Yoga as exercise
Encyclopedia
Yoga
(Devanagari
:योगा) is a term for a range of traditional systems of physical exercise
and meditation
in Hinduism
.
Modified versions of the physical exercises in hatha yoga
have become popular as a kind of low-impact physical exercise, and are used for therapeutic purposes. "Yoga" in this sense, in common parlance, refers to the physical exercises, i.e. the asanas or postures. Aspects of meditation
are sometimes also included.
Both the meditative and the exercise components of yoga show promise for non-specific health benefits. According to an article in the Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, the system of hatha yoga
believes that prana
, or healing "life energy" is absorbed into the body through the breath, and can treat a wide variety of illnesses and complaints.
Yoga has been studied as an intervention for many conditions, including back pain, stress
, and depression.
A survey released in December 2008 by the US National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine found that yoga was the sixth most commonly used alternative therapy in the United States during 2007, with 6.1 percent of the population participating.
Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid 19th century along with other topics of Hindu philosophy
.
New schools of yoga were introduced in the context of Hindu revivalism towards the end of the 19th century.
The first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a western audience was Swami Vivekananda
, who toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s.
The physical asana of hatha yoga
have a tradition that goes back to the 15th century, but they were not widely practiced in India prior to the early 20th century. Hatha yoga was advocated by a number of late 19th to early 20th century gurus in India, including Sri Krishnamacharya in south India, Swami Sivananda in the north, Sri Yogendra in Bombay, and Swami Kuvalyananda in Lonavala.
In the 1960s, western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak, giving rise to a great number of Neo-Hindu
schools specifically advocated to a western public.
Among the teachers of hatha yoga who were active in the west in this period were B.K.S. Iyengar
, K. Pattabhi Jois, Swami Vishnu-devananda
, and Swami Satchidananda
.
A second "yoga boom" followed in the 1980s, as Dean Ornish
, a follower of Swami Satchidananda
, connected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside of counter culture
or esotericism
circles, and unconnected to a religious denomination.
Since then, yoga has been used as supplementary therapy for diverse conditions such as cancer
, diabetes, asthma
, and AIDS
. The scope of medical issues where yoga is used as a complementary therapy continues to grow.
There are many different styles and disciplines and people practice yoga for a variety of reasons. One of the main goals of yoga is to improve overall well-being through teaching discipline and self-regulation. Recently, research has focused on the healing properties of yoga and how it relates to positive psychology
. Researchers wonder what psychological advantages it can afford, in addition to the previously discovered physical benefits. Yoga has proven to offer different and multiple benefits for individuals ranging from consciousness of one's body and its capabilities, satisfaction from challenging oneself physically, and increased energy and mental clarity and concentration. While the topic is still somewhat new and some research is still preliminary, results have shown significant improvements in both physical and mental health among a variety of subjects in various circumstances.
The practice of yoga traditionally includes both meditation and exercise, but in the West the focus is mainly on exercise.
The more classical approaches, such as Iyengar Yoga
, move at a more deliberate pace, emphasize proper alignment and execution and hold asanas for a longer time. They aim to gradually improve flexibility, balance, and strength. Other approaches, such as Ashtanga
or Power Yoga, shift between asanas quickly and energetically. More recently, contemporary approaches to yoga have developed [(such as Vanda Scaravelli inspired, as taught by the likes of Diane Long, Sophie Hoare and Marc Woolford )], inviting students to become their own authority in yoga practice by offering principle-based approaches to yoga that can be applied to any form.
Nearly all types of yoga practices include asana
s (postures), pranayama
(breathing exercises), and savasana
s (relaxation techniques).
. Positive psychology is the study of that which contributes to the overall well-being of and supports the optimal functioning of individuals. As more research is released in support of yoga contributing to a better state of being, yoga becomes more in line with positive psychology's focus on developing alternate strategies for healing and bettering individuals' lives. Positive psychology refutes the concept of dualism
and scientists in this field believe that the body and mind cannot be separated. This logic indicates that all physical benefits resulting from the practice of yoga are coupled with mental benefits such as development of inner consciousness, positivity, awareness, and appreciation of nature, combining to offer a whole-body therapy. Drawing from recent research on the mental and physical benefits of practicing yoga, positive psychologists have begun to look deeper into the possibilities of utilizing yoga as a positive psychology therapy. (see Major Empirical Findings and Applications, Anxiety and Depression, below)
named Yoga Sutra. The Yoga Sutra is a compilation of sutras, or concise, instructional writings. There remains controversy over when the writings were published (see controversies below). The Yoga Sutra is built on a foundation of Samkhya philosophy
. The physical practices detailed in the Yoga Sutras are the manifestation of theory offered in the Samkhya philosophies. The sutras are divided into four parts, including:
has been a fundamental aspect of yoga since its early documentation in the Yoga Sutra
. Mindfulness is defined as “attending to relevant aspects of experience in a nonjudgmental manner”. Mindfulness is attained through the practice of yoga in that one is able to maintain awareness of the present, releasing control and attachment of beliefs, thoughts and emotions. By letting go of one’s thoughts and mind, allowing the mind to be calm and at peace, one is able to attain a greater sense of emotional well-being and balance. Researchers have recently begun to take interest in the healing benefits of mindfulness through yoga. Research has indicated that there are health benefits of applying mindfulness-based approaches to pain management, physical functioning, and ability to cope with stresses in everyday life.
