American Mink
Encyclopedia
The American mink is a semi-aquatic species of Mustelid
native to North America
, though human intervention has expanded its range to many parts of Europe
and South America
. Because of this, it is classed as Least Concern
by the IUCN. Since the extinction of the sea mink
, the American mink is the only extant member of the genus
Neovison. The American mink is a carnivore which feeds on rodents, fish, crustaceans, frogs and birds. In its introduced range in Europe, the American mink has been linked to declines in European mink
and water vole. It is the most frequently farmed animal for its fur, outdoing in economic importance the silver fox
, sable
, marten
and skunk
.
in the direction of carnivory
, as indicated by the more developed structure of the skull. Fossil records of the American mink go back as far as the Irvingtonian
, though the species is uncommon among Pleistocene
animals. The fossil range of the American mink corresponds with the species' current natural range. The American minks of the Pleistocene did not differ much in size or morphology from modern populations, though a slight trend toward increased size is apparent from the Irvingtonian through to the Illinoian and Wisconsinan periods.
Although superficially similar to the European mink, studies indicate that the American mink's closest relative is the kolonok
of Asia. The American mink has been recorded to hybridize with European minks and polecat
s in captivity, though the hybrid embryos of the American and European minks are usually reabsorbed.
s and weasel
s) by its larger size and stouter form, which closely approaches that of marten
s. It shares with martens a uniformly enlarged, bushy and somewhat tapering tail, rather than a slenderly terete tail with an enlarged bushy tip, as is the case in stoats. The American mink is similar in build to the European mink
, but the tail is longer (constituting 38-51% of its body length).
The American mink has a long body, which allows the species to enter the burrows of prey. Its streamlined shape helps it to reduce water resistance whilst swimming. The skull of the American mink is similar to that of the European mink, but is more massive, narrower and less elongated, with more strongly developed projections and a wider, shorter cranium. The upper molar
s are larger and more massive than those of the European mink. The dental formula is: Domestic mink, which are bred in fur farms, have 19.6% smaller brains, 8.1% smaller hearts, and 28.2% smaller spleens than wild mink. The feet are broad, with webbed digits. It generally has eight nipple
s, with one pair of inguinal teats and three pairs of abdominal teats. The adult male's penis
is 5.6 cm long, and is covered by a sheath. The baculum
is well developed, being triangular in cross section
and curved at the tip.
Males measure 34–45 cm in body length, while females measure 31-37.5 cm. The tail measures 15.6-24.7 cm in males and 14.8-21.5 cm in females. Weight varies with sex and season, with males being heavier than females. In winter, males weigh 500-1580 grams and females 400-780 grams. Maximum heaviness occurs in autumn.
s are bright, dark-tawny, often approaching black on the spine. The underfur on the back is very wavy, greyish-tawny with a bluish tint. The tail is darker than the trunk and sometimes becomes pure black on the tip. The chin and lower lip are white. Captive individuals tend to develop irregular white patches on the lower surface of the body, though escaped individuals from Tartaria gradually lost these patches. The summer fur is generally shorter, sparser and duller than the winter fur. The thick underfur and oily guard hairs render the pelage water resistant, with the length of the guard hairs being intermediate between those of otter
s and polecats, thus indicating that the American mink is incompletely adapted to an aquatic life. It moults twice a year, during spring and autumn. It does not turn white in winter. A variety of different colour mutations have arisen from experimental breeding on fur farms.
, the American mink undergoes a state of rapid bradycardia
, which is likely an adaptation to conserving oxygen
. In warm water (24°C), the American mink can swim for three hours without stopping, while in cold water it can die within 27 minutes. It generally dives to depths of 30 cm for 10 seconds, though depths of three metres lasting 60 seconds have been recorded. It typically catches fish after 5-20 second chases.
when foraging. Its eyesight is clearer on land than underwater. Its auditory perception is high enough to detect the ultrasonic vocalisations (1-16 kHz) of rodent prey. Its sense of smell is comparatively weak. The American mink has two anal glands, which are used for scent marking, either through defecation or by rubbing the anal region on the ground. The secretions of the anal glands are composed of 2,2-dimethylthietane
, 2-ethyl
thietane, cyclic disulfide
, 3,3-dimethyl-1,2-dithiacyclopentane, and indole
. When stressed, the American mink can expel the contents of its anal glands at a distance of 30 cm. Scent glands may also be located on the throat and chest. The smell produced by these scent glands was described by Clinton Hart Merriam
as more unbearable than that produced by skunk
s, and added that it was "one of the few substances, of animal, vegetable, or mineral origin, that has, on land or sea, rendered me aware of the existence of the abominable sensation called nausea
".
American mink territories are held by individual animals with minimal intrasexual overlap, but with extensive overlap between animals of the opposite sex. Most territories are located in undisturbed rocky coastal habitats with broad littoral zones and dense cover. They may also occur on estuaries, rivers and canals near urban areas. Home ranges are typically 1–6 km long, with male territories being larger than those of females. As long as it is close to water, the American mink is not fussy over its choice of den. Mink dens typically consist of long burrows in river banks, holes under logs, tree stump
s or root
s and hollow tree
s, though dens located in rock crevices, drains and nooks under stone piles and bridges are occasionally selected. Burrows dug by American minks themselves are typically about four inches in diameter and may continue along for 10–12 feet at a depth of 2–3 feet. The American mink may nest in burrows dug previously by muskrat
s, badger
s and skunk
s, and may also dig dens in old ant hill
s. The nesting chamber is located at the end of a four-inch tunnel, and is about a foot in diameter. It is warm, dry and lined with straw and feathers. The American mink's dens are characterized by a large number of entrances and twisting passages. The number of exits vary from 1-8.
The American mink normally only vocalises during close encounters with other minks or predators. Sounds emitted by the American mink include piercing shrieks and hisses when threatened and muffled chuckling sounds when mating. Kits squeak repeatedly when separated from their mothers. Ernest Thompson Seton
reported hearing minks growl and snarl when confronting a threat. During aggressive interactions, the American mink asserts its dominance by arching its back, puffing up and lashing its tail, stamps and scrapes the ground with its feet and opens its mouth in a threat-gape. Should this be unsuccessful, fights may result, with injuries to the head and neck.
being induced by the presence of males. The mating process in the American mink is violent, with the male typically biting the female on the nape of the neck and pinning her with his forefeet. Mating
lasts from 10 minutes to four hours. Females are receptive for 7-10 day intervals during the three week breeding season, and can mate with multiple males. Along with the striped skunk
, the American mink is among the only mammals to mate in spring whilst possessing a short delay before the occurrence of implantation. This delayed implantation allows pregnant minks to keep track of environmental conditions and select an ideal time and place for parturition.
The gestation period
lasts from 40–75 days, with actual embryonic development taking place after 30–32 days, thus indicating that delayed implantation can last from 8–45 days. The young are born either in April or June, with litters consisting of four kits on average. Exceptionally large litters of 11 kits have been recorded in Tartaria and 16 in the United States. The kits are blind at birth, weighing six grams and possessing a short coat of fine, silver-white hairs. The kits are dependent on their mother's milk, which contains 3.8% lipid
s, 6.2% protein
, 4.6% sugar
and 10.66% mineral salts. Their eyes open after 25 days, with weaning
occurring after five weeks. The kits begin hunting after eight weeks of age, but stay close to their mother until autumn, when they become independent. Sexual maturity is attained during the kit's first spring, when they are about 10 months old.
s, fish
, crustacean
s, amphibian
s and bird
s. It kills vertebrate
prey by biting the back of the head or neck, leaving canine puncture marks 9–11 mm apart. In its natural range, fish are the American mink's primary prey. Although inferior to the North American river otter in hunting fish, Audubon
and Bachman
once reported seeing a mink carrying a foot-long trout
. Mink inhabiting the prairie
sloughs primarily target frog
s, tadpole
s, mice
. It is a formidable predator of muskrat
s, which are chased underwater and killed in their own burrows. Among the rodents killed by the American mink in its native range are rats and mice of the genus
Hesperomys
, Microtus
, Sigmodon and Neotoma. Marsh rabbit
s are frequently taken in marshy or swampy tracts.
In Tartaria
, the American mink's most important food items are vole
s, fish, crustaceans, frogs and aquatic insects. In winter, aquatic foods predominate, while land-based prey increases in importance during the spring. Within the Altai Mountains, the American mink feeds predominantly on mammals such as rodents, shrews and moles, as well as birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish. Among the 11 different bird species preyed upon by minks in Altai are dipper
s and pine grosbeak
s. Among fish, small species predominate in the diet of minks in Altai, and include ; minnow
s, gudgeon
s and wide-headed sculpin
s. In the Sverdlovsk
and Irkutsk Oblast
s, mouse-like rodents are the American mink's most important foods, followed by birds, fish and insects. In the Russian Far East
, where crustaceans are scarce, the American mink feeds extensively on amphipods. In the British Isles
, dietary composition varies seasonally and regionally. European rabbit
s are the most commonly taken prey in areas where they are common, especially in summer. A range of small rodents and insectivores are preyed upon, but to a lesser degree. European hare
s are occasionally attacked. Minks in Britain prey on several bird species, with duck
s, moorhen
s and coot
s being most frequently targeted on lakes and rivers, while gull
s are taken in coastal habitats. Aquatic species preyed upon in Britain include European eel
s, rock-pool fish such as blenny, shore crabs and crayfish
. American Mink have been implicated in the decline of the water vole in the United Kingdom and linked to the decline of water fowl across their range in Europe. They are now considered vermin in much of Europe and are hunted for the purpose of wildlife management
. In the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve
, mammals, including both native and exotic rodents, are the American mink's main prey throughout the year, though birds are of equal importance during their summer nesting period.
