European polecat
Encyclopedia
The European polecat also known as the black or forest polecat (as well as a host of other names), is a species of Mustelid
native to western Eurasia and North Africa, which is classed by the IUCN as Least Concern
due to its wide range and large numbers. It is of a generally dark brown colour, with a pale underbelly and a dark mask across the face. Occasionally, colour mutations, including albino
es and erythrist
s, occur. Compared to weasel
s and mink
s, the polecat has a shorter, more compact body, a more powerfully built skull and dentition, and is less agile in its movements.
It is much less territorial than other Mustelids, with animals of the same sex frequently sharing home ranges. Like other Mustelids, the European polecat is polygamous, though pregnancy occurs directly after mating, with no induced ovulation. It usually gives birth in early summer to litters consisting of 5-10 kits, which become independent at the age of 2–3 months. The European polecat feeds on small rodent
s, bird
s, amphibian
s and reptile
s. It occasionally cripples its prey by piercing its brain
with its teeth and stores it, still living, in its burrow for future consumption.
The European polecat originated in Western Europe
during the Middle Pleistocene
, with its closest living relatives being the steppe polecat
, the black-footed ferret
and the European mink
. With the two former species, it can produce fertile offspring, though hybrids between it and the latter species tend to be sterile, and are distinguished from their parent species by their larger size and more valuable pelts.
The European polecat is the sole ancestor of the ferret
, which was domesticated more than 2000 years ago for the purpose of hunting vermin. The species has otherwise been historically viewed negatively by humans. In the British Isles especially, the polecat was persecuted by gamekeepers, and became synonymous with promiscuity
in early English literature
. During modern times, the polecat is still scantly represented in popular culture when compared to other rare British mammals, and misunderstandings of its behaviour still persist in some rural areas.
, written as polcat. While the second syllable is largely self explanatory, the origin of the first is unclear. It is possibly derived from the French
poule, meaning "chicken
", likely in reference to the species' fondness for poultry, or it may be a variant of the Old English ful, meaning "foul". In Old English, the species was referred to as foumart, meaning "foul marten", in reference to its strong odour. In Old French
, the polecat was called fissau, which was derived from the Low German
and Scandinavian verb for "to make a disagreeble smell". This was later corrupted in English as fitchew or fitchet, which itself became the word "fitch", which is used for the polecat's pelt. The word fitchet is the root word for the North American fisher
, which was named by Dutch colonists in America
who noted similarities between the two species.
, Britain
and France
, and date back to the Middle Pleistocene
. The European polecat's closest relatives are the steppe polecat
and black-footed ferret
, with which it is thought to have shared Mustela stromeri as a common ancestor. The European polecat is, however, not as maximally adapted in the direction of carnivory
as the steppe polecat, being less specialised in skull structure and dentition. The European polecat likely diverged from the steppe polecat 1.5 million years ago based on IRBP
, though cytochrome b
transversions indicate a younger date of 430,000 years. It is also closely related to the European mink
, with which it can hybridise.
, cytological
and molecular
studies confirm that the European polecat is the sole ancestor of the ferret
, thus disproving any connection with the steppe polecat, which was once thought to have contributed to the ferret's creation. Ferrets were first mentioned by Aristophanes
in 450 BC and by Aristotle
in 350 BC. Greek
and Roman
writers in the 1st century AD were the first to attest on the ferret's use in bolting rabbit
s from their burrows. The first accurate descriptions of ferrets come from Strabo
during AD 200, when ferrets were released onto the Balearic Islands
to control rabbit populations. As the European rabbit
is native to the Iberian Peninsula
and northwest Africa
, it is likely that the European polecat was first domesticated in these regions.
In size and proportions, the ferret is similar to the European polecat, to the point that dark coloured ferrets are almost indistinguishable from their wild cousins, though the ferret's skull has a smaller cranial volume, and has a narrower postorbital constriction. Compared to the European polecat, the ferret has a much smaller brain, though this comparison has not been made with Mediterranean polecats, from which ferrets likely derive. The theory of a Mediterranean origin is further strengthened by the fact that the ferret is less tolerant of cold than northern polecat subspecies. The ferret is also more fertile than the polecat, producing two or more litters annually, as opposed to just one. Unlike other subspecies, which are largely solitary, the ferret will readily live in social groups. The ferret is also slower in all its movements than the polecat, and hardly ever makes any use of its anal scent glands. Overall, the ferret represents a neotenous
form of polecat.
Mustela, though it is generally more compact in conformation and, although short-legged, is not as elongated in body as the European mink
or steppe polecat
. The tail is short, about ⅓ its body length. The eyes are small, with dark brown iris
es. The hind toes are long and partially webbed, with weakly curved 4 mm long non-retractable claws. The front claws are strongly curved, partially retractable, and measure 6 mm in length. The feet are moderately long and more robust than in other members of the genus. The polecat's skull is relatively coarse and massive, moreso than the mink's, with a strong, but short and broad facial region and strongly developed projections. In comparison to other similarly sized mustelids, the polecat's teeth are very strong, large and massive in relation to skull size. Sexual dimorphism
in the skull is apparent in the lighter, narrower skull of the female, which also has weaker projections. The polecat's running gait is not as complex and twisting as that of the mink or stoat
, and it is not as fast as the solongoi
, stoat or least weasel
, as it can be outrun by a conditioned man. Its sensory organs are well developed, though it is unable to distinguish between colours.
The dimensions of the European polecat vary greatly. The species does not conform to Bergmann's Rule
, with the pattern of size variation seeming to follow a trend of size increase along an east-west axis. Males measure 350–460 mm in body length and females 290–394 mm. The tail measures 115–167 mm in males and 84–150 mm. Adult males in middle Europe weigh 1,000-1,500 grams and females 650-815 grams. Gigantism
is known among polecats, but specimens exhibiting this are likely the products of polecat-mink hybridisation.
's is; while a mink will take 118 minutes to cool in a water temperature of 8°C, the polecat cools down much faster at 26–28 minutes.
Colour mutations include albinoes and erythrist
s. In typical erythristic individuals, the underfur is usually bright reddish. The guard hairs on the trunk are bright reddish or reddish brown. Black guard hairs are absent on the lower body and head. In some rare cases, the guard hairs are so light that they are almost indistinguishable from the pale-yellow underfur. In these cases, the whole animal is very light pale golden-yellow colour.
burrows are used. Rabbit warrens are often areas of intense polecat activity. In winter, the polecat may use farm buildings or haystacks as daytime resting sites. The polecat is not as territorial as other small mustelids, having been known to share territories with other members of the same sex. There is little evidence of polecats marking their territories. Like other mustelids, the polecat is a silent animal, though it will growl fiercely when angered, and squeak when distressed. It also emits a low, mewling cry to its mate or offspring.
, then copulates for up to an hour. The species is polygamous
, with each male polecat mating with several females. Unlike with other small mustelids, there is no induced ovulation, with pregnancy
occurring immediately after mating. The gestation period
lasts 40–43 days, with litters usually being born in May-early June. Each litter typically consists of 5-10 kits. At birth, the kits weigh 9-10 grams and measure 55–70 mm in body length, and are blind and deaf. At the age of one week, the kits are covered in silky, white fur, which is replaced with a cinnamon brown-greyish woolly coat at the age of 3–4 weeks. Weaning
begins at 3 weeks of age, while the permanent dentition erupts after 7–8 weeks. The kits become independent after 2–3 months. Females are very protective of their young, and have been known to even confront humans approaching too closely to their litters.
-like rodent
s, followed by amphibian
s and bird
s. Its most frequent prey item in the former Soviet Union is the common vole
and rarely the red-backed vole
. In large river floodlands, water vole are commonly preyed upon. In winter, amphibians (especially grass frogs
and green toad
s) become an important food item. However, because amphibians have little calorific value, the polecat never grows fat on them, no matter how many it consumes. Bird
species preyed upon by the European polecat include chicken
s, pigeons, quail
s, grey partridge
s, grouse
s and various small birds. Some species preyed upon by the polecat only rarely include European hedgehog
s, asp viper
s, grass snake
s and insect
s. In the British Isles, it commonly kills brown rat
s and European rabbit
s, and is capable of killing larger prey such as geese and hare
s. One polecat was reported to frequently wait at a riverbank and catch eels, which it took back to its burrow. The polecat feeds on eels mostly during lengthy frosts when eels, unable to breathe air at regular intervals because of the ice, congregate at breathing holes. Unlike the stoat and weasel, the polecat readily eats carrion
, including that of large ungulate
s. The European polecat hunts its prey by stalking it and seizing it with the canine teeth, killing the animal with a bite to the neck. This killing method is instinctive, but perfected with practice. The polecat sometimes caches its food, particularly during seasonal gluts of frogs and toads. Sometimes, the polecat does not kill these, but bites them at the base of the skull, thus paralyzing them and keeping them fresh for later consumption. Though normally shy around humans, naturalist Alfred Brehm
in his Brehms Tierleben
mentions an exceptional case in which three polecats attacked a baby in Hesse
. During the winter period, when live prey is scarce, the European polecat may raid beehive
s and feed on the honey
.
es, and both wild
and domestic cats. Although the polecat can coexist with the European mink
(though there is one record of a polecat attacking a European mink and dragging it to its burrow), it suffers in areas where the invasive American mink
also occurs, as the latter species feeds on the same mammalian species as the polecat much more frequently than the European mink, and has been known to drive the polecat out of wetland habitats. In areas where the European polecat is sympatric with the steppe polecat
, the two species overlap greatly in choice of food, though the former tends to consume more household foods and birds, while the latter preys on mammals more frequently. There is at least one record of a beech marten
killing a polecat. The European polecat may prey on the much smaller least weasel
.
s has led to ferret-polecat crossbreeds living in the wild. Ferrets were likely first brought to Britain after the Norman Conquest of England
, or as late as the fourteenth century. It is currently impossible to distinguish pure polecats from hybrids through DNA analysis, as the two forms are too closely related and inter-mixed to be separated through modern genetic methods. Crossbreeds between the two animals typically have a distinct white throat patch, white feet and white hairs interspersed among the fur. Typically, first generation crossbreeds between polecats and ferrets develop their wild parent's fear of humans if left with their mother during the critical socialisation period between 7½ and 8½ weeks of age. Occasionally, supposed ferret-polecat crossbreeds are advertised as superior to pure ferrets for the purposes of rabbiting
, though actual crossbreeds are very likely to be less handleable, less willing to familiarise themselves with dogs, and are more likely to kill their quarry outright rather than simply flush it from its burrow.