, which combines asanas that exert the participant's physical self. The therapeutic healing benefits of yoga were recently discussed by van der Kolk, who posited that regulation of physical movement is a fundamental priority of the nervous system. For this reason, focusing on and developing an awareness of physical movement allows for the mind and body to connect and be in sync. This is beneficial for humans, especially those suffering from psychological conditions such as depression and PTSD (the focus of van der Kolk
’s work) because the connectedness of mind and body allow for feelings of control and understanding of their “inner sensations” and state of being.
The physical benefits of yoga are linked to the release of β-endorphins and the shift caused in neurotransmitter levels linked to emotions such as dopamine and serotonin. These benefits are most likely in high-intensity practices of yoga. Lower-intensity yoga practices, which includes a majority of yoga, typically spark the “relaxation response” as defined by Dr. Herbert Benson. This response is typified by a “physiological de-activation” of tenseness and control over one’s body. Benson related this release of control to the implicit dominance of the parasympathetic nervous system
(PNS).
significantly. For individuals who practiced yoga twice weekly for a period of two months, levels of state anxiety and trait anxiety decreased. People also found evidence of improved mood and increased energy after an hour-long class. Evidence also indicates that yoga has some effect on lowering levels of anxiety and stress. A study on the effects of hatha yoga showed that the emphasis on breath awareness, internal centering, relaxation, and meditation enabled participants to learn to avoid mental and emotional blockages. These strategies helped participants experience lower stress and anxiety levels in addition to higher quality of life scores.
While the healing properties of yoga help individuals with clinically diagnosed anxiety and depression problems, they also help people learn to navigate and cope with daily sources of stress. A study conducted with a group of medical school students revealed lowered stress overall in addition to less stress on the mornings of exams. Significantly fewer students in the experimental group (those who received the yoga treatment) failed their exams than in the control group. Students in the experimental group said that they had a better sense of well-being, improved concentration, self-confidence, and lower levels of irritability.
More recent studies have looked into how yoga can help participants cope with symptoms from more physical conditions, such as cancer. Learning breathing and relaxation techniques help patients manage pain, depression, anxiety, insomnia, and fatigue. The patients reported that their overall quality of life significantly improved in addition to mood, distress, sleep quality, and severity of cancer symptoms. A yoga intervention program designed for overweight women showed significantly lower instances of binge-eating and higher instances of additional physical activity both during and after the intervention. Women lost weight and most became self-motivated to participate in other forms of exercise outside of the intervention.
, and meditation. These strategies helped participants experience significantly lower stress and anxiety levels in addition to higher quality of life
scores.
A rigorous randomized control trial on yoga in literature comparing kundalini yoga with the relaxation response and mindfulness meditation in obsessive-compulsive disorder patients found a significant treatment difference in favor of kundalini yoga. Moreover, a 2005 systematic review of the research on yoga and anxiety presented encouraging results, particularly with anxiety-related disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder. Similarly, a present study assessed state anxiety, depressive mood, and subjective well-being and analyses of variance for repeated measures revealed mood improvement following yoga sessions. Other studies have shown that yoga practices reduce anxiety and depression, all the while improving well-being.
In terms of its effects on individuals in educational institutions, recent research has found that yoga benefits students, not only in reducing basal anxiety levels, but also in attenuating further increases in anxiety as they experience stressful situations like exams. Additionally, differences in mood before and after class of college students taking different courses (swimming, body conditioning, hatha yoga, fencing exercise, and lecture) were analyzed and results suggest that courses which meet four requirements involving aerobics, noncompetitiveness, predictability, and repetitiveness may reduce stress.
concludes that there is insufficient evidence to assess the effectiveness of meditative practices such as yoga in the management or improvement of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Other research shows that there is little support for yoga as treatment for ADHD alone, but it is has merit as a complementary treatment to medication.
. A pilot study using a modified hatha yoga treatment showed that this was an effective treatment for chronic lower back pain, but further examination is needed specifically through studies with larger sample sizes.
measures in cancer
patients. It is unclear what aspect(s) may be beneficial or what populations should be targeted.
Other studies show improvements in how participants cope with symptoms from more physical conditions, like cancer. Learning breathing and relaxation techniques help patients manage pain, depression, anxiety, insomnia, and fatigue. The patients reported that their overall quality of life significantly improved in addition to mood, distress, sleep quality, and severity of cancer symptoms. The positive effects of yoga can be soothing to survivors as well and help them to deal with post-cancer distress.
concludes that the evidence was insufficient to determine whether adding mild physical activity, such as yoga, to usual care is effective in managing or improving health outcomes in patients with dementia
.
found no evidence to support the use of yoga in treatment of epilepsy
as of 2009.