The American mink may pose a threat to poultry
. According to Clinton Hart Merriam
and Ernest Thompson Seton
, although the American mink is a potential poultry thief, it is overall less damaging than the stoat
. Unlike the stoat, which often engages in surplus killing
, the mink usually limits itself to killing and eating one fowl during each attack. Studies in Britain indicate that poultry and game birds only constitute 1% of the animal's overall diet.
wherever their ranges overlap. The decline of European mink populations seems to coincide with the spread of the American mink. The diets of the American mink and European otter
overlap to a great extent. In areas where the two species are sympatric, competition with the otter for fish causes the American mink to hunt land-based prey more frequently.
s, skunks, and house cats. Animals were tested on their ability to recognize objects, learn their valences and make object selections from memory. Mink were found to outperform ferrets, skunks and cats in this task, however this letter (short paper) fails to account for a possible conflation of a cognitive ability (decision making, associative learning) with a largely perceptual ability (invariant object recognition).
and Canada
through the United States
except Arizona
and the more arid areas of California
, Nevada
, Utah
, New Mexico
, and western Texas
.
in the 1950s, and currently resides mostly in the northeastern part of the Italian Peninsula
. The majority of these populations do not appear to be self-sufficient, though minks in the Monti Prenestini
and Simbruini
in Lazio have reproduced successfully. The first mink farm in Norway
was built in 1927, with escapees establishing wild populations within 30 years of its establishment. The first feral mink populations arose in 1930, establishing territories in southwestern Norway. These feral minks, augmented by further escapees, formed the basis of a strong population in Hordaland
by the end of World War II
. Feral mink colonised eastern Norway in 1930 and had become established in mosrt southeastern counties in the early 1940s. By 1950, feral mink reached central Norway, with further populations occurring in the northern counties of Nordland
and Troms
. During the post-World War II period up until 1965, mink had colonised most of the country. In modern times, the American mink occupies all of the Norwegian mainland, but is absent on some islands.
The American mink was first imported to Great Britain
in 1929, though a series of escapes and releases lead to the establishment of a self-sufficient feral population in Devon
by the late 1950s, and others by the early 1960s. In Ireland
, the American mink was not farmed until the early 1950s, thus feral populations established themselves there much later. The species is now widespread in mainland Great Britain and Ireland, though some places remain uncolonised. It has established itself on a few islands, including Arran
, Lewis and Harris
. The total mink population in Great Britain is estimated at 110,000 (England
; 46,750, Scotland
; 52,250, Wales
; 9750). This population may be declining as European otter
numbers increase. There are no estimates for the mink population in Ireland, but it is thought to be low, because of Ireland's strong otter population.
In 1933, American minks were released into the Voronezh Oblast
in European Russia
. Until 1963, more minks were introduced in various quantities in the Voronezh
and Arkhangelsk Oblast
s, Karelia
, in Kalininsk, Gorkovsk, Volgograd
and Chelyabinsk Oblast
s, and into Tatarstan
and Bashkir
, as well as the Lithuanian and Byelorussian SSR
s. Beyond the Urals, American minks were introduced in the Sverdlovsk
, Tyumen
, Omsk
, Kemerovo
, Novosibirsk
, Chita
and Irkutsk Oblast
s, in the Altai
and Krasnoyarsk Krai
, in the Tuvan, Buryat and Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
s, into the Magadan
, Kamchatka
and Amur Oblast
s, into the Khabarovsk
and Primorsky Krai
, into the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
and several other locations, including Sakhalin
and Urup Island. In the Caucasus, American mink were released into North Ossetia and Tien Shan. Originally, captive-bred mink were used, but wild specimens were later released in order to facilitate the species' acclimatisation within Soviet territories. Several years after the first release, introductions into the ranges already held by native European minks were discontinued, with most releases from then on taking place in Siberia and the Far East. Although considerable areas were occupied by the American mink by the early 1960s, the species' Soviet range was never continuous, as most released populations were isolated from one another.
since the 1930s, and has become well established, despite it being heavily hunted since 1939. However, its population underwent a 42% decline during the years 2002-2006, which coincided with a decline in sandeel populations resulting in a drop in the seabird populations which the minks feed upon.
in 1930. The animals escaped or were released from farms in Chubut Province
and now occur in the Chubut and Río Negro Province
s and Tierra del Fuego
.
and flea
infestations. Tick species known to infest minks include Ixodes hexagonus
, I. canisuga, I. ricinus
and I. acuminatus. Flea species known to infest minks include Palaeopsylla minor, Malaraeus penicilliger, Ctenopthalmus noblis, Megabothris walkeri, Typhloceras poppei and Nosopsyllus fasciatus. Endoparasites include Skrjabingylus nasicola and Troglotrema acutum.
Transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME) is a prion
disease of mink, similar to BSE
in cattle
and scrapie
in sheep. A 1985 outbreak of TME in Stetsonville, Wisconsin resulted in a 60% mortality rate for the mink. Further testing revealed that this agent is transmissible between mink, cattle and sheep. The Stetsonville outbreak may have been due to the animals being fed the carcasses of other infected animals.
A 2006 study in Denmark concluded that, due to frequent escapes from existing mink farms, “Closing mink farms may result in a crash of the free-ranging population, or alternatively it may result in the establishment of a better-adapted, truly feral population that may ultimately outnumber the population that was present before farm closures.” The study reported that more information would be necessary to determine the outcome. Another Danish study reported that a significant majority of the “wild” mink were mink which had escaped from fur farms. 47% had escaped within two months, 31% had escaped prior to 2 months, and 21% “may or may not have been born in nature.” The survival rate for recently released mink is reportedly lower than for wild mink, but if feral mink survive at least two months, their survival rate is the same as for wild mink. The authors suggest that this is due to the rapid behavioural adaptation of the animals.
s and cape
s. Pelts which are not able to be converted into these items are made into trimming
for cloth and fur coats. Mink scarves
and stoles are also manufactured. Jackets and capes are mostly made from small to medium-sized specimens, usually females and young males, while trimming, scarves and stoles are made from adult males. The most valuable peltries come from eastern Canada which, although the smallest, are the silkiest and darkest.
described a trapped mink as thus ;
One Native American
method involved using a bait (usually a slit open chicken carcass filled with fish oil and oysters) tied to a rope and dragged around an area laden with traps. A mink would thus follow the trail into one of the traps. Another indigenous method involved placing traps scented with muskrat and female mink musk on top of disused muskrat dens by water-bodies. Attracted by the scent of food and a female, the mink would get caught in the trap and drown. On the American prairies, only the steel trap was used, because of the lack of timber.
Breeding American mink for their fur began in the late 19th century, as increasing enthusiasm for mink pelts made the harvesting of wild mink insufficient to meet the new demands. American mink are easily kept in captivity, and breed readily. In 2005, the U.S. ranked fourth in production behind Denmark, China and the Netherlands. Mink typically breed in March, and give birth to their litters in May. Farmers vaccinate the young kits for botulism, distemper, enteritis, and, if needed, pneumonia. They are harvested in late November and December. Methods for killing animals on fur farms, as on all farms, are detailed in the American Veterinary Medical Association's Report on Euthanasia which is used as a voluntary guideline for state departments of agriculture which have jurisdiction over all farms raising domesticated livestock, including mink. In the past, some mink-farms successfully provided pools of water for the mink to swim in, however, this practice is unheard of in modern mink production. Mink are motivated to access swimming water, and the absence of water is a source of frustration on modern farms. The ideal diet for farm-bred minks consists of 4-5 ounces of horse meat and a quarter pint of milk once daily.
Selective breeding
has produced a number of different colour shades in mink peltries, ranging from pure white, through beiges and browns and greys, to a brown that is almost black. The two standard strains are brown and "Black cross" which, when paired, produce numerous colour variations. When an albino mink is born, it is standard procedure in fur farms to breed it to other colour mutations in order to produce grey and light brown pastel shades. The following graph is a simplification of the main colour strains;
s were used in Europe. They are more effective ratters than terrier
s, as they can enter rat-holes and drive rats from their hiding places. Because of their fondness for bathing, captive American minks may enter kettle
s or other open water-containing vessels. When minks of wild stock are confined with tame ones, the latter invariably dominate the former. They have also been known to dominate cat
s in confrontations. Though intelligent, mink are not quick to learn tricks taught to them by their owners. Even though domestic mink have been bred in captivity for almost a century, they have not been bred to be tame. Domestic mink have been bred for size, fur quality, and color. However, the US Fur Commission claims that "mink are truly domesticated animals" based on the number of years they have been kept on fur farms.
in the United Kingdom
, mink have been the subject of at least two novels. Ewan Clarkson
's 1968 Break for Freedom (published as Syla, the Mink in the USA) tells the story of a female mink escaped from a fur farm in a realistic
style. On the other hand, A.R. Lloyd
's 1982 Kine is a heroic fantasy
with the mink as villains and weasel
s and other indigenous animals as heroes.
Mustelidae
Mustelidae , commonly referred to as the weasel family, are a family of carnivorous mammals. Mustelids are diverse and the largest family in the order Carnivora, at least partly because in the past it has been a catch-all category for many early or poorly differentiated taxa...
native to North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
, though human intervention has expanded its range to many parts of Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
and South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
. Because of this, it is classed as Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern is an IUCN category assigned to extant taxon or lower taxa which have been evaluated but do not qualify for any other category. As such they do not qualify as threatened, Near Threatened, or Conservation Dependent...
by the IUCN. Since the extinction of the sea mink
Sea Mink
The Sea Mink, Neovison macrodon, is an extinct North American member of the family Mustelidae. It is the only mustelid, and one of only two terrestrial mammal species in the order Carnivora, to become extinct in historic times . The body of the sea mink was significantly longer than that of the...
, the American mink is the only extant member of the genus
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
Neovison. The American mink is a carnivore which feeds on rodents, fish, crustaceans, frogs and birds. In its introduced range in Europe, the American mink has been linked to declines in European mink
European mink
The European mink , also known as the Russian mink, is a semi-aquatic species of Mustelid native to Europe. It is listed by the IUCN as Endangered due to an ongoing reduction in numbers, having been calculated as being more than 50% over the past three generations...
and water vole. It is the most frequently farmed animal for its fur, outdoing in economic importance the silver fox
Silver fox (animal)
The Silver Fox is a melanistic form of red fox. Silver foxes display a great deal of pelt variation: some are completely black, save for the white tail tip, while others are bluish-grey, and others may have a cinereous colour on the sides...
, sable
Sable
The sable is a species of marten which inhabits forest environments, primarily in Russia from the Ural Mountains throughout Siberia, in northern Mongolia and China and on Hokkaidō in Japan. Its range in the wild originally extended through European Russia to Poland and Scandinavia...
, marten
Marten
The martens constitute the genus Martes within the subfamily Mustelinae, in family Mustelidae.-Description:Martens are slender, agile animals, adapted to living in taigas, and are found in coniferous and northern deciduous forests across the northern hemisphere. They have bushy tails, and large...
and skunk
Skunk
Skunks are mammals best known for their ability to secrete a liquid with a strong, foul odor. General appearance varies from species to species, from black-and-white to brown or cream colored. Skunks belong to the family Mephitidae and to the order Carnivora...
.