Polecats are able to hybridise with the rare European mink
, producing offspring termed khor'-tumak by furriers and khonorik by fanciers. Such hybridisation is very rare in the wild, and typically only occurs where European mink are declining. Polecat-mink hybrids have a poorly defined facial mask, have yellow fur on the ears, grey-yellow underfur and long, dark brown guard hairs. They are fairly large, with males attaining the peak sizes known for European polecats (weighing 1,120-1,746 g and measuring 41–47 cm in length) and females being much larger than female European minks (weighing 742 g and measuring 37 cm in length). The majority of polecat-mink hybrids have skulls bearing greater similarities to those of polecats than to minks. Hybrids can swim well like minks and burrow for food like polecats. They are very difficult to tame and breed, as males are sterile
, though females are fertile. The first captive polecat-mink hybrid was created in 1978 by Soviet zoologist Dr. Dmitry Ternovsky of Novosibirsk
. Originally bred for their fur (which was more valuable than that of either parent species), the breeding of these hybrids declined as European mink populations decreased. Studies on the behavioural ecology of free ranging polecat-mink hybrids in the upper reaches of the Lovat River
indicate that hybrids will stray from aquatic habitats more readily than pure minks, and will tolerate both parent species entering their territories, though the hybrid's larger size (especially the male's) may deter intrusion. During the summer period, the diet of wild polecat-mink hybrids is more similar to that of the mink than to the polecat, as they feed predominantly on frogs. During the winter, their diet overlaps more with that of the polecat, and will eat a larger proportion of rodents than in the summer, though they still rely heavily on frogs and rarely scavenge off of ungulate carcasses as the polecat does.
The European polecat can also hybridise with the Asian steppe polecat
and the North American black-footed ferret
and produce fertile offspring. European-steppe polecat hybrids are very rare, despite their sympatry
in several areas. Nevertheless, hybrids have been recorded in southern Ukraine
, the Kursk
and Voronezh Oblast
s, the Trans-Carpathians and several other localities.
, northern Scandinavia
, and much of the Balkans
and eastern Adriatic coast. It occurs only marginally in northern Greece
. It is found in Morocco
in the Rif Mountains, from sea level to 2400 m. Its domesticated form, the ferret, was introduced in the British Isles
, and some Mediterranean islands and New Zealand
.
, therefore eliminating it was considered the only option to reduce depredations. In Kent
, for example, at least 42 parish
es paid bounties for polecats, of which three extened into the 19th century, though by this time only single individuals were recorded, and usually after gaps of many years. In the Kingdom of Scotland
, during the reign of David II
, an export duty of 4d.
was imposed on each polecat fur trimmer, which was raised to 8d. in 1424. The species held an important place in Scotland's fur markets ; the annual Dumfries Fur Fair (1816–1874) sold 400 polecat pelts in 1829 and 600 in 1831. The following year, a contemporary account described polecat skins as "a drug on the market". In 1856, the number of sold pelts decreased to 240, 168 in 1860, 12 in 1866 and none in 1869. The decline was halted with the decrease in the intensity of gamekeeping during the 20 year interval between the First and Second World Wars.
In modern times, the European polecat is found throughout most of rural Wales
and in England
from Cheshire
south to Avon
, and east to Leicestershire
and Northamptonshire
. The species was reintroduced into Cumbria
, Argyll
and on Speyside
during the 1970s and 1980s, though the current status of these populations is unknown. Its modern distribution is unclear to a certain extent because of the presence of polecat-ferret hybrids. Aside from the reintroductions, factors aiding the recovery of British polecat populations include an increase in rabbit populations and a lessening of persecution by gamekeepers. Its population has been considered viable since the mid-1990s. The European polecat is afforded both national and European protection ; it is listed on
Schedule 6 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981
and Regulation 41 of the Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994 and is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive.
A 2002 article in the The Mammal Society
's Mammal Review contested the European polecat's status as an animal indigenous to the British Isles on account of a scarce fossil record and linguistic
evidence. Unlike most native British mammals, the polecat's Welsh
name (ffwlbart, derived from the Middle English
foulmart) is not of Celtic
origin, much as the Welsh names of invasive species such as the European rabbit
and fallow deer
(cwningen, derived from the Middle English konyng and danas, derived from the Old French
dain respectively) are of Middle English or Old French origin. Polecats are not mentioned in Anglo-Saxon
or Welsh literature prior to the Norman conquest of England
in 1066, with the first recorded mention of the species in the Welsh language occurring in the 14th century's Llyfr Coch Hergest and in English in Chaucer’s The Pardoner’s Tale (1383). In contrast, attestations of the Welsh word for pine marten
(bele), date back at least to the 10th century Welsh Law
s and possibly much earlier in northern England.
, and has been in a state of decline for several decades. Nevertheless, it is listed as Least Concern on France's Red Data Book. The European polecat is rare in numerous regions or départements. In the Rhone
-Alps
region, its populations have undergone a sizeable decline since the 1990s, largely as a consequence of poisoning campaigns against muskrat
s. A 1999 study on the decline of polecats in this region indicate that the species' has little chance of surviving there. Elsewhere, the species is considered either rare or sporadic in 22 districts and absent or extirpated in 22 others. In Drôme
for example, polecat populations have been decreasing since 1975, and have disappeared in 27 communes in Isère
. Its numbers are declining in Morvan
and Ariège
, and is thinly distributed in Brittany
. Though present in Aquitaine
, its numbers have been dropping since the 1950s, and is very rare in the mountain regions. In Normandy
, the speed of the polecat's decline has somewhat decreased. In the alpine départements, its range is limited by altitude, as the species relies on more mediterranean climates to thrive. It is however especially abundant in the irrigated Crau
, but is absent on the eastern part of the area, apparently being restricted by the valleys of the Durance
and Rhone. The largest populations occur in Northern France ; Pas de Calais, Central France ; Alsace
, Lorraine
and the areas of the Loire
with the Vendée
, which holds the largest record of polecat observations. It is common in all the départements of Champagne-Ardenne
.
in the south approximately to northwest of Suoyarvi
, on the Finnish border in the north. In Karelia
, its northern border extends from the former point towards the southeast to the Spassk Bay of Lake Onega
, thereby passing around the West Karelian uplands from the south and then, passing around these uplands from the east, it suddenly ascends directly to the north passing in particular, near the western shore of Segozer
and reaches Rugozer. From there, the border line turns northeast, crossing the Lakhta
and reaching Kem on the White Sea
. From Archangelsk, the border reaches Mezen
, thus attaining the species' most northerly range. From the Mezen River
's mouth, the border abruptly returns south, approaching closer to the upper Mezen near 64° lat. From there, the polecat's northern border goes on to the upper Vychegda River
, and descends further on southwards and in the Urals. Its eastern range apparently extends along the Urals, embracing Sverdlovsk from the west. It is probably absent in the southern Urals, where the steppe polecat occurs. The southern border of the polecat's range starts in the west of the Danube's mouth and extends eastward along the coast of the Black Sea
reaching the mouth of the Dnepr, from which it moves back from the shore of the Azov Sea and, along it, goes to the mouth of the Don
. From the mouth and lower course of the Don, its range passes into the steppe region of western and middle Ciscaucasia
. The European polecat is absent from the Saratov
steppes of Transvolga
, instead being encountered only in the extreme lower Bolshoy and Maly Irgiz River
s. Further on, the border goes to the north along the Volga River
. It steeply returns east somewhat south at the Samara
bend, passing around Obshchy Syrt
, reaching the Urals at the latitude of Magnitogorsk
. Due to a possible combination of global warming
and habitat modification, the range of the polecat within the former Soviet Union has expanded northwards. From 1930-1952 for example, the polecat colonised northwestern Karelia and southern Finland.
Prior to the First World War, the Russian Empire
produced more than 50% of global polecat skins. The harvesting of polecats in Russia increased substantially after the October Revolution
, which coincided with Western Europe's decline in polecat numbers. The Russian population of polecats decreased somewhat after the Second World War, and their hunting was subsequently discouraged, as polecats were acknowledged to limit harmful rodent populations.
, influenza
, common cold
and pneumonia
. Occasionally, it is affected by malignant tumours and hydrocephaly. It commonly has broken teeth and, on rarer occasions, fatal abscess
s on the jaw, head and neck. In mainland Europe, it is a carrier of trichinosis
, leptospirosis
, toxoplasmosis
and adiaspiromycosis. There are high incidences of polecats carrying rabies
in some localized areas.
Ectoparasites known to infest polecats include flea
species such as Ctenocephalides felis, Archaeospylla erinacei, Nosopsyllus fasciatus and Paraceras melis. The tick
Ixodes hexagonus
is the polecat's most common ectoparasite, which is sometimes found in large numbers on the neck and behind the ears. Another, less common species to infest polecats is I. canisuga. The biting louse
Trichodectes jacobi is also known to infest polecats.
Endoparasites carried by polecats include the cestodes Taenia tenuicollis and T. martis and the nematode
s Molineus patens, Strongyloides papillosus, Capilliaria putorii, Filaroides martis and Skjrabingylus nasicola.
dalesmen and the Scot
s, who hunted them at night in midwinter. However, the majority of human caused deaths among polecats have been accidental, having mostly been caused by steel traps set for rabbits. Hunting polecats by moonlight was also a popular diversion among midland schoolboys. Up until the mid-19th century, polecats Britain were hunted from early February to late April with mixed packs of hunting dog
s on the Welsh hills and Lakeland fells, though otterhound
s were used on the fells, the Border country
and the Scottish Lowlands
. John Tucker Edwardes, the creator of the Sealyham terrier
, used captured wild male polecats to test the gameness of yearling terriers. In the former Soviet Union, polecats are hunted chiefly in late autumn and early winter with gun
s and hunting dogs, as well as foothold traps and wooden snares. However, even in season, hunters rarely catch more than 10-15 polecats. The species does not constitute an important element in former Soviet commercial hunting, and is usually only caught incidentally.
