s which produce the [warmed-over flavor]." Many of these compounds, including pentanal
Pentanal
Pentanal, also called pentanaldehyde or valeraldehyde, is an alkyl aldehyde, molecular formula C5H10O. It is used in flavorings, resin chemistry, and rubber accelerators....
, hexanal, pentylfuran, 2-pentylfuran, 2-octenal and 2,3-octanedione have a strong odor and can be tasted at concentrations as low as 1 part per billion.
Prevention
Warmed-over flavor can be prevented by the addition of preservatives to processed meat. Many of the preservatives are antioxidantAntioxidant
An antioxidant is a molecule capable of inhibiting the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a chemical reaction that transfers electrons or hydrogen from a substance to an oxidizing agent. Oxidation reactions can produce free radicals. In turn, these radicals can start chain reactions. When...
s, ranging from tocopherol
Tocopherol
Tocopherols are a class of chemical compounds of which many have vitamin E activity. It is a series of organic compounds consisting of various methylated phenols...
s (related to vitamin E) to plum
Plum
A plum or gage is a stone fruit tree in the genus Prunus, subgenus Prunus. The subgenus is distinguished from other subgenera in the shoots having a terminal bud and solitary side buds , the flowers in groups of one to five together on short stems, and the fruit having a groove running down one...
juice to industrial additives such as butylated hydroxytoluene
Butylated hydroxytoluene
Butylated hydroxytoluene , also known as butylhydroxytoluene, is a lipophilic organic compound that is primarily used as an antioxidant food additive as well as an antioxidant additive in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, jet fuels, rubber, petroleum products, electrical transformer oil, and embalming...
(BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole
Butylated hydroxyanisole
Butylated hydroxyanisole is an antioxidant consisting of a mixture of two isomeric organic compounds, 2-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole and 3-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole. It is prepared from 4-methoxyphenol and isobutylene. It is a waxy solid used as a food additive with the E number E320...
(BHA) and propyl gallate
Propyl gallate
Propyl gallate, or propyl 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoate is an ester formed by the condensation of gallic acid and propanol. Since 1948, this antioxidant has been added to foods containing oils and fats to prevent oxidation. As a food additive, it is used under the E number E310.-Description:Propyl...
. Other preservatives such as sodium pyrophosphate
Sodium pyrophosphate
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate, also called sodium pyrophosphate, tetrasodium phosphate or TSPP, is a colorless transparent crystalline chemical compound with the formula Na4P2O7. It contains the pyrophosphate ion and sodium cation. Toxicity is approximately twice that of table salt when ingested...
and sodium hexametaphosphate
Sodium hexametaphosphate
Sodium hexametaphosphate is a hexamer of composition 6. Sodium hexametaphosphate of commerce is typically a mixture of polymeric metaphosphates, of which the hexamer is one, and is usually the compound referred to by this name. It is more correctly termed sodium polymetaphosphate. It is prepared...
may work by binding iron and preventing it from catalyzing the chemical reactions which lead to warmed-over flavor; as these compounds are generally more soluble in water than the fat-soluble antioxidant preservatives, they may be more readily used to prevent oxidative decomposition in meat. Nitrite
Nitrite
The nitrite ion has the chemical formula NO2−. The anion is symmetric with equal N-O bond lengths and a O-N-O bond angle of ca. 120°. On protonation the unstable weak acid nitrous acid is produced. Nitrite can be oxidised or reduced, with product somewhat dependent on the oxidizing/reducing agent...
s, a curing agent for meat, may prevent the development of warmed-over flavor by preventing the release of iron during cooking.