.
concludes that there is insufficient evidence to support the use of yoga for any indication in the pediatric
population. No adverse events were reported, and most trials were positive but of low methodological quality.
one of the most high-profile players to publicly incorporate it in his training regime. This has led to increased interest in the benefits of yoga in other sports and the rise of sports-specific yoga programs linking yoga with Sports Science
, such as those developed by UK-based Yoga Sports Science.
tears, bulging intervertebral disc
s, rotator cuff
injuries, ganglion cyst
s, compression of the spine (vertebral column
), vertebral artery dissection
, and hyperextension of the neck
. According to Gary Kraftsow, author of Yoga for Transformation, many yoga positions aren't suitable for everyone. Orthopedic surgeon Jeffrey Halbrecht, medical director for the Institute for Arthroscopy
and Sports Medicine
in San Francisco, warns that both experienced and novice yoga practitioners can experience injuries. “Yoga is marketed as such an innocuous thing,” says Loren Fishman, assistant clinical professor of rehabilitation medicine at Columbia University in New York City. “But without care, injuries can absolutely happen.” 'Strenuous' yoga has been connected to a form of stroke
in young women. Practice of yoga has also been linked to causing hyperextension or rotation of the neck, which may be a precipitating factor in cervical artery dissection.
While much of the medical community views the results of yoga research to be significant, others argue that there were many flaws that undermine results. Much of the research on yoga has been in the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality, including small sample sizes, inadequate blinding, lack of randomization, and high risk of bias. As of 2011, evidence suggests that yoga may be at least as effective at improving health outcomes as other forms of mild physical exercise when added to standard care. What is found most concerning regarding the legitimacy of yoga as a method of healing is the current lack of specificity and standardization regarding the practice of yoga. One recent study examined the difficulties of implementing yoga-based therapies and methods of healing without any detailed, standardized and vetted descriptions of the postures promoted as being beneficial for healing. This research calls for the creation of supported intervention practices that could be distributed and applied for use in clinical practice for patients.
Yoga
Yoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility while meditating on Supersoul...
(Devanagari
Devanagari
Devanagari |deva]]" and "nāgarī" ), also called Nagari , is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal...
:योगा) is a term for a range of traditional systems of physical exercise
Physical exercise
Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness. It is performed for various reasons including strengthening muscles and the cardiovascular system, honing athletic skills, weight loss or maintenance, as well as for the purpose of...
and meditation
Meditation
Meditation is any form of a family of practices in which practitioners train their minds or self-induce a mode of consciousness to realize some benefit....
in Hinduism
Hinduism
Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Hinduism is known to its followers as , amongst many other expressions...
.
Modified versions of the physical exercises in hatha yoga
Hatha yoga
Hatha yoga , also called hatha vidya , is a system of yoga introduced by Yogi Swatmarama, a Hindu sage of 15th century India, and compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika....
have become popular as a kind of low-impact physical exercise, and are used for therapeutic purposes. "Yoga" in this sense, in common parlance, refers to the physical exercises, i.e. the asanas or postures. Aspects of meditation
Meditation
Meditation is any form of a family of practices in which practitioners train their minds or self-induce a mode of consciousness to realize some benefit....
are sometimes also included.
Both the meditative and the exercise components of yoga show promise for non-specific health benefits. According to an article in the Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, the system of hatha yoga
Hatha yoga
Hatha yoga , also called hatha vidya , is a system of yoga introduced by Yogi Swatmarama, a Hindu sage of 15th century India, and compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika....
believes that prana
Prana
Prana is the Sanskrit word for "vital life" .It is one of the five organs of vitality or sensation, viz. prana "breath", vac "speech", chakshus "sight", shrotra "hearing", and manas "thought" Prana is the Sanskrit word for "vital life" (from the root "to fill", cognate to Latin plenus...
, or healing "life energy" is absorbed into the body through the breath, and can treat a wide variety of illnesses and complaints.
Yoga has been studied as an intervention for many conditions, including back pain, stress
Stress management
Stress management is the alteration of stress and especially chronic stress often for the purpose of improving everyday functioning.Stress produces numerous symptoms which vary according to persons, situations, and severity. These can include physical health decline as well as depression. According...
, and depression.
A survey released in December 2008 by the US National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine found that yoga was the sixth most commonly used alternative therapy in the United States during 2007, with 6.1 percent of the population participating.
Background and overview
Hindu philosophy
Hindu philosophy is divided into six schools of thought, or , which accept the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures. Three other schools do not accept the Vedas as authoritative...
.
New schools of yoga were introduced in the context of Hindu revivalism towards the end of the 19th century.
The first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a western audience was Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda , born Narendranath Dutta , was the chief disciple of the 19th century mystic Ramakrishna Paramahansa and the founder of the Ramakrishna Math and the Ramakrishna Mission...
, who toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s.