The European polecat is a valuable fur bearer, whose pelt (termed "fitch") is more valuable than the steppe polecat's. Its skin is used primarily in the production of jacket
s, cape
s and coat
s. It is particularly well suited for trim
mings for women's clothing. The tail is sometimes used for the making of paintbrushes. One disadvantage of polecat skin, however, is its unpleasant odour, which is difficult to remove. The European polecat was first commercially farmed for its fur in Great Britain during the 1920s, but was only elevated to economic importance in Finland in 1979. It never became popular in the USA and Canada
, due to import laws regarding non-native species. It did however gain economic importance in the USSR.
and least weasel
, the European polecat is easy to breed in captivity. According to Aubyn Trevor-Battye
, the European polecat is difficult to tame, but is superior to its domesticated form, the ferret, in bolting rats from their holes due to its greater agility. It is however prone to attempting escape once finished bolting rats, but can be easily outrun. Polecat kits can be successfully raised and suckled by mother cat
s. According to Owen's Welsh Dictionary, the Gwythelians (early Irish
settlers in Northern Wales) kept polecats as pets. Attempts to tame the European polecat are generally hampered by the adult's nervous and unsociable disposition. First generation hybrids between polecats and ferrets, conceived in order to improve the latter's bloodlines, produce animals with similar personalities to their wild parents.
are often vilifying, usually being synonymous with prostitutes and generally immoral people, as is the case in Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor
: "Out of my door, you witch, you hag, you baggage, you polecat, you runyon!". In some rural areas, the belief persists that the polecat chews off the ears of sleeping sheep and can paralyse or kill men by jumping on them from behind and biting their necks. However, in some regions, it was widely believed among farmers that allowing a polecat to nest in a chicken coop would ensure that the animal would not kill the poultry out of gratitude, and instead kill vermin. Cases in which polecats did kill poultry were attributed to animals which were guests at other farms. In Wales, it was widely believed that polecats migrated in large numbers every spring to the great peat bog of Tregaron
in order to feed on the breeding frogs there. This was later proven to be incorrect, as the climate in Tregaron is too wet for the European polecat, and it does not hold large frog populations. Compared to other endangered British mammals, such as otter
s and badgers, the polecat has received little exposure in popular media. A study conducted on rural school children showed that only 3.8% of surveyed children could identify polecats on photographs, whereas 83.7% correctly identified otters.
Mustelidae
Mustelidae , commonly referred to as the weasel family, are a family of carnivorous mammals. Mustelids are diverse and the largest family in the order Carnivora, at least partly because in the past it has been a catch-all category for many early or poorly differentiated taxa...
native to western Eurasia and North Africa, which is classed by the IUCN as Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern is an IUCN category assigned to extant taxon or lower taxa which have been evaluated but do not qualify for any other category. As such they do not qualify as threatened, Near Threatened, or Conservation Dependent...
due to its wide range and large numbers. It is of a generally dark brown colour, with a pale underbelly and a dark mask across the face. Occasionally, colour mutations, including albino
Albinism
Albinism is a congenital disorder characterized by the complete or partial absence of pigment in the skin, hair and eyes due to absence or defect of an enzyme involved in the production of melanin...
es and erythrist
Erythrism
Erythrism or erythrochroism refers to an unusual reddish pigmentation of an animal's fur, hair, skin, feathers, or eggshells.Causes of erythrism include*genetic mutations which cause an absence of a normal pigment and/or excessive production of others...
s, occur. Compared to weasel
Weasel
Weasels are mammals forming the genus Mustela of the Mustelidae family. They are small, active predators, long and slender with short legs....
s and mink
Mink
There are two living species referred to as "mink": the European Mink and the American Mink. The extinct Sea Mink is related to the American Mink, but was much larger. All three species are dark-colored, semi-aquatic, carnivorous mammals of the family Mustelidae, which also includes the weasels and...
s, the polecat has a shorter, more compact body, a more powerfully built skull and dentition, and is less agile in its movements.
It is much less territorial than other Mustelids, with animals of the same sex frequently sharing home ranges. Like other Mustelids, the European polecat is polygamous, though pregnancy occurs directly after mating, with no induced ovulation. It usually gives birth in early summer to litters consisting of 5-10 kits, which become independent at the age of 2–3 months. The European polecat feeds on small rodent
Rodent
Rodentia is an order of mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must be kept short by gnawing....
s, bird
Bird
Birds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...
s, amphibian
Amphibian
Amphibians , are a class of vertebrate animals including animals such as toads, frogs, caecilians, and salamanders. They are characterized as non-amniote ectothermic tetrapods...
s and reptile
Reptile
Reptiles are members of a class of air-breathing, ectothermic vertebrates which are characterized by laying shelled eggs , and having skin covered in scales and/or scutes. They are tetrapods, either having four limbs or being descended from four-limbed ancestors...
s. It occasionally cripples its prey by piercing its brain
Brain
The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...
with its teeth and stores it, still living, in its burrow for future consumption.
The European polecat originated in Western Europe
Western Europe
Western Europe is a loose term for the collection of countries in the western most region of the European continents, though this definition is context-dependent and carries cultural and political connotations. One definition describes Western Europe as a geographic entity—the region lying in the...
during the Middle Pleistocene
Middle Pleistocene
The Middle Pleistocene, more specifically referred to as the Ionian stage, is a period of geologic time from ca. 781 to 126 thousand years ago....
, with its closest living relatives being the steppe polecat
Steppe polecat
The steppe polecat , also known as the white or masked polecat, is a species of Mustelid native to Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia...
, the black-footed ferret
Black-footed Ferret
The Black-footed Ferret , also known as the American polecat or Prairie Dog Hunter, is a species of Mustelid native to central North America. It is listed as endangered by the IUCN, because of its very small and restricted populations...
and the European mink
European mink
The European mink , also known as the Russian mink, is a semi-aquatic species of Mustelid native to Europe. It is listed by the IUCN as Endangered due to an ongoing reduction in numbers, having been calculated as being more than 50% over the past three generations...
. With the two former species, it can produce fertile offspring, though hybrids between it and the latter species tend to be sterile, and are distinguished from their parent species by their larger size and more valuable pelts.
The European polecat is the sole ancestor of the ferret
Ferret
The ferret is a domesticated mammal of the type Mustela putorius furo. Ferrets are sexually dimorphic predators with males being substantially larger than females. They typically have brown, black, white, or mixed fur...
, which was domesticated more than 2000 years ago for the purpose of hunting vermin. The species has otherwise been historically viewed negatively by humans. In the British Isles especially, the polecat was persecuted by gamekeepers, and became synonymous with promiscuity
Promiscuity
In humans, promiscuity refers to less discriminating casual sex with many sexual partners. The term carries a moral or religious judgement and is viewed in the context of the mainstream social ideal for sexual activity to take place within exclusive committed relationships...
in early English literature
English literature
English literature is the literature written in the English language, including literature composed in English by writers not necessarily from England; for example, Robert Burns was Scottish, James Joyce was Irish, Joseph Conrad was Polish, Dylan Thomas was Welsh, Edgar Allan Poe was American, J....
. During modern times, the polecat is still scantly represented in popular culture when compared to other rare British mammals, and misunderstandings of its behaviour still persist in some rural areas.
Etymology and naming
The word "polecat" first appeared after the Norman Conquest of EnglandNorman conquest of England
The Norman conquest of England began on 28 September 1066 with the invasion of England by William, Duke of Normandy. William became known as William the Conqueror after his victory at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, defeating King Harold II of England...
, written as polcat. While the second syllable is largely self explanatory, the origin of the first is unclear. It is possibly derived from the French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
poule, meaning "chicken
Chicken
The chicken is a domesticated fowl, a subspecies of the Red Junglefowl. As one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, and with a population of more than 24 billion in 2003, there are more chickens in the world than any other species of bird...
", likely in reference to the species' fondness for poultry, or it may be a variant of the Old English ful, meaning "foul". In Old English, the species was referred to as foumart, meaning "foul marten", in reference to its strong odour. In Old French
Old French
Old French was the Romance dialect continuum spoken in territories that span roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium and Switzerland from the 9th century to the 14th century...
, the polecat was called fissau, which was derived from the Low German
Low German
Low German or Low Saxon is an Ingvaeonic West Germanic language spoken mainly in northern Germany and the eastern part of the Netherlands...
and Scandinavian verb for "to make a disagreeble smell". This was later corrupted in English as fitchew or fitchet, which itself became the word "fitch", which is used for the polecat's pelt. The word fitchet is the root word for the North American fisher
Fisher (animal)
The fisher is a medium-size mammal native to North America. It is a member of the mustelid family, commonly referred to as the weasel family. The fisher is closely related to but larger than the American Marten...
, which was named by Dutch colonists in America
Dutch colonization of the Americas
Dutch trading posts and plantations in the Americas precede the much wider known colonization activities of the Dutch in Asia. Whereas the first Dutch fort in Asia was built in 1600 , the first forts and settlements on the Essequibo river in Guyana and on the Amazon date from the 1590s...
who noted similarities between the two species.
Evolution
The earliest true polecat was Mustela stromeri, which appeared during the late Villafranchian period. It was considerably smaller than the present form, thus indicating that polecats evolved at a relatively late period. The oldest modern polecat fossils occur in GermanyGermany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
, Britain
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, and date back to the Middle Pleistocene
Middle Pleistocene
The Middle Pleistocene, more specifically referred to as the Ionian stage, is a period of geologic time from ca. 781 to 126 thousand years ago....
. The European polecat's closest relatives are the steppe polecat
Steppe polecat
The steppe polecat , also known as the white or masked polecat, is a species of Mustelid native to Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia...
and black-footed ferret
Black-footed Ferret
The Black-footed Ferret , also known as the American polecat or Prairie Dog Hunter, is a species of Mustelid native to central North America. It is listed as endangered by the IUCN, because of its very small and restricted populations...
, with which it is thought to have shared Mustela stromeri as a common ancestor. The European polecat is, however, not as maximally adapted in the direction of carnivory
Carnivore
A carnivore meaning 'meat eater' is an organism that derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet consisting mainly or exclusively of animal tissue, whether through predation or scavenging...
as the steppe polecat, being less specialised in skull structure and dentition. The European polecat likely diverged from the steppe polecat 1.5 million years ago based on IRBP
RBP3
Retinol-binding protein 3, interstitial , also known as IRBP is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RBP3 gene. RBP3 orthologs have been identified in most eutherians except tenrecs and armadillos.- Function :...
, though cytochrome b
Cytochrome b
Cytochrome b/b6 is the main subunit of transmembrane cytochrome bc1 and b6f complexes. In addition, it commonly refers to a region of mtDNA used for population genetics and phylogenetics.- Function :...
transversions indicate a younger date of 430,000 years. It is also closely related to the European mink
European mink
The European mink , also known as the Russian mink, is a semi-aquatic species of Mustelid native to Europe. It is listed by the IUCN as Endangered due to an ongoing reduction in numbers, having been calculated as being more than 50% over the past three generations...