Indigenous names
- CreeCree languageCree is an Algonquian language spoken by approximately 117,000 people across Canada, from the Northwest Territories and Alberta to Labrador, making it the aboriginal language with the highest number of speakers in Canada. It is also spoken in the U.S. state of Montana...
: Sang-gwiss, Shakzuashew or Atjackasheiv - OjibweOjibwe languageOjibwe , also called Anishinaabemowin, is an indigenous language of the Algonquian language family. Ojibwe is characterized by a series of dialects that have local names and frequently local writing systems...
: Shang-gwes'-se - Chipewyan: Tel-chu'-say
- Ogallala Sioux: Lo-chin'-cha
- Yankton Sioux: Doke-sesch
Evolution
As a species, the American mink represents a more specialised form than the European minkEuropean mink
The European mink , also known as the Russian mink, is a semi-aquatic species of Mustelid native to Europe. It is listed by the IUCN as Endangered due to an ongoing reduction in numbers, having been calculated as being more than 50% over the past three generations...
in the direction of carnivory
Carnivore
A carnivore meaning 'meat eater' is an organism that derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet consisting mainly or exclusively of animal tissue, whether through predation or scavenging...
, as indicated by the more developed structure of the skull. Fossil records of the American mink go back as far as the Irvingtonian
Irvingtonian
The Irvingtonian North American Stage on the geologic timescale is the North American faunal stage according to the North American Land Mammal Ages chronology , typically set from 1,800,000 to 300,000 years BP, a period of . It is usually considered to overlap the Lower Pleistocene and Middle...
, though the species is uncommon among Pleistocene
Pleistocene
The Pleistocene is the epoch from 2,588,000 to 11,700 years BP that spans the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek and ....
animals. The fossil range of the American mink corresponds with the species' current natural range. The American minks of the Pleistocene did not differ much in size or morphology from modern populations, though a slight trend toward increased size is apparent from the Irvingtonian through to the Illinoian and Wisconsinan periods.
Although superficially similar to the European mink, studies indicate that the American mink's closest relative is the kolonok
Siberian Weasel
The Siberian weasel , also known as the Kolonok, is a medium-sized species of weasel native to Asia. It is classed as Least Concern for extinction by the IUCN, due to its wide distribution and presumably large numbers....
of Asia. The American mink has been recorded to hybridize with European minks and polecat
European polecat
The European polecat , also known as the black or forest polecat , is a species of Mustelid native to western Eurasia and North Africa, which is classed by the IUCN as Least Concern due to its wide range and large numbers. It is of a generally dark brown colour, with a pale underbelly and a dark...
s in captivity, though the hybrid embryos of the American and European minks are usually reabsorbed.
Subspecies
, 15 subspecies are recognised.| Subspecies | Trinomial authority | Description | Range | Synonyms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eastern or Little black minkNeovison vison vison (Nominate subspecies) |
Schreber, 1777 | The smallest subspecies | Eastern Canada Canada Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean... , west to Hudson Bay Hudson Bay Hudson Bay , sometimes called Hudson's Bay, is a large body of saltwater in northeastern Canada. It drains a very large area, about , that includes parts of Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Alberta, most of Manitoba, southeastern Nunavut, as well as parts of North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota,... ; south in interior to Catskill Mountains Catskill Mountains The Catskill Mountains, an area in New York State northwest of New York City and southwest of Albany, are a mature dissected plateau, an uplifted region that was subsequently eroded into sharp relief. They are an eastward continuation, and the highest representation, of the Allegheny Plateau... , New York New York New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east... , and to northern Pennsylvania Pennsylvania The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to... |
altaica (Ternovskii, 1958) borealis (Brass, 1911) nigrescens (Audubon and Bachman, 1854) tatarica (Popov, 1949) winingus (Baird, 1858) |
| California lowland minkNeovison vison aestuarina | Ginnell, 1916 | Resembles energumenos, but smaller and has paler, less dense fur | Lowlands of west-central California California California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area... ; west to Petaluma Petaluma, California Petaluma is a city in Sonoma County, California, in the United States. In the 2010 Census the population was 57,941.Located in Petaluma is the Rancho Petaluma Adobe, a National Historic Landmark. It was built beginning in 1836 by General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, then Commandant of the San... and Marin Counties |
|
| Neovison vison aniakensis | Burns, 1964 | |||
| Western or Pacific minkNeovison vison energumenos | Bangs, 1896 | A small and dark coloured subspecies with dark sooty-brown fur. Males measure 24 inches in body length and 8.2 inches in tail length | Western North America, from British Columbia British Columbia British Columbia is the westernmost of Canada's provinces and is known for its natural beauty, as reflected in its Latin motto, Splendor sine occasu . Its name was chosen by Queen Victoria in 1858... south to the Sierra Nevada mountains in California and Rocky Mountains Rocky Mountains The Rocky Mountains are a major mountain range in western North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch more than from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the southwestern United States... in New Mexico New Mexico New Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S... |
|
| Neovison vison evagor | Hall, 1932 | |||
| Neovison vison evergladensis | Hamilton, 1948 | |||
| Alaska minkNeovison vison ingens | Osgood, 1900 | The largest subspecies, resembling energumenos but lighter in colour. Males measure 28.8 inches in body length and 7.2 inches in tail length | Northern, western and central Alaska Alaska Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area. It is situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait... ; northern Yukon Yukon Yukon is the westernmost and smallest of Canada's three federal territories. It was named after the Yukon River. The word Yukon means "Great River" in Gwich’in.... and northwestern Mackenzie Mackenzie Mountains The Mackenzie Mountains are a mountain range forming part of the Yukon-Northwest Territories boundary between the Liard and Peel rivers. The range is named in honour of Canada's second Prime Minister Alexander Mackenzie. Nahanni National Park Reserve is in the Mackenzie Mountains.The Mackenzie... ; south to the Alaska Peninsula and to Fort Good Hope |
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| Hudson Bay minkNeovison vison lacustris | Preble, 1902 | Has dark chocolate-brown fur above with white which occurs on the chin and is irregularly distributed on the breast and between the hind legs. Males measure 27 inches in body length and 8 inches in tail length | Interior of Canada from Great Bear Lake Great Bear Lake Great Bear Lake is the largest lake entirely within Canada , the third or fourth largest in North America, and the seventh or eighth largest in the world... and the western shores of Hudson Bay south through Alberta Alberta Alberta is a province of Canada. It had an estimated population of 3.7 million in 2010 making it the most populous of Canada's three prairie provinces... , Saskatchewan Saskatchewan Saskatchewan is a prairie province in Canada, which has an area of . Saskatchewan is bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, and on the south by the U.S. states of Montana and North Dakota.... and Manitoba Manitoba Manitoba is a Canadian prairie province with an area of . The province has over 110,000 lakes and has a largely continental climate because of its flat topography. Agriculture, mostly concentrated in the fertile southern and western parts of the province, is vital to the province's economy; other... to southern North Dakota North Dakota North Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States of America, along the Canadian border. The state is bordered by Canada to the north, Minnesota to the east, South Dakota to the south and Montana to the west. North Dakota is the 19th-largest state by area in the U.S.... |
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| Mississippi Valley minkNeovison vison letifera | Hollister, 1913 | Has a light brown coat with white spots on the chin, throat and breast. Males measure 26 inches in body length and 9.4 inches in tail length | Northn Wisconsin Wisconsin Wisconsin is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States and is part of the Midwest. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. Wisconsin's capital is... and northern South Dakota South Dakota South Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux American Indian tribes. Once a part of Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2, 1889. The state has an area of and an estimated population of just over... south to northern Illinois Illinois Illinois is the fifth-most populous state of the United States of America, and is often noted for being a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois, and natural resources like coal,... , northern Missouri Missouri Missouri is a US state located in the Midwestern United States, bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. With a 2010 population of 5,988,927, Missouri is the 18th most populous state in the nation and the fifth most populous in the Midwest. It... and southern Kansas Kansas Kansas is a US state located in the Midwestern United States. It is named after the Kansas River which flows through it, which in turn was named after the Kansa Native American tribe, which inhabited the area. The tribe's name is often said to mean "people of the wind" or "people of the south... |
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| Neovison vison lowii | Anderson, 1945 | |||
| Florida minkNeovison vison lutensis | Bangs, 1898 | A medium-sized subspecies, with a pale, russet to clay or reddish-brown coat. Males measure 23 inches in body length and 8 inches in tail length | Coast of southeastern United States from South Carolina South Carolina South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence... to Florida Florida Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it... |
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| Kenai minkNeovison vison melampeplus | Elliot, 1904 | Darker than energumenos, with dark chocolate coloured fur with slightly paler underparts and a white spot on the chin. Males measure 28 inches in body length and 7.2 inches in tail length | Kenai Peninsula Kenai Peninsula The Kenai Peninsula is a large peninsula jutting from the southern coast of Alaska in the United States. The name Kenai is probably derived from Kenayskaya, the Russian name for Cook Inlet, which borders the peninsula to the west.-Geography:... and Cook Inlet Cook Inlet Cook Inlet stretches from the Gulf of Alaska to Anchorage in south-central Alaska. Cook Inlet branches into the Knik Arm and Turnagain Arm at its northern end, almost surrounding Anchorage.... |
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| Common minkNeovison vison mink |
Peale and Palisot de Beauvois, 1796 | A larger and more robust form than vison, with similar colouration. Males measure 25.5 inches in total length and 8.5 inches in tail length | Eastern United States Eastern United States The Eastern United States, the American East, or simply the East is traditionally defined as the states east of the Mississippi River. The first two tiers of states west of the Mississippi have traditionally been considered part of the West, but can be included in the East today; usually in... , from the coast of New England New England New England is a region in the northeastern corner of the United States consisting of the six states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut... south to North Carolina North Carolina North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte... and in the interior to central Georgia Georgia (U.S. state) Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788... and Alabama Alabama Alabama is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland... ; westward through southern Pennsylvania and Ohio Ohio Ohio is a Midwestern state in the United States. The 34th largest state by area in the U.S.,it is the 7th‑most populous with over 11.5 million residents, containing several major American cities and seven metropolitan areas with populations of 500,000 or more.The state's capital is Columbus... to Missouri and northeastern Texas Texas Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in... |
lutreocephala (Harlan, 1825) rufa (Hamilton-Smith, 1858) |
| Island minkNeovison vison nesolestes | Heller, 1909 | Intermediate in size between ingens and energumenos with rather dark fur. The fur is Van dyke brown Van dyke brown Van Dyke Brown is an early photographic printing process. The process was so named due to the similarity of the print color to that of a brown oil paint named for Flemish painter Van Dyck.-Printing:... , lighter on the cheeks and sides and darker on the tail. The underparts are walnut brown and white on the chin, with irregular white spots or areas on the throat, chest, inner arms and abdomen. Males measure 24.5 inches in body length and 7.3 inches in tail length |
Admiralty Island Admiralty Island Admiralty Island is an island in the Alexander Archipelago in Southeast Alaska, at . It is 145 km long and 56 km wide with an area of 4,264.1 km² , making it the seventh largest island in the United States and the 132nd largest island in the world. It is one of the... , Alexander Archipelago Alexander Archipelago The Alexander Archipelago is a long archipelago, or group of islands, of North America off the southeastern coast of Alaska. It contains about 1,100 islands, which are the tops of the submerged coastal mountains that rise steeply from the Pacific Ocean. Deep channels and fjords separate the... |
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| Southern minkNeovison vison vulgivaga |
Bangs, 1895 | Resembles mink, but paler and smaller, with light brown, rich and lustrous fur which darkens at the end of the tail. Males measure 24.5 inches in body length and 7.5 inches in tail length | Coast of Louisiana Louisiana Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties... and Mississippi Mississippi Mississippi is a U.S. state located in the Southern United States. Jackson is the state capital and largest city. The name of the state derives from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary, whose name comes from the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi... |
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Build
The American mink differs from members of the genus Mustela (stoatStoat
The stoat , also known as the ermine or short-tailed weasel, is a species of Mustelid native to Eurasia and North America, distinguished from the least weasel by its larger size and longer tail with a prominent black tip...