The physical asana of hatha yoga
Hatha yoga
Hatha yoga , also called hatha vidya , is a system of yoga introduced by Yogi Swatmarama, a Hindu sage of 15th century India, and compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika....
have a tradition that goes back to the 15th century, but they were not widely practiced in India prior to the early 20th century. Hatha yoga was advocated by a number of late 19th to early 20th century gurus in India, including Sri Krishnamacharya in south India, Swami Sivananda in the north, Sri Yogendra in Bombay, and Swami Kuvalyananda in Lonavala.
In the 1960s, western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak, giving rise to a great number of Neo-Hindu
Hinduism in the West
The reception of Hinduism in the western world begins in the 19th century, at first at an academic level of religious studies and antquiarian interest in Sanskrit....
schools specifically advocated to a western public.
Among the teachers of hatha yoga who were active in the west in this period were B.K.S. Iyengar
B.K.S. Iyengar
Bellur Krishnamachar Sundararaja Iyengar , is the founder of Iyengar Yoga, although he himself would not call it Iyengar Yoga. He is considered one of the foremost yoga teachers in the world and has been practising and teaching yoga for more than 75 years...
, K. Pattabhi Jois, Swami Vishnu-devananda
Swami Vishnu-devananda
Swami Vishnudevananda was a disciple of Swami Sivananda, and founder of the International Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres and Ashrams...
, and Swami Satchidananda
Swami Satchidananda
Swami Satchidananda , born as C. K. Ramaswamy Gounder, was an Indian religious teacher, spiritual master and yoga adept, who gained fame and following in the West during his time in New York. He was the author of many philosophical and spiritual books, including a popular illustrative book on Hatha...
.
A second "yoga boom" followed in the 1980s, as Dean Ornish
Dean Ornish
Dean Michael Ornish, M.D., is president and founder of the nonprofit Preventive Medicine Research Institute in Sausalito, California, as well as Clinical Professor of Medicine at the University of California, San Francisco....
, a follower of Swami Satchidananda
Swami Satchidananda
Swami Satchidananda , born as C. K. Ramaswamy Gounder, was an Indian religious teacher, spiritual master and yoga adept, who gained fame and following in the West during his time in New York. He was the author of many philosophical and spiritual books, including a popular illustrative book on Hatha...
, connected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside of counter culture
Counter Culture
Counter Culture is a 2005 compilation double album by English folk/rock singer-songwriter Roy Harper featuring 25 classic Roy Harper songs, cherry picked according to his mood in April 2005. This collection spans 35 years of song writing and is intended as an introduction for anyone who's not sure...
or esotericism
Esotericism
Esotericism or Esoterism signifies the holding of esoteric opinions or beliefs, that is, ideas preserved or understood by a small group or those specially initiated, or of rare or unusual interest. The term derives from the Greek , a compound of : "within", thus "pertaining to the more inward",...
circles, and unconnected to a religious denomination.
Since then, yoga has been used as supplementary therapy for diverse conditions such as cancer
Cancer
Cancer , known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a large group of different diseases, all involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the...
, diabetes, asthma
Asthma
Asthma is the common chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and bronchospasm. Symptoms include wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath...
, and AIDS
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus...
. The scope of medical issues where yoga is used as a complementary therapy continues to grow.
There are many different styles and disciplines and people practice yoga for a variety of reasons. One of the main goals of yoga is to improve overall well-being through teaching discipline and self-regulation. Recently, research has focused on the healing properties of yoga and how it relates to positive psychology
Positive psychology
Positive psychology is a recent branch of psychology whose purpose was summed up in 1998 by Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi: "We believe that a psychology of positive human functioning will arise, which achieves a scientific understanding and effective interventions to build thriving in...
. Researchers wonder what psychological advantages it can afford, in addition to the previously discovered physical benefits. Yoga has proven to offer different and multiple benefits for individuals ranging from consciousness of one's body and its capabilities, satisfaction from challenging oneself physically, and increased energy and mental clarity and concentration. While the topic is still somewhat new and some research is still preliminary, results have shown significant improvements in both physical and mental health among a variety of subjects in various circumstances.
The practice of yoga traditionally includes both meditation and exercise, but in the West the focus is mainly on exercise.
The more classical approaches, such as Iyengar Yoga
Iyengar Yoga
Iyengar Yoga, created by B. K. S. Iyengar, is a form of Hatha Yoga known for its use of props, such as belts, blocks, and blankets, as aids in performing asanas . The props enable students to perform the asanas correctly, minimising the risk of injury or strain, and making the postures accessible...
, move at a more deliberate pace, emphasize proper alignment and execution and hold asanas for a longer time. They aim to gradually improve flexibility, balance, and strength. Other approaches, such as Ashtanga
Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga
Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga or Ashtanga Yoga is a system of yoga popularized by K. Pattabhi Jois, and which is often promoted as a modern-day form of classical Indian yoga...
or Power Yoga, shift between asanas quickly and energetically. More recently, contemporary approaches to yoga have developed [(such as Vanda Scaravelli inspired, as taught by the likes of Diane Long, Sophie Hoare and Marc Woolford )], inviting students to become their own authority in yoga practice by offering principle-based approaches to yoga that can be applied to any form.