, with which it can hybridise.
Domestication
MorphologicalMorphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
, cytological
Cell biology
Cell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
and molecular
Molecular biology
Molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry...
studies confirm that the European polecat is the sole ancestor of the ferret
Ferret
The ferret is a domesticated mammal of the type Mustela putorius furo. Ferrets are sexually dimorphic predators with males being substantially larger than females. They typically have brown, black, white, or mixed fur...
, thus disproving any connection with the steppe polecat, which was once thought to have contributed to the ferret's creation. Ferrets were first mentioned by Aristophanes
Aristophanes
Aristophanes , son of Philippus, of the deme Cydathenaus, was a comic playwright of ancient Athens. Eleven of his forty plays survive virtually complete...
in 450 BC and by Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
in 350 BC. Greek
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
and Roman
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
writers in the 1st century AD were the first to attest on the ferret's use in bolting rabbit
Rabbit
Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world...
s from their burrows. The first accurate descriptions of ferrets come from Strabo
Strabo
Strabo, also written Strabon was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.-Life:Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus , a city which he said was situated the approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea...
during AD 200, when ferrets were released onto the Balearic Islands
Balearic Islands
The Balearic Islands are an archipelago of Spain in the western Mediterranean Sea, near the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula.The four largest islands are: Majorca, Minorca, Ibiza and Formentera. The archipelago forms an autonomous community and a province of Spain with Palma as the capital...
to control rabbit populations. As the European rabbit
European Rabbit
The European Rabbit or Common Rabbit is a species of rabbit native to south west Europe and north west Africa . It has been widely introduced elsewhere often with devastating effects on local biodiversity...
is native to the Iberian Peninsula
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula , sometimes called Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar...
and northwest Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
, it is likely that the European polecat was first domesticated in these regions.
In size and proportions, the ferret is similar to the European polecat, to the point that dark coloured ferrets are almost indistinguishable from their wild cousins, though the ferret's skull has a smaller cranial volume, and has a narrower postorbital constriction. Compared to the European polecat, the ferret has a much smaller brain, though this comparison has not been made with Mediterranean polecats, from which ferrets likely derive. The theory of a Mediterranean origin is further strengthened by the fact that the ferret is less tolerant of cold than northern polecat subspecies. The ferret is also more fertile than the polecat, producing two or more litters annually, as opposed to just one. Unlike other subspecies, which are largely solitary, the ferret will readily live in social groups. The ferret is also slower in all its movements than the polecat, and hardly ever makes any use of its anal scent glands. Overall, the ferret represents a neotenous
Neoteny
Neoteny , also called juvenilization , is one of the two ways by which paedomorphism can arise. Paedomorphism is the retention by adults of traits previously seen only in juveniles, and is a subject studied in the field of developmental biology. In neoteny, the physiological development of an...
form of polecat.
Subspecies
, seven subspecies are recognised.| Subspecies | Trinomial authority | Description | Range | Synonyms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Common polecatMustela p. putorius (Nominate subspecies) |
Linnaeus, 1758 | Larger than mosquensis, with darker, fluffier and more lustrous fur | Western European Russia European Russia European Russia refers to the western areas of Russia that lie within Europe, comprising roughly 3,960,000 square kilometres , larger in area than India, and spanning across 40% of Europe. Its eastern border is defined by the Ural Mountains and in the south it is defined by the border with... , western Belarus Belarus Belarus , officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno , Gomel ,... , western Ukraine Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia... , central Central Europe Central Europe or alternatively Middle Europe is a region of the European continent lying between the variously defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe... and western Europe Western Europe Western Europe is a loose term for the collection of countries in the western most region of the European continents, though this definition is context-dependent and carries cultural and political connotations. One definition describes Western Europe as a geographic entity—the region lying in the... |
flavicans (de Sélys Longchamps, 1839) foetens (Thunberge, 1789) foetidus (Gray, 1843) iltis (Boddaert, 1785) infectus (Ogérien, 1863) manium (Barrett-Hamilton, 1904) putorius (Blyth, 1842) verus (Brandt in Simashko, 1851) vison (de Sélys Longchamps, 1839) vulgaris (Griffith, 1827) |
| Welsh polecatMustela p. anglia |
Pocock, 1936 | England England England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental... and Wales Wales Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²... |
||
| Mediterranean polecatMustela p. aureola |
Barrett-Hamilton, 1904 | A small subspecies with yellowish underfur. It may be the ancestral subspecies from which the ferret is derived, based on the characteristics of the teeth | Southern and western portions of the Iberian Peninsula Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula , sometimes called Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar... |
|
| † Extinction In biology and ecology, extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms , normally a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point... Scottish polecatMustela p. caledoniae |
Tetley, 1939 | Scotland Scotland Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the... |
||
| Domestic ferretMustela p. furo Ferret The ferret is a domesticated mammal of the type Mustela putorius furo. Ferrets are sexually dimorphic predators with males being substantially larger than females. They typically have brown, black, white, or mixed fur... |
Linnaeus, 1758 | A domesticated Domestication Domestication or taming is the process whereby a population of animals or plants, through a process of selection, becomes accustomed to human provision and control. In the Convention on Biological Diversity a domesticated species is defined as a 'species in which the evolutionary process has been... form, with a skull generally typical in conformation to the nominate subspecies, though with features in common with the steppe polecat. Typically, the dark facial fur does not extend to the nose, while the pale cheek patches are very extensive and contrast poorly with the dark mask. One or more paws may be white, with white guard hairs often being well distributed over the body, particularly on the hind quarters. |
albus (Bechstein, 1801) furoputorius (Link, 1795) subrufo (Gray, 1865) |
|
| Middle Russian polecatMustela p. mosquensis | Heptner, 1966 | A small subspecies, with relatively light, slightly fluffy fur with little lustre. | European Russia European Russia European Russia refers to the western areas of Russia that lie within Europe, comprising roughly 3,960,000 square kilometres , larger in area than India, and spanning across 40% of Europe. Its eastern border is defined by the Ural Mountains and in the south it is defined by the border with... |
orientalis (Brauner, 1929) orientalis (Polushina, 1955) ognevi (Kratochvil) |
| Carpathian polecatMustela p. rothschildi | Pocock, 1932 | A very lightly coloured subspecies, whose fur closely approaches that of the steppe polecat. | Dobruja Dobruja Dobruja is a historical region shared by Bulgaria and Romania, located between the lower Danube river and the Black Sea, including the Danube Delta, Romanian coast and the northernmost part of the Bulgarian coast... , Romania Romania Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea... |
|
Build
The general appearance of the European polecat is typical of members of the genusGenus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
Mustela, though it is generally more compact in conformation and, although short-legged, is not as elongated in body as the European mink
European mink
The European mink , also known as the Russian mink, is a semi-aquatic species of Mustelid native to Europe. It is listed by the IUCN as Endangered due to an ongoing reduction in numbers, having been calculated as being more than 50% over the past three generations...
or steppe polecat
Steppe polecat
The steppe polecat , also known as the white or masked polecat, is a species of Mustelid native to Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia...
. The tail is short, about ⅓ its body length. The eyes are small, with dark brown iris
Iris (anatomy)
The iris is a thin, circular structure in the eye, responsible for controlling the diameter and size of the pupils and thus the amount of light reaching the retina. "Eye color" is the color of the iris, which can be green, blue, or brown. In some cases it can be hazel , grey, violet, or even pink...
es. The hind toes are long and partially webbed, with weakly curved 4 mm long non-retractable claws. The front claws are strongly curved, partially retractable, and measure 6 mm in length. The feet are moderately long and more robust than in other members of the genus. The polecat's skull is relatively coarse and massive, moreso than the mink's, with a strong, but short and broad facial region and strongly developed projections. In comparison to other similarly sized mustelids, the polecat's teeth are very strong, large and massive in relation to skull size. Sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism is a phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species. Examples of such differences include differences in morphology, ornamentation, and behavior.-Examples:-Ornamentation / coloration:...
in the skull is apparent in the lighter, narrower skull of the female, which also has weaker projections. The polecat's running gait is not as complex and twisting as that of the mink or stoat
Stoat
The stoat , also known as the ermine or short-tailed weasel, is a species of Mustelid native to Eurasia and North America, distinguished from the least weasel by its larger size and longer tail with a prominent black tip...
, and it is not as fast as the solongoi
Mountain Weasel
The mountain weasel , also known as the pale weasel, Altai weasel or solongoi, is a species of weasel that prefer to live in environments that are usually high in altitude as well as rocky tundra and grassy woodlands covered in green vegetation.They rest in rock crevices, tree trunks, and...
, stoat or least weasel
Least Weasel
The least weasel is the smallest member of the Mustelidae , native to Eurasia, North America and North Africa, though it has been introduced elsewhere. It is classed as Least Concern by the IUCN, due to its wide distribution and presumably large population...
, as it can be outrun by a conditioned man. Its sensory organs are well developed, though it is unable to distinguish between colours.
The dimensions of the European polecat vary greatly. The species does not conform to Bergmann's Rule
Bergmann's Rule
Bergmann's rule is an ecogeographic principle that states that within a broadly distributed genus, species of larger size are found in colder environments, and species of smaller size are found in warmer regions. Although originally formulated in terms of species within a genus, it has often been...
, with the pattern of size variation seeming to follow a trend of size increase along an east-west axis. Males measure 350–460 mm in body length and females 290–394 mm. The tail measures 115–167 mm in males and 84–150 mm. Adult males in middle Europe weigh 1,000-1,500 grams and females 650-815 grams. Gigantism
Gigantism
Gigantism, also known as giantism , is a condition characterized by excessive growth and height significantly above average...
is known among polecats, but specimens exhibiting this are likely the products of polecat-mink hybridisation.