s and weasel
Least Weasel
The least weasel is the smallest member of the Mustelidae , native to Eurasia, North America and North Africa, though it has been introduced elsewhere. It is classed as Least Concern by the IUCN, due to its wide distribution and presumably large population...
s) by its larger size and stouter form, which closely approaches that of marten
Marten
The martens constitute the genus Martes within the subfamily Mustelinae, in family Mustelidae.-Description:Martens are slender, agile animals, adapted to living in taigas, and are found in coniferous and northern deciduous forests across the northern hemisphere. They have bushy tails, and large...
s. It shares with martens a uniformly enlarged, bushy and somewhat tapering tail, rather than a slenderly terete tail with an enlarged bushy tip, as is the case in stoats. The American mink is similar in build to the European mink
European mink
The European mink , also known as the Russian mink, is a semi-aquatic species of Mustelid native to Europe. It is listed by the IUCN as Endangered due to an ongoing reduction in numbers, having been calculated as being more than 50% over the past three generations...
, but the tail is longer (constituting 38-51% of its body length).
The American mink has a long body, which allows the species to enter the burrows of prey. Its streamlined shape helps it to reduce water resistance whilst swimming. The skull of the American mink is similar to that of the European mink, but is more massive, narrower and less elongated, with more strongly developed projections and a wider, shorter cranium. The upper molar
Molar
Molar may refer to:*Molar , the fourth kind of tooth in mammals*Molar , another name for the Spanish wine grape Listan Negro*Molar concentration, a unit of concentration, or molarity, of solutions equal to 1 mole per litre*Molar volume...
s are larger and more massive than those of the European mink. The dental formula is: Domestic mink, which are bred in fur farms, have 19.6% smaller brains, 8.1% smaller hearts, and 28.2% smaller spleens than wild mink. The feet are broad, with webbed digits. It generally has eight nipple
Nipple
In its most general form, a nipple is a structure from which a fluid emanates. More specifically, it is the projection on the breasts or udder of a mammal by which breast milk is delivered to a mother's young. In this sense, it is often called a teat, especially when referring to non-humans, and...
s, with one pair of inguinal teats and three pairs of abdominal teats. The adult male's penis
Penis
The penis is a biological feature of male animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates...
is 5.6 cm long, and is covered by a sheath. The baculum
Baculum
The baculum is a bone found in the penis of most mammals. It is absent in humans, but present in other primates, such as the gorilla and chimpanzee.The bone aids in sexual intercourse.-Purpose:...
is well developed, being triangular in cross section
Cross section (geometry)
In geometry, a cross-section is the intersection of a figure in 2-dimensional space with a line, or of a body in 3-dimensional space with a plane, etc...
and curved at the tip.
Males measure 34–45 cm in body length, while females measure 31-37.5 cm. The tail measures 15.6-24.7 cm in males and 14.8-21.5 cm in females. Weight varies with sex and season, with males being heavier than females. In winter, males weigh 500-1580 grams and females 400-780 grams. Maximum heaviness occurs in autumn.
Fur
The American mink's winter fur is denser, longer, softer and more close-fitting than that of the European mink. The winter fur's tone is generally very dark blackish-tawny to light-tawny. Colour is evenly distributed over all the body, with the lower side being only slightly lighter than the upper body. The guard hairGuard hair
Guard hairs are the longest, coarsest hairs in a mammal's coat, forming the topcoat . They taper to a point and protect the undercoat from the elements. They are often water repellent and stick out above the rest of the coat...
s are bright, dark-tawny, often approaching black on the spine. The underfur on the back is very wavy, greyish-tawny with a bluish tint. The tail is darker than the trunk and sometimes becomes pure black on the tip. The chin and lower lip are white. Captive individuals tend to develop irregular white patches on the lower surface of the body, though escaped individuals from Tartaria gradually lost these patches. The summer fur is generally shorter, sparser and duller than the winter fur. The thick underfur and oily guard hairs render the pelage water resistant, with the length of the guard hairs being intermediate between those of otter
Otter
The Otters are twelve species of semi-aquatic mammals which feed on fish and shellfish, and also other invertebrates, amphibians, birds and small mammals....
s and polecats, thus indicating that the American mink is incompletely adapted to an aquatic life. It moults twice a year, during spring and autumn. It does not turn white in winter. A variety of different colour mutations have arisen from experimental breeding on fur farms.
Locomotion
On land, the American mink moves by a bounding gait, with speeds of up to 6.5 km/h. It also climbs trees and swims well. During swimming, the mink propels itself primarily through undulating movements of the trunk. When divingDiving
Diving is the sport of jumping or falling into water from a platform or springboard, sometimes while performing acrobatics. Diving is an internationally-recognized sport that is part of the Olympic Games. In addition, unstructured and non-competitive diving is a recreational pastime.Diving is one...
, the American mink undergoes a state of rapid bradycardia
Bradycardia
Bradycardia , in the context of adult medicine, is the resting heart rate of under 60 beats per minute, though it is seldom symptomatic until the rate drops below 50 beat/min. It may cause cardiac arrest in some patients, because those with bradycardia may not be pumping enough oxygen to their heart...
, which is likely an adaptation to conserving oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς and -γενής , because at the time of naming, it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition...
. In warm water (24°C), the American mink can swim for three hours without stopping, while in cold water it can die within 27 minutes. It generally dives to depths of 30 cm for 10 seconds, though depths of three metres lasting 60 seconds have been recorded. It typically catches fish after 5-20 second chases.
Senses and scent glands
The American mink relies heavily on sightVisual perception
Visual perception is the ability to interpret information and surroundings from the effects of visible light reaching the eye. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight, or vision...
when foraging. Its eyesight is clearer on land than underwater. Its auditory perception is high enough to detect the ultrasonic vocalisations (1-16 kHz) of rodent prey. Its sense of smell is comparatively weak. The American mink has two anal glands, which are used for scent marking, either through defecation or by rubbing the anal region on the ground. The secretions of the anal glands are composed of 2,2-dimethylthietane
Thietane
Thietane is a heterocyclic compound containing a saturated four-membered ring with three carbon atoms and one sulfur atom....
, 2-ethyl
Ethyl
Ethyl may refer to:* Ethyl group, a functional group in organic chemistry* Ethyl Corporation, a fuel additive company* Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol* Cold Ethyl, a rock band founded by Nicke Andersson...
thietane, cyclic disulfide
Disulfide
In chemistry, a disulfide usually refers to the structural unit composed of a linked pair of sulfur atoms. Disulfide usually refer to a chemical compound that contains a disulfide bond, such as diphenyl disulfide, C6H5S-SC6H5....
, 3,3-dimethyl-1,2-dithiacyclopentane, and indole
Indole
Indole is an aromatic heterocyclic organic compound. It has a bicyclic structure, consisting of a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered nitrogen-containing pyrrole ring. Indole is a popular component of fragrances and the precursor to many pharmaceuticals. Compounds that contain an...
. When stressed, the American mink can expel the contents of its anal glands at a distance of 30 cm. Scent glands may also be located on the throat and chest. The smell produced by these scent glands was described by Clinton Hart Merriam
Clinton Hart Merriam
Clinton Hart Merriam was an American zoologist, ornithologist, entomologist and ethnographer.Known as "Hart" to his friends, Dr. Clinton Hart Merriam was born in New York City in 1855. His father, Clinton Levi Merriam, was a U.S. congressman. He studied biology and anatomy at Yale University and...
as more unbearable than that produced by skunk
Skunk
Skunks are mammals best known for their ability to secrete a liquid with a strong, foul odor. General appearance varies from species to species, from black-and-white to brown or cream colored. Skunks belong to the family Mephitidae and to the order Carnivora...
s, and added that it was "one of the few substances, of animal, vegetable, or mineral origin, that has, on land or sea, rendered me aware of the existence of the abominable sensation called nausea
Nausea
Nausea , is a sensation of unease and discomfort in the upper stomach with an involuntary urge to vomit. It often, but not always, precedes vomiting...
".