Nearly all types of yoga practices include asana
Asana
Asana is a body position, typically associated with the practice of Yoga, originally identified as a mastery of sitting still, with the spine as a conduit of biodynamic union...
s (postures), pranayama
Pranayama
Pranayama is a Sanskrit word meaning "extension of the prana or breath" or more accurately, "extension of the life force". The word is composed of two Sanskrit words, Prāna, life force, or vital energy, particularly, the breath, and "āyāma", to extend, draw out, restrain, or...
(breathing exercises), and savasana
Savasana
-Etymology:The name comes from the Sanskrit words Shava meaning "corpse", and Asana meaning "posture" or "seat".-Description:...
s (relaxation techniques).
Positive psychology
One of the most recent trends in the practice of and research about yoga as alternative therapy is how it relates to the field of positive psychologyPositive psychology
Positive psychology is a recent branch of psychology whose purpose was summed up in 1998 by Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi: "We believe that a psychology of positive human functioning will arise, which achieves a scientific understanding and effective interventions to build thriving in...
. Positive psychology is the study of that which contributes to the overall well-being of and supports the optimal functioning of individuals. As more research is released in support of yoga contributing to a better state of being, yoga becomes more in line with positive psychology's focus on developing alternate strategies for healing and bettering individuals' lives. Positive psychology refutes the concept of dualism
Dualism (philosophy of mind)
In philosophy of mind, dualism is a set of views about the relationship between mind and matter, which begins with the claim that mental phenomena are, in some respects, non-physical....
and scientists in this field believe that the body and mind cannot be separated. This logic indicates that all physical benefits resulting from the practice of yoga are coupled with mental benefits such as development of inner consciousness, positivity, awareness, and appreciation of nature, combining to offer a whole-body therapy. Drawing from recent research on the mental and physical benefits of practicing yoga, positive psychologists have begun to look deeper into the possibilities of utilizing yoga as a positive psychology therapy. (see Major Empirical Findings and Applications, Anxiety and Depression, below)
Yoga and religion
The most historically-rooted perspective taken on yoga is that of considering yoga’s spiritual linkages and implications. The foundational text for yoga is a Hindu scriptureHindu scripture
The Literature regarded as central to the Vedic and Hindu literary tradition was originally predominantly composed in Sanskrit. Indeed, much of the morphology inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and other early texts....
named Yoga Sutra. The Yoga Sutra is a compilation of sutras, or concise, instructional writings. There remains controversy over when the writings were published (see controversies below). The Yoga Sutra is built on a foundation of Samkhya philosophy
Samkhya
Samkhya, also Sankhya, Sāṃkhya, or Sāṅkhya is one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy and classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally considered as the founder of the Samkhya school, although no historical verification is possible...
. The physical practices detailed in the Yoga Sutras are the manifestation of theory offered in the Samkhya philosophies. The sutras are divided into four parts, including:
- Samadhi Pada: translated: “On being absorbed in spirit.” This section focuses on the ridding of one’s ego through practice of yoga or the “emergence of the spiritual man from the veils and meshes of the psychic nature.”
- Sadhana Pada “On being immersed in spirit.” This section is concerned with the growth of the spiritual self through practical spiritual training. This segment details methods for how to attain closeness with the divine spirit. The Sadhana Pada offers commandments to be followed in order to live a truly yogic life and attain genuine closeness with one’s spiritual self.
- Vibhuti Pada “On supernatural abilities and gifts.” This section details the progression of one attaining closeness with one’s spiritual self and subsequently revealing the inherent spiritual talents that were previously clouded and hidden by worldliness. The only way to reveal these strengths is through genuine, dedicated and thorough practice of the guidelines set in the two previous Padas.
- Kaivalya Pada “On absolute freedom.” This final section discusses the “mechanism of salvation,” referring to “the ideally simple working of cosmic law which brings the spiritual man to birth, growth and fullness of power, and prepares him for the splendid, toilsome further stages of his great journey home.”
Mindfulness
MindfulnessMindfulness (psychology)
Modern clinical psychology and psychiatry since the 1970s have developed a number of therapeutic applications based on the concept of mindfulness in Buddhist meditation.-Definitions:...
has been a fundamental aspect of yoga since its early documentation in the Yoga Sutra
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali are 194 Indian sūtras that constitute the foundational text of Rāja Yoga. Yoga is one of the six orthodox āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, and Rāja Yoga is the highest practice....
. Mindfulness is defined as “attending to relevant aspects of experience in a nonjudgmental manner”. Mindfulness is attained through the practice of yoga in that one is able to maintain awareness of the present, releasing control and attachment of beliefs, thoughts and emotions. By letting go of one’s thoughts and mind, allowing the mind to be calm and at peace, one is able to attain a greater sense of emotional well-being and balance. Researchers have recently begun to take interest in the healing benefits of mindfulness through yoga. Research has indicated that there are health benefits of applying mindfulness-based approaches to pain management, physical functioning, and ability to cope with stresses in everyday life.