Fur
The winter fur of the European polecat is brownish-black or blackish-brown, the intensity of which is determined by the colour of the long guard hairs. On the back and flanks, the dark tone is brightened by bright whitish-yellowish, sometimes yellowish-greyish underfur which shows through. The lightly coloured underfur is not equally visible on different parts of the body. On the back and hind quarters, the underfur is almost completely covered by the dark guard hairs. On the flanks however, the lightening is well defined, and contrast sharply with the general tone of the back. The throat, lower neck, chest and abdomen are black or blackish-brown. The limbs are pure black or black with brown tints, while the tail is black or blackish-brown, completely lacking light underfur. The area around and between the eyes is black-brown, with a longitudinal stripe of similar colour along the top of the nose. The ears are dark brown and edged with white. The summer fur is short, sparse and coarse. It is greyer, duller and lacking in the lustre of the winter fur. The underfur is more weakly developed in the summer fur, and has a brownish-grey or rusty-grey colour. The polecat is a good swimmer, but its fur is not as well insulated against cold water as the American minkAmerican Mink
The American mink is a semi-aquatic species of Mustelid native to North America, though human intervention has expanded its range to many parts of Europe and South America. Because of this, it is classed as Least Concern by the IUCN. Since the extinction of the sea mink, the American mink is the...
's is; while a mink will take 118 minutes to cool in a water temperature of 8°C, the polecat cools down much faster at 26–28 minutes.
Colour mutations include albinoes and erythrist
Erythrism
Erythrism or erythrochroism refers to an unusual reddish pigmentation of an animal's fur, hair, skin, feathers, or eggshells.Causes of erythrism include*genetic mutations which cause an absence of a normal pigment and/or excessive production of others...
s. In typical erythristic individuals, the underfur is usually bright reddish. The guard hairs on the trunk are bright reddish or reddish brown. Black guard hairs are absent on the lower body and head. In some rare cases, the guard hairs are so light that they are almost indistinguishable from the pale-yellow underfur. In these cases, the whole animal is very light pale golden-yellow colour.
Social and territorial behaviours
Unlike the steppe polecat, the European polecat has a much more settled way of life with definite home ranges. The characteristics of polecat home ranges vary according to season, habitat, sex and social status. Breeding females settle in discreet areas, whereas breeding males and dispersing juveniles have more fluid ranges, being more mobile. It is typical for males to have larger territories than females. Each polecat uses several den sites distributed throughout its territory. Occasionally, abandoned European badger or red foxRed Fox
The red fox is the largest of the true foxes, as well as being the most geographically spread member of the Carnivora, being distributed across the entire northern hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, Central America, and the steppes of Asia...
burrows are used. Rabbit warrens are often areas of intense polecat activity. In winter, the polecat may use farm buildings or haystacks as daytime resting sites. The polecat is not as territorial as other small mustelids, having been known to share territories with other members of the same sex. There is little evidence of polecats marking their territories. Like other mustelids, the polecat is a silent animal, though it will growl fiercely when angered, and squeak when distressed. It also emits a low, mewling cry to its mate or offspring.
Reproduction and development
The European polecat is a seasonal breeder, with no courtship rituals. During the mating season, the male grabs the female by the neck and drags her about in order to stimulate ovulationOvulation
Ovulation is the process in a female's menstrual cycle by which a mature ovarian follicle ruptures and discharges an ovum . Ovulation also occurs in the estrous cycle of other female mammals, which differs in many fundamental ways from the menstrual cycle...
, then copulates for up to an hour. The species is polygamous
Polygamy
Polygamy is a marriage which includes more than two partners...
, with each male polecat mating with several females. Unlike with other small mustelids, there is no induced ovulation, with pregnancy
Pregnancy
Pregnancy refers to the fertilization and development of one or more offspring, known as a fetus or embryo, in a woman's uterus. In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations, as in the case of twins or triplets...
occurring immediately after mating. The gestation period
Gestation period
For mammals the gestation period is the time in which a fetus develops, beginning with fertilization and ending at birth. The duration of this period varies between species.-Duration:...
lasts 40–43 days, with litters usually being born in May-early June. Each litter typically consists of 5-10 kits. At birth, the kits weigh 9-10 grams and measure 55–70 mm in body length, and are blind and deaf. At the age of one week, the kits are covered in silky, white fur, which is replaced with a cinnamon brown-greyish woolly coat at the age of 3–4 weeks. Weaning
Weaning
Weaning is the process of gradually introducing a mammal infant, either human or animal, to what will be its adult diet and withdrawing the supply of its mother's milk.The process takes place only in mammals, as only mammals produce milk...
begins at 3 weeks of age, while the permanent dentition erupts after 7–8 weeks. The kits become independent after 2–3 months. Females are very protective of their young, and have been known to even confront humans approaching too closely to their litters.
Ecology
Diet
The European polecat's main source of food consists of mouseMouse
A mouse is a small mammal belonging to the order of rodents. The best known mouse species is the common house mouse . It is also a popular pet. In some places, certain kinds of field mice are also common. This rodent is eaten by large birds such as hawks and eagles...
-like rodent
Rodent
Rodentia is an order of mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must be kept short by gnawing....
s, followed by amphibian
Amphibian
Amphibians , are a class of vertebrate animals including animals such as toads, frogs, caecilians, and salamanders. They are characterized as non-amniote ectothermic tetrapods...
s and bird
Bird
Birds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...
s. Its most frequent prey item in the former Soviet Union is the common vole
Common Vole
The Common Vole, Microtus arvalis, is a European mammal.- Distribution and habitat :The common vole is hardly restricted in means of distribution and habitat and inhabits large areas of Eurasia. As Microtus arvalis followed human civilisation, primary and secondary habitats can be distinguished...
and rarely the red-backed vole
Red-backed vole
The red-backed voles are the members of the genus Myodes, a group of small slender voles found in North America, Europe and Asia. The genus name comes from the Greek "keyhole mouse". In the past, the genus has been called Evotomys or Clethrionomys, but Myodes takes precedence.They inhabit northern...
. In large river floodlands, water vole are commonly preyed upon. In winter, amphibians (especially grass frogs
Rana (genus)
Rana is a genus of frogs. Species include such archetypal pond frogs as the common frog of Europe, brown frogs, and the New and Old World true frogs, including the various species of leopard frogs and the American bullfrog. Members of this genus are found through much of Eurasia, North America,...
and green toad
European Green Toad
The species group of the green toads is an anuran group toad found in mainland Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa. They live in many areas, including steppes, mountainous areas, semi-deserts, and urban areas...
s) become an important food item. However, because amphibians have little calorific value, the polecat never grows fat on them, no matter how many it consumes. Bird
Bird
Birds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...
species preyed upon by the European polecat include chicken
Chicken
The chicken is a domesticated fowl, a subspecies of the Red Junglefowl. As one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, and with a population of more than 24 billion in 2003, there are more chickens in the world than any other species of bird...
s, pigeons, quail
Quail
Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized birds generally considered in the order Galliformes. Old World quail are found in the family Phasianidae, while New World quail are found in the family Odontophoridae...
s, grey partridge
Grey Partridge
The Grey Partridge, Perdix perdix, also known as the English Partridge, Hungarian Partridge, or Hun, is a gamebird in the pheasant family Phasianidae of the order Galliformes, gallinaceous birds...
s, grouse
Grouse
Grouse are a group of birds from the order Galliformes. They are sometimes considered a family Tetraonidae, though the American Ornithologists' Union and many others include grouse as a subfamily Tetraoninae in the family Phasianidae...
s and various small birds. Some species preyed upon by the polecat only rarely include European hedgehog
European Hedgehog
The European Hedgehog , Common hedgehog or just Hedgehog in the anglophone parts of Europe, is a hedgehog species found in northern and western Europe. It is about 20 to 30 cm in length. Adult mass typically ranges from 600 to up to 1,200 g ; occasionally, it may reach as much as...
s, asp viper
Vipera aspis
Vipera aspis is a venomous viper species found in southwestern Europe. Bites from this species can be more severe than from the European adder, V. berus; not only can they be very painful, but about 4% of all untreated bites are fatal...
s, grass snake
Grass Snake
The grass snake , sometimes called the ringed snake or water snake is a European non-venomous snake. It is often found near water and feeds almost exclusively on amphibians.-Etymology:...
s and insect
Insect
Insects are a class of living creatures within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body , three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae...
s. In the British Isles, it commonly kills brown rat
Brown Rat
The brown rat, common rat, sewer rat, Hanover rat, Norway rat, Brown Norway rat, Norwegian rat, or wharf rat is one of the best known and most common rats....
s and European rabbit
European Rabbit
The European Rabbit or Common Rabbit is a species of rabbit native to south west Europe and north west Africa . It has been widely introduced elsewhere often with devastating effects on local biodiversity...
s, and is capable of killing larger prey such as geese and hare
Hare
Hares and jackrabbits are leporids belonging to the genus Lepus. Hares less than one year old are called leverets. Four species commonly known as types of hare are classified outside of Lepus: the hispid hare , and three species known as red rock hares .Hares are very fast-moving...
s. One polecat was reported to frequently wait at a riverbank and catch eels, which it took back to its burrow. The polecat feeds on eels mostly during lengthy frosts when eels, unable to breathe air at regular intervals because of the ice, congregate at breathing holes. Unlike the stoat and weasel, the polecat readily eats carrion
Carrion
Carrion refers to the carcass of a dead animal. Carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters include vultures, hawks, eagles, hyenas, Virginia Opossum, Tasmanian Devils, coyotes, Komodo dragons, and burying beetles...
, including that of large ungulate
Ungulate
Ungulates are several groups of mammals, most of which use the tips of their toes, usually hoofed, to sustain their whole body weight while moving. They make up several orders of mammals, of which six to eight survive...
s. The European polecat hunts its prey by stalking it and seizing it with the canine teeth, killing the animal with a bite to the neck. This killing method is instinctive, but perfected with practice. The polecat sometimes caches its food, particularly during seasonal gluts of frogs and toads. Sometimes, the polecat does not kill these, but bites them at the base of the skull, thus paralyzing them and keeping them fresh for later consumption. Though normally shy around humans, naturalist Alfred Brehm
Alfred Brehm
Alfred Edmund Brehm was aGerman zoologist, natural history illustrator and writer, the son ofChristian Ludwig Brehm....
in his Brehms Tierleben
Brehms Tierleben
Brehms Tierleben is a reference book, first published in the 1860s,which made its author, Alfred Edmund Brehm ,known around the world.- Publishing history :...
mentions an exceptional case in which three polecats attacked a baby in Hesse
Hesse
Hesse or Hessia is both a cultural region of Germany and the name of an individual German state.* The cultural region of Hesse includes both the State of Hesse and the area known as Rhenish Hesse in the neighbouring Rhineland-Palatinate state...