Social and territorial behaviours
Tree stump
After a tree has been cut and felled, the stump or tree stump is usually a small remaining portion of the trunk with the roots still in the ground. Stumps may show the age-defining rings of a tree. The study of these rings is known as dendrochronology....
s or root
Root
In vascular plants, the root is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil. This is not always the case, however, since a root can also be aerial or aerating . Furthermore, a stem normally occurring below ground is not exceptional either...
s and hollow tree
Tree
A tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance. A minimum height specification at maturity is cited by some authors, varying from 3 m to...
s, though dens located in rock crevices, drains and nooks under stone piles and bridges are occasionally selected. Burrows dug by American minks themselves are typically about four inches in diameter and may continue along for 10–12 feet at a depth of 2–3 feet. The American mink may nest in burrows dug previously by muskrat
Muskrat
The muskrat , the only species in genus Ondatra, is a medium-sized semi-aquatic rodent native to North America, and introduced in parts of Europe, Asia, and South America. The muskrat is found in wetlands and is a very successful animal over a wide range of climates and habitats...
s, badger
Badger
Badgers are short-legged omnivores in the weasel family, Mustelidae. There are nine species of badger, in three subfamilies : Melinae , Mellivorinae , and Taxideinae...
s and skunk
Skunk
Skunks are mammals best known for their ability to secrete a liquid with a strong, foul odor. General appearance varies from species to species, from black-and-white to brown or cream colored. Skunks belong to the family Mephitidae and to the order Carnivora...
s, and may also dig dens in old ant hill
Ant Hill
Ant Hill is a hill, high, rising steeply on the west side of the Skelton Glacier between Ant Hill Glacier and Dilemma Glacier. It was surveyed and named in 1957 by the New Zealand party of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1956–58. So named by geological members because of the...
s. The nesting chamber is located at the end of a four-inch tunnel, and is about a foot in diameter. It is warm, dry and lined with straw and feathers. The American mink's dens are characterized by a large number of entrances and twisting passages. The number of exits vary from 1-8.
The American mink normally only vocalises during close encounters with other minks or predators. Sounds emitted by the American mink include piercing shrieks and hisses when threatened and muffled chuckling sounds when mating. Kits squeak repeatedly when separated from their mothers. Ernest Thompson Seton
Ernest Thompson Seton
Ernest Thompson Seton was a Scots-Canadian who became a noted author, wildlife artist, founder of the Woodcraft Indians, and one of the founding pioneers of the Boy Scouts of America . Seton also influenced Lord Baden-Powell, the founder of Scouting...
reported hearing minks growl and snarl when confronting a threat. During aggressive interactions, the American mink asserts its dominance by arching its back, puffing up and lashing its tail, stamps and scrapes the ground with its feet and opens its mouth in a threat-gape. Should this be unsuccessful, fights may result, with injuries to the head and neck.
Reproduction and development
The American mink is a promiscuous animal, which does not form pair-bonds. The mating season for American minks begins from February in its southern range to April in the north. In its introduced range, the American mink breeds one month earlier than the European mink. Males commonly fight during the mating season, which may result in the formation of loose, temporary dominance hierarchies governing access to receptive females. The mating season lasts for three weeks, with ovulationOvulation
Ovulation is the process in a female's menstrual cycle by which a mature ovarian follicle ruptures and discharges an ovum . Ovulation also occurs in the estrous cycle of other female mammals, which differs in many fundamental ways from the menstrual cycle...
being induced by the presence of males. The mating process in the American mink is violent, with the male typically biting the female on the nape of the neck and pinning her with his forefeet. Mating
Mating
In biology, mating is the pairing of opposite-sex or hermaphroditic organisms for copulation. In social animals, it also includes the raising of their offspring. Copulation is the union of the sex organs of two sexually reproducing animals for insemination and subsequent internal fertilization...
lasts from 10 minutes to four hours. Females are receptive for 7-10 day intervals during the three week breeding season, and can mate with multiple males. Along with the striped skunk
Striped Skunk
The striped skunk, Mephitis mephitis, is an omnivorous mammal of the skunk family Mephitidae. Found over most of the North American continent north of Mexico, it is one of the best-known mammals in Canada and the United States.-Description:...
, the American mink is among the only mammals to mate in spring whilst possessing a short delay before the occurrence of implantation. This delayed implantation allows pregnant minks to keep track of environmental conditions and select an ideal time and place for parturition.
The gestation period
Gestation period
For mammals the gestation period is the time in which a fetus develops, beginning with fertilization and ending at birth. The duration of this period varies between species.-Duration:...
lasts from 40–75 days, with actual embryonic development taking place after 30–32 days, thus indicating that delayed implantation can last from 8–45 days. The young are born either in April or June, with litters consisting of four kits on average. Exceptionally large litters of 11 kits have been recorded in Tartaria and 16 in the United States. The kits are blind at birth, weighing six grams and possessing a short coat of fine, silver-white hairs. The kits are dependent on their mother's milk, which contains 3.8% lipid
Lipid
Lipids constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others...
s, 6.2% protein
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
, 4.6% sugar
Sugar
Sugar is a class of edible crystalline carbohydrates, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose, characterized by a sweet flavor.Sucrose in its refined form primarily comes from sugar cane and sugar beet...
and 10.66% mineral salts. Their eyes open after 25 days, with weaning
Weaning
Weaning is the process of gradually introducing a mammal infant, either human or animal, to what will be its adult diet and withdrawing the supply of its mother's milk.The process takes place only in mammals, as only mammals produce milk...
occurring after five weeks. The kits begin hunting after eight weeks of age, but stay close to their mother until autumn, when they become independent. Sexual maturity is attained during the kit's first spring, when they are about 10 months old.
Diet
The American mink is a carnivorous animal, which feeds on rodentRodent
Rodentia is an order of mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must be kept short by gnawing....
s, fish
Fish
Fish are a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as various extinct related groups...
, crustacean
Crustacean
Crustaceans form a very large group of arthropods, usually treated as a subphylum, which includes such familiar animals as crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill and barnacles. The 50,000 described species range in size from Stygotantulus stocki at , to the Japanese spider crab with a leg span...
s, amphibian
Amphibian
Amphibians , are a class of vertebrate animals including animals such as toads, frogs, caecilians, and salamanders. They are characterized as non-amniote ectothermic tetrapods...
s and bird
Bird
Birds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...
s. It kills vertebrate
Vertebrate
Vertebrates are animals that are members of the subphylum Vertebrata . Vertebrates are the largest group of chordates, with currently about 58,000 species described. Vertebrates include the jawless fishes, bony fishes, sharks and rays, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds...
prey by biting the back of the head or neck, leaving canine puncture marks 9–11 mm apart. In its natural range, fish are the American mink's primary prey. Although inferior to the North American river otter in hunting fish, Audubon
John James Audubon
John James Audubon was a French-American ornithologist, naturalist, and painter. He was notable for his expansive studies to document all types of American birds and for his detailed illustrations that depicted the birds in their natural habitats...
and Bachman
John Bachman
The Rev. John Bachman was an American Lutheran minister, social activist and naturalist who collaborated with J.J. Audubon to produce Viviparous Quadrapeds of North America and whose writings, particularly Unity of the Human Race, were influential in the development of the theory of evolution. He...
once reported seeing a mink carrying a foot-long trout
Trout
Trout is the name for a number of species of freshwater and saltwater fish belonging to the Salmoninae subfamily of the family Salmonidae. Salmon belong to the same family as trout. Most salmon species spend almost all their lives in salt water...
. Mink inhabiting the prairie
Prairie
Prairies are considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome by ecologists, based on similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall, and grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than trees, as the dominant vegetation type...
sloughs primarily target frog
Frog
Frogs are amphibians in the order Anura , formerly referred to as Salientia . Most frogs are characterized by a short body, webbed digits , protruding eyes and the absence of a tail...
s, tadpole
Tadpole
A tadpole or polliwog is the wholly aquatic larval stage in the life cycle of an amphibian, particularly that of a frog or toad.- Appellation :...
s, mice
MICE
-Fiction:*Mice , alien species in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy*The Mice -Acronyms:* "Meetings, Incentives, Conferencing, Exhibitions", facilities terminology for events...
. It is a formidable predator of muskrat
Muskrat
The muskrat , the only species in genus Ondatra, is a medium-sized semi-aquatic rodent native to North America, and introduced in parts of Europe, Asia, and South America. The muskrat is found in wetlands and is a very successful animal over a wide range of climates and habitats...
s, which are chased underwater and killed in their own burrows. Among the rodents killed by the American mink in its native range are rats and mice of the genus
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
Hesperomys
Hesperomys
Hesperomys is an obsolete genus of American rodents. It was initially broadly defined to include most of the cricetid rodents of the Americas, except the Arvicolinae, but later became restricted to the members of the modern genus Calomys; the latter name has been in use for this genus instead of...
, Microtus
Microtus
The genus Microtus is a group of voles found in North America, Europe and northern Asia. The genus name refers to the small ears of these animals. There are 62 species in the genus....
, Sigmodon and Neotoma. Marsh rabbit
Marsh Rabbit
The marsh rabbit is a small cottontail rabbit found in marshes and swamps of coastal regions of the Eastern and Southern United States. It is a strong swimmer and found only near regions of water...
s are frequently taken in marshy or swampy tracts.
In Tartaria
Tartaria
Săliştea , known as Cioara until 1965, is a commune located in Alba county, Romania. The old name of Cioara is still widely used, especially by local residents.It is composed of four villages: Mărgineni, Săliştea, Săliştea-Deal and Tărtăria....
, the American mink's most important food items are vole
Vole
A vole is a small rodent resembling a mouse but with a stouter body, a shorter hairy tail, a slightly rounder head, smaller ears and eyes, and differently formed molars . There are approximately 155 species of voles. They are sometimes known as meadow mice or field mice in North America...
s, fish, crustaceans, frogs and aquatic insects. In winter, aquatic foods predominate, while land-based prey increases in importance during the spring. Within the Altai Mountains, the American mink feeds predominantly on mammals such as rodents, shrews and moles, as well as birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish. Among the 11 different bird species preyed upon by minks in Altai are dipper
Dipper
Dippers are members of the genus Cinclus in the bird family Cinclidae, named for their bobbing or dipping movements. They are unique among passerines for their ability to dive and swim underwater.-Description:...
s and pine grosbeak
Pine Grosbeak
left|thumb|Adult femaleThe Pine Grosbeak is a large member of the true finch family, Fringillidae. It is found in coniferous woods across Alaska, the western mountains of the United States, Canada, and in subarctic Fennoscandia and Siberia...
s. Among fish, small species predominate in the diet of minks in Altai, and include ; minnow
Minnow
Minnow is a general term used to refer to small freshwater and saltwater fish, especially those used as bait fish or for fishing bait. More specifically, it refers to small freshwater fish of the carp family.-True minnows:...
s, gudgeon
Gudgeon
A gudgeon is a circular fitting, often made of metal, which is affixed to a surface. It allows for the pivoting of another fixture. It is generally used with a pintle, which is a pin which pivots in the hole in the gudgeon. As such, a gudgeon is a simple bearing.-Winged gudgeons:A winged gudgeon...
s and wide-headed sculpin
Sculpin
A Sculpin is a fish that belongs to the order Scorpaeniformes, suborder Cottoidei and superfamily Cottoidea, that contains 11 families, 149 genera, and 756 species...
s. In the Sverdlovsk
Sverdlovsk Oblast
Sverdlovsk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia located in the Urals Federal District. Its administrative center is the city of Yekaterinburg formerly known as Sverdlovsk. Population: -Geography:...
and Irkutsk Oblast
Irkutsk Oblast
Irkutsk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia , located in southeastern Siberia in the basins of Angara River, Lena, and Nizhnyaya Tunguska Rivers. The administrative center is the city of Irkutsk. Population: -History:...
s, mouse-like rodents are the American mink's most important foods, followed by birds, fish and insects. In the Russian Far East
Russian Far East
Russian Far East is a term that refers to the Russian part of the Far East, i.e., extreme east parts of Russia, between Lake Baikal in Eastern Siberia and the Pacific Ocean...