Physical aspects of yoga
Yoga has been highly westernized in recent years, and a majority of the result of this westernization and modernization is the heightened profile of the physical aspect yoga has to offer. This physically-exerting practice is typically hatha yogaHatha yoga
Hatha yoga , also called hatha vidya , is a system of yoga introduced by Yogi Swatmarama, a Hindu sage of 15th century India, and compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika....
, which combines asanas that exert the participant's physical self. The therapeutic healing benefits of yoga were recently discussed by van der Kolk, who posited that regulation of physical movement is a fundamental priority of the nervous system. For this reason, focusing on and developing an awareness of physical movement allows for the mind and body to connect and be in sync. This is beneficial for humans, especially those suffering from psychological conditions such as depression and PTSD (the focus of van der Kolk
Bessel van der Kolk
Bessel van der Kolk has conducted research in the area of post-traumatic stress since the 1970s. His work focuses on the interaction of attachment, neurobiology, and developmental aspects of trauma’s effects on people. He has written the definitive work in the field of psychological trauma,...
’s work) because the connectedness of mind and body allow for feelings of control and understanding of their “inner sensations” and state of being.
The physical benefits of yoga are linked to the release of β-endorphins and the shift caused in neurotransmitter levels linked to emotions such as dopamine and serotonin. These benefits are most likely in high-intensity practices of yoga. Lower-intensity yoga practices, which includes a majority of yoga, typically spark the “relaxation response” as defined by Dr. Herbert Benson. This response is typified by a “physiological de-activation” of tenseness and control over one’s body. Benson related this release of control to the implicit dominance of the parasympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system
The parasympathetic nervous system is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system . The ANS is responsible for regulation of internal organs and glands, which occurs unconsciously...
(PNS).
Major empirical findings
A 2010 literature review of the research on the use of yoga for treating depression said that preliminary research suggests that yoga may be effective in the management of depression. Both the exercise and the mindfulness meditation components may be helpful. However the review cautioned that "Although results from these trials are encouraging, they should be viewed as very preliminary because the trials, as a group, suffered from substantial methodological limitations." At the same time, a 2009 individual study found that the regular practice of yoga helps to decrease levels of anxietyAnxiety
Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components. The root meaning of the word anxiety is 'to vex or trouble'; in either presence or absence of psychological stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness,...
significantly. For individuals who practiced yoga twice weekly for a period of two months, levels of state anxiety and trait anxiety decreased. People also found evidence of improved mood and increased energy after an hour-long class. Evidence also indicates that yoga has some effect on lowering levels of anxiety and stress. A study on the effects of hatha yoga showed that the emphasis on breath awareness, internal centering, relaxation, and meditation enabled participants to learn to avoid mental and emotional blockages. These strategies helped participants experience lower stress and anxiety levels in addition to higher quality of life scores.
While the healing properties of yoga help individuals with clinically diagnosed anxiety and depression problems, they also help people learn to navigate and cope with daily sources of stress. A study conducted with a group of medical school students revealed lowered stress overall in addition to less stress on the mornings of exams. Significantly fewer students in the experimental group (those who received the yoga treatment) failed their exams than in the control group. Students in the experimental group said that they had a better sense of well-being, improved concentration, self-confidence, and lower levels of irritability.
More recent studies have looked into how yoga can help participants cope with symptoms from more physical conditions, such as cancer. Learning breathing and relaxation techniques help patients manage pain, depression, anxiety, insomnia, and fatigue. The patients reported that their overall quality of life significantly improved in addition to mood, distress, sleep quality, and severity of cancer symptoms. A yoga intervention program designed for overweight women showed significantly lower instances of binge-eating and higher instances of additional physical activity both during and after the intervention. Women lost weight and most became self-motivated to participate in other forms of exercise outside of the intervention.
Anxiety and depression
The effect of yoga on symptoms of anxiety and depression is one of the most well-studied aspects of yoga's effect on the body and mind. Although researchers are optimistic about the effectiveness of yoga in alleviating depression, a 2010 review of research says that studies to date, while suggestive, are not yet conclusive. However, some research says that regular yoga practice (at least once weekly) helps to decrease levels of depression significantly. Twice weekly yoga practice for two months showed a significant decrease in levels of depression as well as levels of both state and trait anxiety. Some studies also indicate that hatha yoga has a significant effect on lowering levels of anxiety and accompanying stress. Hatha yoga encourages an increased awareness of breath, internal centering, relaxationRelaxation (psychology)
In psychology, relaxation is the emotional state of low tension, in which there is an absence of arousal that could come from sources such as anger, anxiety, or fear. Relaxation is a form of mild ecstasy coming from the frontal lobe of the brain in which the backward cortex sends signals, or...
, and meditation. These strategies helped participants experience significantly lower stress and anxiety levels in addition to higher quality of life
Quality of life
The term quality of life is used to evaluate the general well-being of individuals and societies. The term is used in a wide range of contexts, including the fields of international development, healthcare, and politics. Quality of life should not be confused with the concept of standard of...
scores.