. During the winter period, when live prey is scarce, the European polecat may raid beehive
Beehive
A beehive is a structure in which bees live and raise their young.Beehive may also refer to:Buildings and locations:* Bee Hive, Alabama, a neighborhood in Alabama* Beehive , a wing of the New Zealand Parliament Buildings...
s and feed on the honey
Honey
Honey is a sweet food made by bees using nectar from flowers. The variety produced by honey bees is the one most commonly referred to and is the type of honey collected by beekeepers and consumed by humans...
.
Enemies and competitors
The polecat may be preyed upon by red foxRed Fox
The red fox is the largest of the true foxes, as well as being the most geographically spread member of the Carnivora, being distributed across the entire northern hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, Central America, and the steppes of Asia...
es, and both wild
Wildcat
Wildcat is a small felid native to Europe, the western part of Asia, and Africa.-Animals:Wildcat may also refer to members of the genus Lynx:...
and domestic cats. Although the polecat can coexist with the European mink
European mink
The European mink , also known as the Russian mink, is a semi-aquatic species of Mustelid native to Europe. It is listed by the IUCN as Endangered due to an ongoing reduction in numbers, having been calculated as being more than 50% over the past three generations...
(though there is one record of a polecat attacking a European mink and dragging it to its burrow), it suffers in areas where the invasive American mink
American Mink
The American mink is a semi-aquatic species of Mustelid native to North America, though human intervention has expanded its range to many parts of Europe and South America. Because of this, it is classed as Least Concern by the IUCN. Since the extinction of the sea mink, the American mink is the...
also occurs, as the latter species feeds on the same mammalian species as the polecat much more frequently than the European mink, and has been known to drive the polecat out of wetland habitats. In areas where the European polecat is sympatric with the steppe polecat
Steppe polecat
The steppe polecat , also known as the white or masked polecat, is a species of Mustelid native to Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia...
, the two species overlap greatly in choice of food, though the former tends to consume more household foods and birds, while the latter preys on mammals more frequently. There is at least one record of a beech marten
Beech Marten
The beech marten , also known as the stone marten or white breasted marten, is a species of marten native to much of Europe and Central Asia, though it has established a feral population in North America. It is listed as Least Concern by the IUCN on account of its wide distribution, its large...
killing a polecat. The European polecat may prey on the much smaller least weasel
Least Weasel
The least weasel is the smallest member of the Mustelidae , native to Eurasia, North America and North Africa, though it has been introduced elsewhere. It is classed as Least Concern by the IUCN, due to its wide distribution and presumably large population...
.
Hybridisation
In some parts of the British Isles, the abandoning of domestic ferretFerret
The ferret is a domesticated mammal of the type Mustela putorius furo. Ferrets are sexually dimorphic predators with males being substantially larger than females. They typically have brown, black, white, or mixed fur...
s has led to ferret-polecat crossbreeds living in the wild. Ferrets were likely first brought to Britain after the Norman Conquest of England
Norman conquest of England
The Norman conquest of England began on 28 September 1066 with the invasion of England by William, Duke of Normandy. William became known as William the Conqueror after his victory at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, defeating King Harold II of England...
, or as late as the fourteenth century. It is currently impossible to distinguish pure polecats from hybrids through DNA analysis, as the two forms are too closely related and inter-mixed to be separated through modern genetic methods. Crossbreeds between the two animals typically have a distinct white throat patch, white feet and white hairs interspersed among the fur. Typically, first generation crossbreeds between polecats and ferrets develop their wild parent's fear of humans if left with their mother during the critical socialisation period between 7½ and 8½ weeks of age. Occasionally, supposed ferret-polecat crossbreeds are advertised as superior to pure ferrets for the purposes of rabbiting
Rabbiting
Rabbiting is the sport of hunting rabbits, often using ferrets or dogs to track the prey and various trapping and shooting methods to catch them....
, though actual crossbreeds are very likely to be less handleable, less willing to familiarise themselves with dogs, and are more likely to kill their quarry outright rather than simply flush it from its burrow.
Polecats are able to hybridise with the rare European mink
European mink
The European mink , also known as the Russian mink, is a semi-aquatic species of Mustelid native to Europe. It is listed by the IUCN as Endangered due to an ongoing reduction in numbers, having been calculated as being more than 50% over the past three generations...
, producing offspring termed khor'-tumak by furriers and khonorik by fanciers. Such hybridisation is very rare in the wild, and typically only occurs where European mink are declining. Polecat-mink hybrids have a poorly defined facial mask, have yellow fur on the ears, grey-yellow underfur and long, dark brown guard hairs. They are fairly large, with males attaining the peak sizes known for European polecats (weighing 1,120-1,746 g and measuring 41–47 cm in length) and females being much larger than female European minks (weighing 742 g and measuring 37 cm in length). The majority of polecat-mink hybrids have skulls bearing greater similarities to those of polecats than to minks. Hybrids can swim well like minks and burrow for food like polecats. They are very difficult to tame and breed, as males are sterile
Sterility (physiology)
Sterility is the physiological inability to effect sexual reproduction in a living thing, members of whose kind have been produced sexually. The term may be used in reference to* types of organism, such as the mule, a sterile hybrid;...
, though females are fertile. The first captive polecat-mink hybrid was created in 1978 by Soviet zoologist Dr. Dmitry Ternovsky of Novosibirsk
Novosibirsk
Novosibirsk is the third-largest city in Russia, after Moscow and Saint Petersburg, and the largest city of Siberia, with a population of 1,473,737 . It is the administrative center of Novosibirsk Oblast as well as of the Siberian Federal District...
. Originally bred for their fur (which was more valuable than that of either parent species), the breeding of these hybrids declined as European mink populations decreased. Studies on the behavioural ecology of free ranging polecat-mink hybrids in the upper reaches of the Lovat River
Lovat River
The Lovat River is a river in Belarus and Russia. It flows out of Lovatets Lake in northwestern Belarus, and flows north through Pskov and Novgorod Oblasts of Russia into Lake Ilmen. Its main tributaries are the Kunya, Polist, Redya, and Robya Rivers....
indicate that hybrids will stray from aquatic habitats more readily than pure minks, and will tolerate both parent species entering their territories, though the hybrid's larger size (especially the male's) may deter intrusion. During the summer period, the diet of wild polecat-mink hybrids is more similar to that of the mink than to the polecat, as they feed predominantly on frogs. During the winter, their diet overlaps more with that of the polecat, and will eat a larger proportion of rodents than in the summer, though they still rely heavily on frogs and rarely scavenge off of ungulate carcasses as the polecat does.
The European polecat can also hybridise with the Asian steppe polecat
Steppe polecat
The steppe polecat , also known as the white or masked polecat, is a species of Mustelid native to Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia...
and the North American black-footed ferret
Black-footed Ferret
The Black-footed Ferret , also known as the American polecat or Prairie Dog Hunter, is a species of Mustelid native to central North America. It is listed as endangered by the IUCN, because of its very small and restricted populations...
and produce fertile offspring. European-steppe polecat hybrids are very rare, despite their sympatry
Sympatry
In biology, two species or populations are considered sympatric when they exist in the same geographic area and thus regularly encounter one another. An initially-interbreeding population that splits into two or more distinct species sharing a common range exemplifies sympatric speciation...
in several areas. Nevertheless, hybrids have been recorded in southern Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
, the Kursk
Kursk Oblast
Kursk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia . Its administrative center is the city of Kursk.-Geography:The oblast occupies the southern slopes of the middle-Russian plateau, and its average elevation is from 177 to 225 meters . The surface is hilly, and intersected by ravines...
and Voronezh Oblast
Voronezh Oblast
Voronezh Oblast is a federal subject of Russia . It was established on June 13, 1934.-Main rivers:*Don*Voronezh*Bityug*Khopyor-Economy:...
s, the Trans-Carpathians and several other localities.
Range, history and conservation
The European polecat is widespread in the western Palaearctic up to the Urals in the Russian Federation, though it is absent from IrelandIreland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
, northern Scandinavia
Scandinavia
Scandinavia is a cultural, historical and ethno-linguistic region in northern Europe that includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, characterized by their common ethno-cultural heritage and language. Modern Norway and Sweden proper are situated on the Scandinavian Peninsula,...
, and much of the Balkans
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
and eastern Adriatic coast. It occurs only marginally in northern Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
. It is found in Morocco
Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
in the Rif Mountains, from sea level to 2400 m. Its domesticated form, the ferret, was introduced in the British Isles
British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands off the northwest coast of continental Europe that include the islands of Great Britain and Ireland and over six thousand smaller isles. There are two sovereign states located on the islands: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and...
, and some Mediterranean islands and New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
.
British Isles
In Britain, the European polecat was regarded as a serious poultry predator prior to the introduction of wire nettingChain-link fencing
A chain-link fence is a type of woven fence usually made from galvanized or LLDPE-coated steel wire...
, therefore eliminating it was considered the only option to reduce depredations. In Kent
Kent
Kent is a county in southeast England, and is one of the home counties. It borders East Sussex, Surrey and Greater London and has a defined boundary with Essex in the middle of the Thames Estuary. The ceremonial county boundaries of Kent include the shire county of Kent and the unitary borough of...
, for example, at least 42 parish
Parish
A parish is a territorial unit historically under the pastoral care and clerical jurisdiction of one parish priest, who might be assisted in his pastoral duties by a curate or curates - also priests but not the parish priest - from a more or less central parish church with its associated organization...
es paid bounties for polecats, of which three extened into the 19th century, though by this time only single individuals were recorded, and usually after gaps of many years. In the Kingdom of Scotland
Kingdom of Scotland
The Kingdom of Scotland was a Sovereign state in North-West Europe that existed from 843 until 1707. It occupied the northern third of the island of Great Britain and shared a land border to the south with the Kingdom of England...
, during the reign of David II
David II of Scotland
David II was King of Scots from 7 June 1329 until his death.-Early life:...
, an export duty of 4d.
Dupondius
The dupondius was a brass coin used during the Roman Empire and Roman Republic valued at 2 asses ....
was imposed on each polecat fur trimmer, which was raised to 8d. in 1424. The species held an important place in Scotland's fur markets ; the annual Dumfries Fur Fair (1816–1874) sold 400 polecat pelts in 1829 and 600 in 1831. The following year, a contemporary account described polecat skins as "a drug on the market". In 1856, the number of sold pelts decreased to 240, 168 in 1860, 12 in 1866 and none in 1869. The decline was halted with the decrease in the intensity of gamekeeping during the 20 year interval between the First and Second World Wars.