, where crustaceans are scarce, the American mink feeds extensively on amphipods. In the British Isles
British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands off the northwest coast of continental Europe that include the islands of Great Britain and Ireland and over six thousand smaller isles. There are two sovereign states located on the islands: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and...
, dietary composition varies seasonally and regionally. European rabbit
European Rabbit
The European Rabbit or Common Rabbit is a species of rabbit native to south west Europe and north west Africa . It has been widely introduced elsewhere often with devastating effects on local biodiversity...
s are the most commonly taken prey in areas where they are common, especially in summer. A range of small rodents and insectivores are preyed upon, but to a lesser degree. European hare
European Hare
The European hare , also known as the brown hare, Eastern Jackrabbit and Eastern prairie hare, is a species of hare native to northern, central, and western Europe and western Asia. It is a mammal adapted to temperate open country. It is related to the similarly appearing rabbit, which is in the...
s are occasionally attacked. Minks in Britain prey on several bird species, with duck
Duck
Duck is the common name for a large number of species in the Anatidae family of birds, which also includes swans and geese. The ducks are divided among several subfamilies in the Anatidae family; they do not represent a monophyletic group but a form taxon, since swans and geese are not considered...
s, moorhen
Moorhen
Moorhens, sometimes called marsh hens, are medium-sized water birds that are members of the rail family Rallidae. They constitute the genus Gallinula....
s and coot
Coot
Coots are medium-sized water birds that are members of the rail family Rallidae. They constitute the genus Fulica. Coots have predominantly black plumage, and, unlike many of the rails, they are usually easy to see, often swimming in open water...
s being most frequently targeted on lakes and rivers, while gull
Gull
Gulls are birds in the family Laridae. They are most closely related to the terns and only distantly related to auks, skimmers, and more distantly to the waders...
s are taken in coastal habitats. Aquatic species preyed upon in Britain include European eel
European eel
The European eel, Anguilla anguilla, is a species of eel, a snake-like, catadromous fish. They can reach in exceptional cases a length of 1½ m, but are normally much smaller, about 60–80 cm, and rarely more than 1 m....
s, rock-pool fish such as blenny, shore crabs and crayfish
Crayfish
Crayfish, crawfish, or crawdads – members of the superfamilies Astacoidea and Parastacoidea – are freshwater crustaceans resembling small lobsters, to which they are related...
. American Mink have been implicated in the decline of the water vole in the United Kingdom and linked to the decline of water fowl across their range in Europe. They are now considered vermin in much of Europe and are hunted for the purpose of wildlife management
Wildlife management
Wildlife management attempts to balance the needs of wildlife with the needs of people using the best available science. Wildlife management can include game keeping, wildlife conservation and pest control...
. In the Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve
Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve
The Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve is located in the extreme south of Chile and comprises marine areas, islands, fjords, channels, forests and moorland. It covers an area of approximately 49,000 km²...
, mammals, including both native and exotic rodents, are the American mink's main prey throughout the year, though birds are of equal importance during their summer nesting period.
The American mink may pose a threat to poultry
Poultry
Poultry are domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of producing eggs, meat, and/or feathers. These most typically are members of the superorder Galloanserae , especially the order Galliformes and the family Anatidae , commonly known as "waterfowl"...
. According to Clinton Hart Merriam
Clinton Hart Merriam
Clinton Hart Merriam was an American zoologist, ornithologist, entomologist and ethnographer.Known as "Hart" to his friends, Dr. Clinton Hart Merriam was born in New York City in 1855. His father, Clinton Levi Merriam, was a U.S. congressman. He studied biology and anatomy at Yale University and...
and Ernest Thompson Seton
Ernest Thompson Seton
Ernest Thompson Seton was a Scots-Canadian who became a noted author, wildlife artist, founder of the Woodcraft Indians, and one of the founding pioneers of the Boy Scouts of America . Seton also influenced Lord Baden-Powell, the founder of Scouting...
, although the American mink is a potential poultry thief, it is overall less damaging than the stoat
Stoat
The stoat , also known as the ermine or short-tailed weasel, is a species of Mustelid native to Eurasia and North America, distinguished from the least weasel by its larger size and longer tail with a prominent black tip...
. Unlike the stoat, which often engages in surplus killing
Surplus killing
Surplus killing is the behavior predators exhibit when they kill more prey than they can immediately use. They may partially consume, cache, or abandon intact prey...
, the mink usually limits itself to killing and eating one fowl during each attack. Studies in Britain indicate that poultry and game birds only constitute 1% of the animal's overall diet.
Relationships with other predators
The American mink replaces and sometimes kills the European minkEuropean mink
The European mink , also known as the Russian mink, is a semi-aquatic species of Mustelid native to Europe. It is listed by the IUCN as Endangered due to an ongoing reduction in numbers, having been calculated as being more than 50% over the past three generations...
wherever their ranges overlap. The decline of European mink populations seems to coincide with the spread of the American mink. The diets of the American mink and European otter
European Otter
The European Otter , also known as the Eurasian otter, Eurasian river otter, common otter and Old World otter, is a European and Asian member of the Lutrinae or otter subfamily, and is typical of freshwater otters....
overlap to a great extent. In areas where the two species are sympatric, competition with the otter for fish causes the American mink to hunt land-based prey more frequently.
Intelligence
An early behavioral study was performed in the 1960s that assessed visual learning ability in mink, ferretFerret
The ferret is a domesticated mammal of the type Mustela putorius furo. Ferrets are sexually dimorphic predators with males being substantially larger than females. They typically have brown, black, white, or mixed fur...
s, skunks, and house cats. Animals were tested on their ability to recognize objects, learn their valences and make object selections from memory. Mink were found to outperform ferrets, skunks and cats in this task, however this letter (short paper) fails to account for a possible conflation of a cognitive ability (decision making, associative learning) with a largely perceptual ability (invariant object recognition).
Natural
The species' natural range encompasses North America from AlaskaAlaska
Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area. It is situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait...
and Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
through the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
except Arizona
Arizona
Arizona ; is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the western United States and the mountain west. The capital and largest city is Phoenix...
and the more arid areas of California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, Nevada
Nevada
Nevada is a state in the western, mountain west, and southwestern regions of the United States. With an area of and a population of about 2.7 million, it is the 7th-largest and 35th-most populous state. Over two-thirds of Nevada's people live in the Las Vegas metropolitan area, which contains its...
, Utah
Utah
Utah is a state in the Western United States. It was the 45th state to join the Union, on January 4, 1896. Approximately 80% of Utah's 2,763,885 people live along the Wasatch Front, centering on Salt Lake City. This leaves vast expanses of the state nearly uninhabited, making the population the...
, New Mexico
New Mexico
New Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S...
, and western Texas
Texas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...
.
Mainland Europe and British Isles
It is thought that feral American minks in Europe are of domesticated stock derived from the vison, melampeplus and ingens subspecies. The first specimens were imported to Europe in 1920 for fur-farming purposes. The American mink was introduced in ItalyItaly
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
in the 1950s, and currently resides mostly in the northeastern part of the Italian Peninsula
Italian Peninsula
The Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula is one of the three large peninsulas of Southern Europe , spanning from the Po Valley in the north to the central Mediterranean Sea in the south. The peninsula's shape gives it the nickname Lo Stivale...
. The majority of these populations do not appear to be self-sufficient, though minks in the Monti Prenestini
Monti Prenestini
The Monti Prenestini is a mountain range in the Lazio sub-Apennines, in central Italy to the east of Rome. It is of limestone formation. It is bounded by the Monti Tiburtini to the north, by the Monti Ruffi to the east, and by the valley of the river Sacco to the south. The highest peak is Monte...
and Simbruini
Monti Prenestini
The Monti Prenestini is a mountain range in the Lazio sub-Apennines, in central Italy to the east of Rome. It is of limestone formation. It is bounded by the Monti Tiburtini to the north, by the Monti Ruffi to the east, and by the valley of the river Sacco to the south. The highest peak is Monte...
in Lazio have reproduced successfully. The first mink farm in Norway
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
was built in 1927, with escapees establishing wild populations within 30 years of its establishment. The first feral mink populations arose in 1930, establishing territories in southwestern Norway. These feral minks, augmented by further escapees, formed the basis of a strong population in Hordaland
Hordaland
is a county in Norway, bordering Sogn og Fjordane, Buskerud, Telemark and Rogaland. Hordaland is the third largest county after Akershus and Oslo by population. The county administration is located in Bergen...
by the end of World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. Feral mink colonised eastern Norway in 1930 and had become established in mosrt southeastern counties in the early 1940s. By 1950, feral mink reached central Norway, with further populations occurring in the northern counties of Nordland
Nordland
is a county in Norway in the North Norway region, bordering Troms in the north, Nord-Trøndelag in the south, Norrbottens län in Sweden to the east, Västerbottens län to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The county was formerly known as Nordlandene amt. The county administration is...
and Troms
Troms
or Romsa is a county in North Norway, bordering Finnmark to the northeast and Nordland in the southwest. To the south is Norrbotten Län in Sweden and further southeast is a shorter border with Lapland Province in Finland. To the west is the Norwegian Sea...
. During the post-World War II period up until 1965, mink had colonised most of the country. In modern times, the American mink occupies all of the Norwegian mainland, but is absent on some islands.