A rigorous randomized control trial on yoga in literature comparing kundalini yoga with the relaxation response and mindfulness meditation in obsessive-compulsive disorder patients found a significant treatment difference in favor of kundalini yoga. Moreover, a 2005 systematic review of the research on yoga and anxiety presented encouraging results, particularly with anxiety-related disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder. Similarly, a present study assessed state anxiety, depressive mood, and subjective well-being and analyses of variance for repeated measures revealed mood improvement following yoga sessions. Other studies have shown that yoga practices reduce anxiety and depression, all the while improving well-being.
In terms of its effects on individuals in educational institutions, recent research has found that yoga benefits students, not only in reducing basal anxiety levels, but also in attenuating further increases in anxiety as they experience stressful situations like exams. Additionally, differences in mood before and after class of college students taking different courses (swimming, body conditioning, hatha yoga, fencing exercise, and lecture) were analyzed and results suggest that courses which meet four requirements involving aerobics, noncompetitiveness, predictability, and repetitiveness may reduce stress.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
A 2010 Cochrane ReviewCochrane Collaboration
The Cochrane Collaboration is a group of over 28,000 volunteers in more than 100 countries who review the effects of health care interventions tested in biomedical randomized controlled trials. A few more recent reviews have also studied the results of non-randomized, observational studies...
concludes that there is insufficient evidence to assess the effectiveness of meditative practices such as yoga in the management or improvement of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Other research shows that there is little support for yoga as treatment for ADHD alone, but it is has merit as a complementary treatment to medication.
Back pain
There is fair evidence that yoga may be effective in the management of chronic, but not acute, low back painLow back pain
Low back pain or lumbago is a common musculoskeletal disorder affecting 80% of people at some point in their lives. In the United States it is the most common cause of job-related disability, a leading contributor to missed work, and the second most common neurological ailment — only headache is...
. A pilot study using a modified hatha yoga treatment showed that this was an effective treatment for chronic lower back pain, but further examination is needed specifically through studies with larger sample sizes.
Cancer
Practice of yoga may improve quality-of-lifeQuality of life (healthcare)
Quality of Life is a phrase used to refer to an individual’s total wellbeing. This includes all emotional, social, and physical aspects of the individual’s life. However, when the phrase is used in reference to medicine and healthcare as Health Related Quality of Life, it refers to how the...
measures in cancer
Cancer
Cancer , known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a large group of different diseases, all involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the...
patients. It is unclear what aspect(s) may be beneficial or what populations should be targeted.
Other studies show improvements in how participants cope with symptoms from more physical conditions, like cancer. Learning breathing and relaxation techniques help patients manage pain, depression, anxiety, insomnia, and fatigue. The patients reported that their overall quality of life significantly improved in addition to mood, distress, sleep quality, and severity of cancer symptoms. The positive effects of yoga can be soothing to survivors as well and help them to deal with post-cancer distress.
Dementia
A 2008 Cochrane ReviewCochrane Collaboration
The Cochrane Collaboration is a group of over 28,000 volunteers in more than 100 countries who review the effects of health care interventions tested in biomedical randomized controlled trials. A few more recent reviews have also studied the results of non-randomized, observational studies...
concludes that the evidence was insufficient to determine whether adding mild physical activity, such as yoga, to usual care is effective in managing or improving health outcomes in patients with dementia
Dementia
Dementia is a serious loss of cognitive ability in a previously unimpaired person, beyond what might be expected from normal aging...
.
Epilepsy
A Cochrane ReviewCochrane Collaboration
The Cochrane Collaboration is a group of over 28,000 volunteers in more than 100 countries who review the effects of health care interventions tested in biomedical randomized controlled trials. A few more recent reviews have also studied the results of non-randomized, observational studies...
found no evidence to support the use of yoga in treatment of epilepsy
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a common chronic neurological disorder characterized by seizures. These seizures are transient signs and/or symptoms of abnormal, excessive or hypersynchronous neuronal activity in the brain.About 50 million people worldwide have epilepsy, and nearly two out of every three new cases...
as of 2009.
Menopause
Yoga has not been shown to have any specific effect for the treatment or management of symptoms of menopauseMenopause
Menopause is a term used to describe the permanent cessation of the primary functions of the human ovaries: the ripening and release of ova and the release of hormones that cause both the creation of the uterine lining and the subsequent shedding of the uterine lining...
.
Pediatrics
A 2009 systematic reviewSystematic review
A systematic review is a literature review focused on a research question that tries to identify, appraise, select and synthesize all high quality research evidence relevant to that question. Systematic reviews of high-quality randomized controlled trials are crucial to evidence-based medicine...
concludes that there is insufficient evidence to support the use of yoga for any indication in the pediatric
Pediatrics
Pediatrics or paediatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents. A medical practitioner who specializes in this area is known as a pediatrician or paediatrician...
population. No adverse events were reported, and most trials were positive but of low methodological quality.