In modern times, the European polecat is found throughout most of rural Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
and in England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
from Cheshire
Cheshire
Cheshire is a ceremonial county in North West England. Cheshire's county town is the city of Chester, although its largest town is Warrington. Other major towns include Widnes, Congleton, Crewe, Ellesmere Port, Runcorn, Macclesfield, Winsford, Northwich, and Wilmslow...
south to Avon
Avon (county)
Avon was, from 1974 to 1996, a non-metropolitan and ceremonial county in the west of England.The county was named after the River Avon, which runs through the area. It was formed from parts of the historic counties of Gloucestershire and Somerset, together with the City of Bristol...
, and east to Leicestershire
Leicestershire
Leicestershire is a landlocked county in the English Midlands. It takes its name from the heavily populated City of Leicester, traditionally its administrative centre, although the City of Leicester unitary authority is today administered separately from the rest of Leicestershire...
and Northamptonshire
Northamptonshire
Northamptonshire is a landlocked county in the English East Midlands, with a population of 629,676 as at the 2001 census. It has boundaries with the ceremonial counties of Warwickshire to the west, Leicestershire and Rutland to the north, Cambridgeshire to the east, Bedfordshire to the south-east,...
. The species was reintroduced into Cumbria
Cumbria
Cumbria , is a non-metropolitan county in North West England. The county and Cumbria County Council, its local authority, came into existence in 1974 after the passage of the Local Government Act 1972. Cumbria's largest settlement and county town is Carlisle. It consists of six districts, and in...
, Argyll
Argyll
Argyll , archaically Argyle , is a region of western Scotland corresponding with most of the part of ancient Dál Riata that was located on the island of Great Britain, and in a historical context can be used to mean the entire western coast between the Mull of Kintyre and Cape Wrath...
and on Speyside
Strathspey, Scotland
Strathspey is the area around the strath of the River Spey, Scotland, in both the Moray council area and the Badenoch and Strathspey committee area of Highland....
during the 1970s and 1980s, though the current status of these populations is unknown. Its modern distribution is unclear to a certain extent because of the presence of polecat-ferret hybrids. Aside from the reintroductions, factors aiding the recovery of British polecat populations include an increase in rabbit populations and a lessening of persecution by gamekeepers. Its population has been considered viable since the mid-1990s. The European polecat is afforded both national and European protection ; it is listed on
Schedule 6 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981
Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981
The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 is an Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom and was implemented to comply with the Directive 2009/147/EC on the conservation of wild birds...
and Regulation 41 of the Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994 and is listed on Annex V of the Habitats Directive.
A 2002 article in the The Mammal Society
The Mammal Society
The Mammal Society is a British natural history organisation, which studies the wild mammals of the United Kingdom.It gives its mission statement as:...
's Mammal Review contested the European polecat's status as an animal indigenous to the British Isles on account of a scarce fossil record and linguistic
Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields of study: language form, language meaning, and language in context....
evidence. Unlike most native British mammals, the polecat's Welsh
Welsh language
Welsh is a member of the Brythonic branch of the Celtic languages spoken natively in Wales, by some along the Welsh border in England, and in Y Wladfa...
name (ffwlbart, derived from the Middle English
Middle English
Middle English is the stage in the history of the English language during the High and Late Middle Ages, or roughly during the four centuries between the late 11th and the late 15th century....
foulmart) is not of Celtic
Celtic languages
The Celtic languages are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic"; a branch of the greater Indo-European language family...
origin, much as the Welsh names of invasive species such as the European rabbit
European Rabbit
The European Rabbit or Common Rabbit is a species of rabbit native to south west Europe and north west Africa . It has been widely introduced elsewhere often with devastating effects on local biodiversity...
and fallow deer
Fallow Deer
The Fallow Deer is a ruminant mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. This common species is native to western Eurasia, but has been introduced widely elsewhere. It often includes the rarer Persian Fallow Deer as a subspecies , while others treat it as an entirely different species The Fallow...
(cwningen, derived from the Middle English konyng and danas, derived from the Old French
Old French
Old French was the Romance dialect continuum spoken in territories that span roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium and Switzerland from the 9th century to the 14th century...
dain respectively) are of Middle English or Old French origin. Polecats are not mentioned in Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxon literature
Old English literature encompasses literature written in Old English in Anglo-Saxon England, in the period from the 7th century to the Norman Conquest of 1066. These works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles, and others...
or Welsh literature prior to the Norman conquest of England
Norman conquest of England
The Norman conquest of England began on 28 September 1066 with the invasion of England by William, Duke of Normandy. William became known as William the Conqueror after his victory at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, defeating King Harold II of England...
in 1066, with the first recorded mention of the species in the Welsh language occurring in the 14th century's Llyfr Coch Hergest and in English in Chaucer’s The Pardoner’s Tale (1383). In contrast, attestations of the Welsh word for pine marten
Pine Marten
The European Pine Marten , known most commonly as the pine marten in Anglophone Europe, and less commonly also known as Pineten, baum marten, or sweet marten, is an animal native to Northern Europe belonging to the mustelid family, which also includes mink, otter, badger, wolverine and weasel. It...
(bele), date back at least to the 10th century Welsh Law
Welsh law
Welsh law was the system of law practised in Wales before the 16th century. According to tradition it was first codified by Hywel Dda during the period between 942 and 950 when he was king of most of Wales; as such it is usually called Cyfraith Hywel, the Law of Hywel, in Welsh...
s and possibly much earlier in northern England.
France
The European polecat is present in all of France's territories, excepting CorsicaCorsica
Corsica is an island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is located west of Italy, southeast of the French mainland, and north of the island of Sardinia....
, and has been in a state of decline for several decades. Nevertheless, it is listed as Least Concern on France's Red Data Book. The European polecat is rare in numerous regions or départements. In the Rhone
Rhône
Rhone can refer to:* Rhone, one of the major rivers of Europe, running through Switzerland and France* Rhône Glacier, the source of the Rhone River and one of the primary contributors to Lake Geneva in the far eastern end of the canton of Valais in Switzerland...
-Alps
Alps
The Alps is one of the great mountain range systems of Europe, stretching from Austria and Slovenia in the east through Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Germany to France in the west....
region, its populations have undergone a sizeable decline since the 1990s, largely as a consequence of poisoning campaigns against muskrat
Muskrat
The muskrat , the only species in genus Ondatra, is a medium-sized semi-aquatic rodent native to North America, and introduced in parts of Europe, Asia, and South America. The muskrat is found in wetlands and is a very successful animal over a wide range of climates and habitats...
s. A 1999 study on the decline of polecats in this region indicate that the species' has little chance of surviving there. Elsewhere, the species is considered either rare or sporadic in 22 districts and absent or extirpated in 22 others. In Drôme
Drôme
Drôme , a department in southeastern France, takes its name from the Drôme River.-History:The French National Constituent Assembly set up Drôme as one of the original 83 departments of France on March 4, 1790, during the French Revolution...
for example, polecat populations have been decreasing since 1975, and have disappeared in 27 communes in Isère
Isère
Isère is a department in the Rhône-Alpes region in the east of France named after the river Isère.- History :Isère is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on March 4, 1790. It was created from part of the former province of Dauphiné...
. Its numbers are declining in Morvan
Morvan
The Morvan is a mountainous massif lying just to the west of the Côte d'Or escarpment in Burgundy, France. It is a northerly extension of the Massif Central and is of Variscan age. It is composed of granites and basalts and formed a promontory extending northwards into the Jurassic sea.-Music:The...
and Ariège
Ariège
Ariège is a department in southwestern France named after the Ariège River.- History :Ariège is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. It was created from the counties of Foix and Couserans....
, and is thinly distributed in Brittany
Brittany
Brittany is a cultural and administrative region in the north-west of France. Previously a kingdom and then a duchy, Brittany was united to the Kingdom of France in 1532 as a province. Brittany has also been referred to as Less, Lesser or Little Britain...
. Though present in Aquitaine
Aquitaine
Aquitaine , archaic Guyenne/Guienne , is one of the 27 regions of France, in the south-western part of metropolitan France, along the Atlantic Ocean and the Pyrenees mountain range on the border with Spain. It comprises the 5 departments of Dordogne, :Lot et Garonne, :Pyrénées-Atlantiques, Landes...
, its numbers have been dropping since the 1950s, and is very rare in the mountain regions. In Normandy
Normandy
Normandy is a geographical region corresponding to the former Duchy of Normandy. It is in France.The continental territory covers 30,627 km² and forms the preponderant part of Normandy and roughly 5% of the territory of France. It is divided for administrative purposes into two régions:...
, the speed of the polecat's decline has somewhat decreased. In the alpine départements, its range is limited by altitude, as the species relies on more mediterranean climates to thrive. It is however especially abundant in the irrigated Crau
Crau
The Crau is the ancient confluence of the Durance and Rhône, and constitutes their vast flat alluvial fan.-Agriculture:The Crau is composed of two different parts:The dry Crau is in the south, and has been used as pasture from Roman times...
, but is absent on the eastern part of the area, apparently being restricted by the valleys of the Durance
Durance
The Durance is a major river in south-eastern France.Its source is in the south-western Alps, in Montgenèvre ski resort near Briançon and it flows south-west through the following départements and cities:* Hautes-Alpes: Briançon, Embrun.* Alpes-de-Haute-Provence: Sisteron, Manosque.* Vaucluse:...
and Rhone. The largest populations occur in Northern France ; Pas de Calais, Central France ; Alsace
Alsace
Alsace is the fifth-smallest of the 27 regions of France in land area , and the smallest in metropolitan France. It is also the seventh-most densely populated region in France and third most densely populated region in metropolitan France, with ca. 220 inhabitants per km²...
, Lorraine
Lorraine (région)
Lorraine is one of the 27 régions of France. The administrative region has two cities of equal importance, Metz and Nancy. Metz is considered to be the official capital since that is where the regional parliament is situated...
and the areas of the Loire
Loire
Loire is an administrative department in the east-central part of France occupying the River Loire's upper reaches.-History:Loire was created in 1793 when after just 3½ years the young Rhône-et-Loire department was split into two. This was a response to counter-Revolutionary activities in Lyon...
with the Vendée
Vendée
The Vendée is a department in the Pays-de-la-Loire region in west central France, on the Atlantic Ocean. The name Vendée is taken from the Vendée river which runs through the south-eastern part of the department.-History:...