The American mink was first imported to Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
in 1929, though a series of escapes and releases lead to the establishment of a self-sufficient feral population in Devon
Devon
Devon is a large county in southwestern England. The county is sometimes referred to as Devonshire, although the term is rarely used inside the county itself as the county has never been officially "shired", it often indicates a traditional or historical context.The county shares borders with...
by the late 1950s, and others by the early 1960s. In Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
, the American mink was not farmed until the early 1950s, thus feral populations established themselves there much later. The species is now widespread in mainland Great Britain and Ireland, though some places remain uncolonised. It has established itself on a few islands, including Arran
Isle of Arran
Arran or the Isle of Arran is the largest island in the Firth of Clyde, Scotland, and with an area of is the seventh largest Scottish island. It is in the unitary council area of North Ayrshire and the 2001 census had a resident population of 5,058...
, Lewis and Harris
Lewis and Harris
Lewis and Harris in the Outer Hebrides make up the largest island in Scotland. This is the largest single island of the British Isles after Great Britain and Ireland.-Geography:...
. The total mink population in Great Britain is estimated at 110,000 (England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
; 46,750, Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
; 52,250, Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
; 9750). This population may be declining as European otter
European Otter
The European Otter , also known as the Eurasian otter, Eurasian river otter, common otter and Old World otter, is a European and Asian member of the Lutrinae or otter subfamily, and is typical of freshwater otters....
numbers increase. There are no estimates for the mink population in Ireland, but it is thought to be low, because of Ireland's strong otter population.
Former USSR
Voronezh Oblast
Voronezh Oblast is a federal subject of Russia . It was established on June 13, 1934.-Main rivers:*Don*Voronezh*Bityug*Khopyor-Economy:...
in European Russia
European Russia
European Russia refers to the western areas of Russia that lie within Europe, comprising roughly 3,960,000 square kilometres , larger in area than India, and spanning across 40% of Europe. Its eastern border is defined by the Ural Mountains and in the south it is defined by the border with...
. Until 1963, more minks were introduced in various quantities in the Voronezh
Voronezh Oblast
Voronezh Oblast is a federal subject of Russia . It was established on June 13, 1934.-Main rivers:*Don*Voronezh*Bityug*Khopyor-Economy:...
and Arkhangelsk Oblast
Arkhangelsk Oblast
Arkhangelsk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia . It includes the Arctic archipelagos of Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, as well as the Solovetsky Islands in the White Sea....
s, Karelia
Karelia
Karelia , the land of the Karelian peoples, is an area in Northern Europe of historical significance for Finland, Russia, and Sweden...
, in Kalininsk, Gorkovsk, Volgograd
Volgograd Oblast
Volgograd Oblast is a federal subject of Russia . Its administrative center is the city of Volgograd. Population: -Geography:*Area: 113,900 km²;*Borders length: 2221,9 km²....
and Chelyabinsk Oblast
Chelyabinsk Oblast
-External links:*...
s, and into Tatarstan
Tatarstan
The Republic of Tatarstan is a federal subject of Russia located in the Volga Federal District. Its capital is the city of Kazan, which is one of Russia's largest and most prosperous cities. The republic borders with Kirov, Ulyanovsk, Samara, and Orenburg Oblasts, and with the Mari El, Udmurt,...
and Bashkir
Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
The Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in the former Soviet Union. Currently it is known as Bashkortostan....
, as well as the Lithuanian and Byelorussian SSR
Byelorussian SSR
The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic was one of fifteen constituent republics of the Soviet Union. It was one of the four original founding members of the Soviet Union in 1922, together with the Ukrainian SSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic...
s. Beyond the Urals, American minks were introduced in the Sverdlovsk
Sverdlovsk Oblast
Sverdlovsk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia located in the Urals Federal District. Its administrative center is the city of Yekaterinburg formerly known as Sverdlovsk. Population: -Geography:...
, Tyumen
Tyumen Oblast
Tyumen Oblast is a federal subject of Russia . Its administrative center is the city of Tyumen. The oblast has administrative jurisdiction over two autonomous okrugs—Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug. Tyumen is the largest city, with over half a million inhabitants...
, Omsk
Omsk Oblast
Omsk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia , located in southwestern Siberia. The oblast has an area of and a population of with the majority, 1.15 million, living in Omsk, the administrative center....
, Kemerovo
Kemerovo Oblast
Kemerovo Oblast , also known as Kuzbass after the Kuznetsk Basin, is a federal subject of Russia , located in southwestern Siberia, where the West Siberian Plain meets the South Siberian mountains...
, Novosibirsk
Novosibirsk Oblast
Novosibirsk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia located in southwestern Siberia. Its administrative and economic center is the city of Novosibirsk. Population: -Overview:...
, Chita
Chita Oblast
Chita Oblast was a federal subject of Russia in southeast Siberia, Russia. Its administrative center was the city of Chita. It had extensive international borders with China and Mongolia and internal borders with Irkutsk and Amur Oblasts, as well as with the Buryat and the Sakha Republics. Its...
and Irkutsk Oblast
Irkutsk Oblast
Irkutsk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia , located in southeastern Siberia in the basins of Angara River, Lena, and Nizhnyaya Tunguska Rivers. The administrative center is the city of Irkutsk. Population: -History:...
s, in the Altai
Altai Krai
Altai Krai is a federal subject of Russia . It borders with, clockwise from the south, Kazakhstan, Novosibirsk and Kemerovo Oblasts, and the Altai Republic. The krai's administrative center is the city of Barnaul...
and Krasnoyarsk Krai
Krasnoyarsk Krai
Krasnoyarsk Krai is a federal subject of Russia . It is the second largest federal subject after the Sakha Republic, and Russia's largest krai, occupying an area of , which is 13% of the country's total territory. The administrative center of the krai is the city of Krasnoyarsk...
, in the Tuvan, Buryat and Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
The Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was an autonomous republic of the Russian SFSR within the Soviet Union.It was created on April 27, 1922, during the Yakut Revolt. It is now Sakha Republic of Russia. Yakut ASSR is known for its rich oil deposits, and refineries...
s, into the Magadan
Magadan Oblast
Magadan Oblast is a federal subject of Russia in the Far Eastern Federal District. Its administrative center is the city of Magadan....
, Kamchatka
Kamchatka Oblast
Kamchatka Oblast was, until being incorporated into Kamchatka Krai on July 1, 2007, a federal subject of Russia . To the north, it bordered Magadan Oblast and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. Koryak Autonomous Okrug was located in the northern part of the oblast...
and Amur Oblast
Amur Oblast
Amur Oblast is a federal subject of Russia , situated about east of Moscow on the banks of the Amur and Zeya Rivers. It shares its border with the Sakha Republic in the north, Khabarovsk Krai and the Jewish Autonomous Oblast in the east, People's Republic of China in the south, and Zabaykalsky...
s, into the Khabarovsk
Khabarovsk Krai
Khabarovsk Krai is a federal subject of Russia , located in the Russian Far East. It lies mostly in the basin of the lower Amur River, but also occupies a vast mountainous area along the coastline of the Sea of Okhotsk, an arm of the Pacific Ocean. The administrative center of the krai is the...
and Primorsky Krai
Primorsky Krai
Primorsky Krai , informally known as Primorye , is a federal subject of Russia . Primorsky means "maritime" in Russian, hence the region is sometimes referred to as Maritime Province or Maritime Territory. Its administrative center is in the city of Vladivostok...
, into the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
Chukotka Autonomous Okrug , or Chukotka , is a federal subject of Russia located in the Russian Far East.Chukotka has a population of 53,824 according to the 2002 Census, and a surface area of . The principal town and the administrative center is Anadyr...
and several other locations, including Sakhalin
Sakhalin
Sakhalin or Saghalien, is a large island in the North Pacific, lying between 45°50' and 54°24' N.It is part of Russia, and is Russia's largest island, and is administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast...
and Urup Island. In the Caucasus, American mink were released into North Ossetia and Tien Shan. Originally, captive-bred mink were used, but wild specimens were later released in order to facilitate the species' acclimatisation within Soviet territories. Several years after the first release, introductions into the ranges already held by native European minks were discontinued, with most releases from then on taking place in Siberia and the Far East. Although considerable areas were occupied by the American mink by the early 1960s, the species' Soviet range was never continuous, as most released populations were isolated from one another.
Iceland
The species has been present in IcelandIceland
Iceland , described as the Republic of Iceland, is a Nordic and European island country in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Iceland also refers to the main island of the country, which contains almost all the population and almost all the land area. The country has a population...
since the 1930s, and has become well established, despite it being heavily hunted since 1939. However, its population underwent a 42% decline during the years 2002-2006, which coincided with a decline in sandeel populations resulting in a drop in the seabird populations which the minks feed upon.
South America
The American mink was deliberately introduced for commercial fur production in several provinces of PatagoniaPatagonia
Patagonia is a region located in Argentina and Chile, integrating the southernmost section of the Andes mountains to the southwest towards the Pacific ocean and from the east of the cordillera to the valleys it follows south through Colorado River towards Carmen de Patagones in the Atlantic Ocean...
in 1930. The animals escaped or were released from farms in Chubut Province
Chubut Province
Chubut a province in the southern part of Argentina situated between the 42nd parallel south and the 46th parallel south , the Andes range separating Argentina from Chile, and the Atlantic ocean...
and now occur in the Chubut and Río Negro Province
Río Negro Province
Río Negro is a province of Argentina, located at the northern edge of Patagonia. Neighboring provinces are from the south clockwise Chubut, Neuquén, Mendoza, La Pampa and Buenos Aires. To the east lies the Atlantic Ocean.Its capital is Viedma...
s and Tierra del Fuego
Tierra del Fuego
Tierra del Fuego is an archipelago off the southernmost tip of the South American mainland, across the Strait of Magellan. The archipelago consists of a main island Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego divided between Chile and Argentina with an area of , and a group of smaller islands including Cape...
.
Diseases and parasites
The American mink often carries light tickTick
Ticks are small arachnids in the order Ixodida, along with mites, constitute the subclass Acarina. Ticks are ectoparasites , living by hematophagy on the blood of mammals, birds, and sometimes reptiles and amphibians...
and flea
Flea
Flea is the common name for insects of the order Siphonaptera which are wingless insects with mouthparts adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood...
infestations. Tick species known to infest minks include Ixodes hexagonus
Ixodes hexagonus
Ixodes hexagonus is a tick species in the genus Ixodes. It is a parasite of the European Hedgehog....
, I. canisuga, I. ricinus
Ixodes ricinus
Ixodes ricinus, the castor bean tick, is a chiefly European species of hard-bodied tick. It may reach a length of when engorged with a blood meal, and can transmit both bacterial and viral pathogens such as the causative agents of Lyme disease and tick-borne encephalitis.-Description:In common...
and I. acuminatus. Flea species known to infest minks include Palaeopsylla minor, Malaraeus penicilliger, Ctenopthalmus noblis, Megabothris walkeri, Typhloceras poppei and Nosopsyllus fasciatus. Endoparasites include Skrjabingylus nasicola and Troglotrema acutum.
Transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME) is a prion
Prion
A prion is an infectious agent composed of protein in a misfolded form. This is in contrast to all other known infectious agents which must contain nucleic acids . The word prion, coined in 1982 by Stanley B. Prusiner, is a portmanteau derived from the words protein and infection...
disease of mink, similar to BSE
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy , commonly known as mad-cow disease, is a fatal neurodegenerative disease in cattle that causes a spongy degeneration in the brain and spinal cord. BSE has a long incubation period, about 30 months to 8 years, usually affecting adult cattle at a peak age onset of...
in cattle
Cattle
Cattle are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius...
and scrapie
Scrapie
Scrapie is a fatal, degenerative disease that affects the nervous systems of sheep and goats. It is one of several transmissible spongiform encephalopathies , which are related to bovine spongiform encephalopathy and chronic wasting disease of deer. Like other spongiform encephalopathies, scrapie...
in sheep. A 1985 outbreak of TME in Stetsonville, Wisconsin resulted in a 60% mortality rate for the mink. Further testing revealed that this agent is transmissible between mink, cattle and sheep. The Stetsonville outbreak may have been due to the animals being fed the carcasses of other infected animals.
Decline of wild mink
Because of numerous incidents of domestic mink escaping from fur farms and establishing themselves in the wild, concern has arisen among conservationists of the possible repercussions such escapes may have on natural wild mink populations. Domestic mink are larger than wild mink, which may cause problems with the ecosystem when they escape. Mink are solitary, territorial animals and are intolerant of other mink. In times of overpopulation, mink control their own numbers by either killing each other through direct conflict or by causing weaker mink to be driven from territory until starvation sets in. When hundreds or thousands of released domestic mink flood an ecosystem, it causes a great disturbance for the wild mink, resulting in the deaths of the majority of the released mink and many of the wild mink from starvation or injuries incurred fighting over territory. When a domestic mink survives long enough to reproduce, it may cause problems for the wild mink populations. The adding of weaker domestic mink genes into wild mink populations is believed by some to have contributed to the decline of mink populations in Canada.A 2006 study in Denmark concluded that, due to frequent escapes from existing mink farms, “Closing mink farms may result in a crash of the free-ranging population, or alternatively it may result in the establishment of a better-adapted, truly feral population that may ultimately outnumber the population that was present before farm closures.” The study reported that more information would be necessary to determine the outcome. Another Danish study reported that a significant majority of the “wild” mink were mink which had escaped from fur farms. 47% had escaped within two months, 31% had escaped prior to 2 months, and 21% “may or may not have been born in nature.” The survival rate for recently released mink is reportedly lower than for wild mink, but if feral mink survive at least two months, their survival rate is the same as for wild mink. The authors suggest that this is due to the rapid behavioural adaptation of the animals.
Fur use
American mink are primarily used in manufacturing ladies' fur coats, jacketJacket
A jacket is a hip- or waist-length garment for the upper body. A jacket typically has sleeves, and fastens in the front. A jacket is generally lighter, tighter-fitting, and less insulating than a coat, which is outerwear...
s and cape
Cape
Cape can be used to describe any sleeveless outer garment, such as a poncho, but usually it is a long garment that covers only the back half of the wearer, fastening around the neck. They were common in medieval Europe, especially when combined with a hood in the chaperon, and have had periodic...
s. Pelts which are not able to be converted into these items are made into trimming
Trim (sewing)
Trim or trimming in clothing and home decorating is applied ornament, such as gimp, passementerie, ribbon, ruffles, or, as a verb, to apply such ornament....
for cloth and fur coats. Mink scarves
Scarf
A scarf is a piece of fabric worn around the neck, or near the head or around the waist for warmth, cleanliness, fashion or for religious reasons. They can come in a variety of different colours.-History:...
and stoles are also manufactured. Jackets and capes are mostly made from small to medium-sized specimens, usually females and young males, while trimming, scarves and stoles are made from adult males. The most valuable peltries come from eastern Canada which, although the smallest, are the silkiest and darkest.
Trapping
Although difficult to catch, the American mink, prior to being commercially farmed, was among the most frequently trapped furbearers as, unlike other furbearing mammals, it did not hibernate in winter, and could thus be caught on a nightly basis even in the far north. Minks were legally trapped from early November to early April, when their pelts were prime. Minks caught in traps cling to life with great tenacity, having been known to break their teeth in trying to extricate themselves from steel traps. Elliott CouesElliott Coues
Elliott Coues was an American army surgeon, historian, ornithologist and author.Coues was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. He graduated at Columbian University, Washington, D.C., in 1861, and at the Medical school of that institution in 1863...
described a trapped mink as thus ;
One Native American
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
method involved using a bait (usually a slit open chicken carcass filled with fish oil and oysters) tied to a rope and dragged around an area laden with traps. A mink would thus follow the trail into one of the traps. Another indigenous method involved placing traps scented with muskrat and female mink musk on top of disused muskrat dens by water-bodies. Attracted by the scent of food and a female, the mink would get caught in the trap and drown. On the American prairies, only the steel trap was used, because of the lack of timber.
Farming
Colour mutations
Selective breeding
Selective breeding
Selective breeding is the process of breeding plants and animals for particular genetic traits. Typically, strains that are selectively bred are domesticated, and the breeding is sometimes done by a professional breeder. Bred animals are known as breeds, while bred plants are known as varieties,...
has produced a number of different colour shades in mink peltries, ranging from pure white, through beiges and browns and greys, to a brown that is almost black. The two standard strains are brown and "Black cross" which, when paired, produce numerous colour variations. When an albino mink is born, it is standard procedure in fur farms to breed it to other colour mutations in order to produce grey and light brown pastel shades. The following graph is a simplification of the main colour strains;
| Colour variant | Image | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Pastel | Pale brown and beige fur with darker guard hairs of various hues | |
| Royal pastel | Same as above, but with a bluish cast | |
| Silverblu | Bluish grey fur fibre and guard hairs which are sometimes white-tipped, giving a silvery blue tone. Pelts of this type with a brownish cast are less valuable | |
| Breath of spring | Also known as "Platinum", this variety has a brighter bluish cast than the Silverblu type | |
| Blufrost | Pale brown fur fibre interspersed with dark brown guard hair that is sprinkled with white guard hairs | |
| Kohinur | Also known as "black cross", this variety has white or cream-coloured fur fibre with a sprinkling of blackish guard hairs throughout the body, with the greatest concentrations being on the back and shoulders | |
| Cerulean | Also known as "Sapphire", this variety has bluish-grey fur fibre with mauve, blue-grey guard hair, with the greatest depth of colour being on the back | |
| Steel blue | Dull battleship grey guard hair, with lighter shaded fur fibre | |
| Lutetia | Also known as "Aleutian", this variety has gun-metal grey fur fibre and guard hair | |
As pets
Wild mink can be tamed if caught young, but can be treacherous, and are usually not handled bare-handed. In the late 19th century, tame American minks were often reared for ratting, much as ferretFerret
The ferret is a domesticated mammal of the type Mustela putorius furo. Ferrets are sexually dimorphic predators with males being substantially larger than females. They typically have brown, black, white, or mixed fur...
s were used in Europe. They are more effective ratters than terrier
Terrier
A terrier is a dog of any one of many breeds or landraces of terrier type, which are typically small, wiry, very active and fearless dogs. Terrier breeds vary greatly in size from just a couple of pounds to over 70 pounds and are usually categorized by size or function...
s, as they can enter rat-holes and drive rats from their hiding places. Because of their fondness for bathing, captive American minks may enter kettle
Kettle
A kettle, sometimes called a tea kettle or teakettle, is a small kitchen appliance used for boiling water. Kettles can be heated either by placing on a stove, or by their own electric heating element.- Stovetop kettles :...
s or other open water-containing vessels. When minks of wild stock are confined with tame ones, the latter invariably dominate the former. They have also been known to dominate cat
Cat
The cat , also known as the domestic cat or housecat to distinguish it from other felids and felines, is a small, usually furry, domesticated, carnivorous mammal that is valued by humans for its companionship and for its ability to hunt vermin and household pests...
s in confrontations. Though intelligent, mink are not quick to learn tricks taught to them by their owners. Even though domestic mink have been bred in captivity for almost a century, they have not been bred to be tame. Domestic mink have been bred for size, fur quality, and color. However, the US Fur Commission claims that "mink are truly domesticated animals" based on the number of years they have been kept on fur farms.
Literature
As an invasive speciesInvasive species
"Invasive species", or invasive exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats, with several definitions....
in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, mink have been the subject of at least two novels. Ewan Clarkson
Ewan Clarkson
Ewan Clarkson was an English author specialising in books about nature, particularly wild animals.Born on 23 January 1929, Clarkson, who before writing worked as a veterinary surgeon, was later to state that "for twenty-five years I laboured under the illusion that I was a scientist. I worked as a...
's 1968 Break for Freedom (published as Syla, the Mink in the USA) tells the story of a female mink escaped from a fur farm in a realistic
Realism (arts)
Realism in the visual arts and literature refers to the general attempt to depict subjects "in accordance with secular, empirical rules", as they are considered to exist in third person objective reality, without embellishment or interpretation...
style. On the other hand, A.R. Lloyd
Alan Lloyd
Alan Richard Lloyd is an English writer born in 1927. He is most famous for his Kine Saga fantasy books for teenagers. He has also written adult fiction and non-fiction, most notably on the history of the British monarchy. His adult work is published under the name Alan Lloyd whilst children's...
's 1982 Kine is a heroic fantasy
Heroic fantasy
Heroic fantasy is a sub-genre of fantasy which chronicles the tales of heroes in imaginary lands. Unlike stories of sword and sorcery, heroic fantasy narratives tend to be intricate in plot, often involving many peoples, nations and lands. Grand battles and the fate of the world are common themes,...
with the mink as villains and weasel
Least Weasel
The least weasel is the smallest member of the Mustelidae , native to Eurasia, North America and North Africa, though it has been introduced elsewhere. It is classed as Least Concern by the IUCN, due to its wide distribution and presumably large population...
s and other indigenous animals as heroes.
External links
- Serge Larivière, 1999. Mustela vison, Mammalian Species, American Society of Mammologists, 608: 1-9