Sport and athletics
Increasingly yoga is used to train sportspersons and athletes, to maximize performance, improve conditioning, and minimize injury. Yoga is used extensively within British football to minimize injury, with Manchester United star Ryan GiggsRyan Giggs
Ryan Joseph Giggs OBE is a Welsh professional footballer who plays for Manchester United. Giggs made his first appearance for the club during the 1990–91 season and has been a regular player since the 1991–92 season...
one of the most high-profile players to publicly incorporate it in his training regime. This has led to increased interest in the benefits of yoga in other sports and the rise of sports-specific yoga programs linking yoga with Sports Science
Sports science
Sport science is a discipline that studies the application of scientific principles and techniques with the aim of improving sporting performance...
, such as those developed by UK-based Yoga Sports Science.
Stress
A study conducted with a group of medical school students revealed lowered stress overall in addition to less stress on the mornings of exams. Significantly fewer students in the experimental group (those who received the yoga treatment) failed their exams than in the control group. Students in the experimental group said that they had a better sense of well-being, improved concentration, self-confidence, and lower levels of irritability.Controversy
In regard to the practice of yoga itself, especially hatha (physically active) yoga, there are controversies over the legitimacy of “prescribing” yoga for individuals afflicted with particular conditions due to the risk of injury associated with the practice. There have been reports of yoga-related injuries and this is one reason why the practice of yoga as alternative therapy is questioned. These include carotid arteryCarotid artery
Carotid artery can refer to:* Common carotid artery* External carotid artery* Internal carotid artery...
tears, bulging intervertebral disc
Intervertebral disc
Intervertebral discs lie between adjacent vertebrae in the spine. Each disc forms a cartilaginous joint to allow slight movement of the vertebrae, and acts as a ligament to hold the vertebrae together.-Structure:...
s, rotator cuff
Rotator cuff
In anatomy, the rotator cuff is the group of muscles and their tendons that act to stabilize the shoulder. The four muscles of the rotator cuff, along with the teres major muscle, the coracobrachialis muscle and the deltoid, make up the seven scapulohumeral muscles of the human body.-Function:The...
injuries, ganglion cyst
Ganglion cyst
A ganglion cyst, also known as a bible cyst, is a swelling that often appears on or around joints and tendons in the hand or foot. The size of the ganglion or cyst can vary over time. It is most frequently located around the dorsum of the wrist and on the fingers...
s, compression of the spine (vertebral column
Vertebral column
In human anatomy, the vertebral column is a column usually consisting of 24 articulating vertebrae, and 9 fused vertebrae in the sacrum and the coccyx. It is situated in the dorsal aspect of the torso, separated by intervertebral discs...
), vertebral artery dissection
Vertebral artery dissection
Vertebral artery dissection is a dissection of the inner lining of the vertebral artery, which is located in the neck and supplies blood to the brain. After the tear, blood enters the arterial wall and forms a blood clot, thickening the artery wall and often impeding blood flow...
, and hyperextension of the neck
Neck
The neck is the part of the body, on many terrestrial or secondarily aquatic vertebrates, that distinguishes the head from the torso or trunk. The adjective signifying "of the neck" is cervical .-Boner anatomy: The cervical spine:The cervical portion of the human spine comprises seven boney...
. According to Gary Kraftsow, author of Yoga for Transformation, many yoga positions aren't suitable for everyone. Orthopedic surgeon Jeffrey Halbrecht, medical director for the Institute for Arthroscopy
Arthroscopy
Arthroscopy is a minimally invasive surgical procedure in which an examination and sometimes treatment of damage of the interior of a joint is performed using an arthroscope, a type of endoscope that is inserted into the joint through a small incision...
and Sports Medicine
Sports medicine
Sports medicine is a branch of medicine that deals with physical fitness, treatment and prevention of injuries related to sports and exercise...
in San Francisco, warns that both experienced and novice yoga practitioners can experience injuries. “Yoga is marketed as such an innocuous thing,” says Loren Fishman, assistant clinical professor of rehabilitation medicine at Columbia University in New York City. “But without care, injuries can absolutely happen.” 'Strenuous' yoga has been connected to a form of stroke
Stroke
A stroke, previously known medically as a cerebrovascular accident , is the rapidly developing loss of brain function due to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. This can be due to ischemia caused by blockage , or a hemorrhage...
in young women. Practice of yoga has also been linked to causing hyperextension or rotation of the neck, which may be a precipitating factor in cervical artery dissection.
While much of the medical community views the results of yoga research to be significant, others argue that there were many flaws that undermine results. Much of the research on yoga has been in the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality, including small sample sizes, inadequate blinding, lack of randomization, and high risk of bias. As of 2011, evidence suggests that yoga may be at least as effective at improving health outcomes as other forms of mild physical exercise when added to standard care. What is found most concerning regarding the legitimacy of yoga as a method of healing is the current lack of specificity and standardization regarding the practice of yoga. One recent study examined the difficulties of implementing yoga-based therapies and methods of healing without any detailed, standardized and vetted descriptions of the postures promoted as being beneficial for healing. This research calls for the creation of supported intervention practices that could be distributed and applied for use in clinical practice for patients.