, which holds the largest record of polecat observations. It is common in all the départements of Champagne-Ardenne
Champagne-Ardenne
Champagne-Ardenne is one of the 27 regions of France. It is located in the northeast of the country, bordering Belgium, and consists of four departments: Aube, Ardennes, Haute-Marne, and Marne. The region is famous for its sparkling white wine . Its rivers, most of which flow west, include the...
.
Former Soviet Union
The western border of the European polecat's range in the former Soviet Union begins from the mouth of the DanubeDanube
The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....
in the south approximately to northwest of Suoyarvi
Suoyarvi
Suoyarvi is a town and the administrative center of Suoyarvsky District of the Republic of Karelia, Russia, located northwest of Petrozavodsk. Population:...
, on the Finnish border in the north. In Karelia
Karelia
Karelia , the land of the Karelian peoples, is an area in Northern Europe of historical significance for Finland, Russia, and Sweden...
, its northern border extends from the former point towards the southeast to the Spassk Bay of Lake Onega
Lake Onega
Lake Onega is a lake in the north-west European part of Russia, located on the territory of Republic of Karelia, Leningrad Oblast and Vologda Oblast. It belongs to the basin of Baltic Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and is the second largest lake in Europe after Lake Ladoga...
, thereby passing around the West Karelian uplands from the south and then, passing around these uplands from the east, it suddenly ascends directly to the north passing in particular, near the western shore of Segozer
Lake Segozero
Lake Segozero is a large freshwater lake in the Republic of Karelia, northwestern part of Russia. It is located at . Segezha River is a major outflow from Segozero and it empties to Vygozero. After the hydroelectric power plant was built on Segezha River the surface area of Segozero have risen...
and reaches Rugozer. From there, the border line turns northeast, crossing the Lakhta
Lakhtinsky Razliv
Lake Lakhta is a lake in St. Petersburg's Primorsky District connected to the Neva Bay of the Baltic Sea by the 500-meter-long Bobylka River. The Kamenka, Glukharka and Yuntolovka rivers empty into the lake. Its area is 1.76 km², with the maximum depth of 8.3 meters...
and reaching Kem on the White Sea
White Sea
The White Sea is a southern inlet of the Barents Sea located on the northwest coast of Russia. It is surrounded by Karelia to the west, the Kola Peninsula to the north, and the Kanin Peninsula to the northeast. The whole of the White Sea is under Russian sovereignty and considered to be part of...
. From Archangelsk, the border reaches Mezen
Mezen
-See also:*Administrative divisions of Arkhangelsk Oblast...
, thus attaining the species' most northerly range. From the Mezen River
Mezen River
The Mezen is a river in Udorsky District of the Komi Republic and in Leshukonsky and Mezensky Districts of Arkhangelsk Oblast in Russia. Its mouth is located in the Mezen Bay of the White Sea. Mezen is one of the biggest rivers of European Russia. It is long, and the area of its basin...
's mouth, the border abruptly returns south, approaching closer to the upper Mezen near 64° lat. From there, the polecat's northern border goes on to the upper Vychegda River
Vychegda River
Vychegda is a river in the European part of Russia, tributary to the Northern Dvina. Its length is about . Its source is approximately west of the northern Ural Mountains. It flows roughly in western direction, through Komi Republic and Arkhangelsk Oblast. The largest city along the Vychegda is...
, and descends further on southwards and in the Urals. Its eastern range apparently extends along the Urals, embracing Sverdlovsk from the west. It is probably absent in the southern Urals, where the steppe polecat occurs. The southern border of the polecat's range starts in the west of the Danube's mouth and extends eastward along the coast of the Black Sea
Black Sea
The Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...
reaching the mouth of the Dnepr, from which it moves back from the shore of the Azov Sea and, along it, goes to the mouth of the Don
Don River (Russia)
The Don River is one of the major rivers of Russia. It rises in the town of Novomoskovsk 60 kilometres southeast from Tula, southeast of Moscow, and flows for a distance of about 1,950 kilometres to the Sea of Azov....
. From the mouth and lower course of the Don, its range passes into the steppe region of western and middle Ciscaucasia
Ciscaucasia
Ciscaucasia , also Ciscaucasus or Fore-Caucasus, is a part of the Caucasus region, and of the North Caucasus in particular.The region is at the northern foothills of the Greater Caucasus range, from the Sea of Azov in the west to the Caspian Sea in the east, separated from the East European Plain...
. The European polecat is absent from the Saratov
Saratov
-Modern Saratov:The Saratov region is highly industrialized, due in part to the rich in natural and industrial resources of the area. The region is also one of the more important and largest cultural and scientific centres in Russia...
steppes of Transvolga
Transvolga
Transvolga Region or Transvolga is a territory to the East of Volga River bounded by Volga, Ural Mountains, Northern Ridge, and Caspian Depression....
, instead being encountered only in the extreme lower Bolshoy and Maly Irgiz River
Maly Irgiz River
The Maly Irgiz is a river in Saratov Oblast, Russia, the left tributary of the Volga. It is 235 km long, its drainage basin is 3,900 km². The river is fed by snow. Above Seleznikha Maly Irgiz dries up systematically . Between November and April Maly Irgiz is frozen....
s. Further on, the border goes to the north along the Volga River
Volga River
The Volga is the largest river in Europe in terms of length, discharge, and watershed. It flows through central Russia, and is widely viewed as the national river of Russia. Out of the twenty largest cities of Russia, eleven, including the capital Moscow, are situated in the Volga's drainage...
. It steeply returns east somewhat south at the Samara
Samara, Russia
Samara , is the sixth largest city in Russia. It is situated in the southeastern part of European Russia at the confluence of the Volga and Samara Rivers. Samara is the administrative center of Samara Oblast. Population: . The metropolitan area of Samara-Tolyatti-Syzran within Samara Oblast...
bend, passing around Obshchy Syrt
Obshchy Syrt
Obshchy Syrt is a highland ridge, or plateau , in the european part of Russia. It starts north of Orenburg as a branch of the Ural Mountains and runs in a southwesterly direction to the east bank of the Volga River....
, reaching the Urals at the latitude of Magnitogorsk
Magnitogorsk
Magnitogorsk is a mining and industrial city in Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, located on the eastern side of the extreme southern extent of the Ural Mountains by the Ural River. Population: 418,545 ;...
. Due to a possible combination of global warming
Global warming
Global warming refers to the rising average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans and its projected continuation. In the last 100 years, Earth's average surface temperature increased by about with about two thirds of the increase occurring over just the last three decades...
and habitat modification, the range of the polecat within the former Soviet Union has expanded northwards. From 1930-1952 for example, the polecat colonised northwestern Karelia and southern Finland.
Prior to the First World War, the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
produced more than 50% of global polecat skins. The harvesting of polecats in Russia increased substantially after the October Revolution
October Revolution
The October Revolution , also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution , Red October, the October Uprising or the Bolshevik Revolution, was a political revolution and a part of the Russian Revolution of 1917...
, which coincided with Western Europe's decline in polecat numbers. The Russian population of polecats decreased somewhat after the Second World War, and their hunting was subsequently discouraged, as polecats were acknowledged to limit harmful rodent populations.
Diseases and parasites
The European polecat may suffer from distemperDistemper
Distemper may refer to:*A viral infection**Canine distemper, a disease of dogs**Feline distemper, a disease of cats**Phocine distemper, a disease of seals*A bacterial infection**Equine distemper, or Strangles, a bacterial infection of the horse...
, influenza
Influenza
Influenza, commonly referred to as the flu, is an infectious disease caused by RNA viruses of the family Orthomyxoviridae , that affects birds and mammals...
, common cold
Common cold
The common cold is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system, caused primarily by rhinoviruses and coronaviruses. Common symptoms include a cough, sore throat, runny nose, and fever...
and pneumonia
Pneumonia
Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung—especially affecting the microscopic air sacs —associated with fever, chest symptoms, and a lack of air space on a chest X-ray. Pneumonia is typically caused by an infection but there are a number of other causes...
. Occasionally, it is affected by malignant tumours and hydrocephaly. It commonly has broken teeth and, on rarer occasions, fatal abscess
Abscess
An abscess is a collection of pus that has accumulated in a cavity formed by the tissue in which the pus resides due to an infectious process or other foreign materials...
s on the jaw, head and neck. In mainland Europe, it is a carrier of trichinosis
Trichinosis
Trichinosis, also called trichinellosis, or trichiniasis, is a parasitic disease caused by eating raw or undercooked pork or wild game infected with the larvae of a species of roundworm Trichinella spiralis, commonly called the trichina worm. There are eight Trichinella species; five are...
, leptospirosis
Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis is caused by infection with bacteria of the genus Leptospira, and affects humans as well as other mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles.The...
, toxoplasmosis
Toxoplasmosis
Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii. The parasite infects most genera of warm-blooded animals, including humans, but the primary host is the felid family. Animals are infected by eating infected meat, by ingestion of feces of a cat that has itself...
and adiaspiromycosis. There are high incidences of polecats carrying rabies
Rabies
Rabies is a viral disease that causes acute encephalitis in warm-blooded animals. It is zoonotic , most commonly by a bite from an infected animal. For a human, rabies is almost invariably fatal if post-exposure prophylaxis is not administered prior to the onset of severe symptoms...
in some localized areas.
Ectoparasites known to infest polecats include flea
Flea
Flea is the common name for insects of the order Siphonaptera which are wingless insects with mouthparts adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood...
species such as Ctenocephalides felis, Archaeospylla erinacei, Nosopsyllus fasciatus and Paraceras melis. The tick
Tick
Ticks are small arachnids in the order Ixodida, along with mites, constitute the subclass Acarina. Ticks are ectoparasites , living by hematophagy on the blood of mammals, birds, and sometimes reptiles and amphibians...
Ixodes hexagonus
Ixodes hexagonus
Ixodes hexagonus is a tick species in the genus Ixodes. It is a parasite of the European Hedgehog....
is the polecat's most common ectoparasite, which is sometimes found in large numbers on the neck and behind the ears. Another, less common species to infest polecats is I. canisuga. The biting louse
Louse
Lice is the common name for over 3,000 species of wingless insects of the order Phthiraptera; three of which are classified as human disease agents...
Trichodectes jacobi is also known to infest polecats.
Endoparasites carried by polecats include the cestodes Taenia tenuicollis and T. martis and the nematode
Nematode
The nematodes or roundworms are the most diverse phylum of pseudocoelomates, and one of the most diverse of all animals. Nematode species are very difficult to distinguish; over 28,000 have been described, of which over 16,000 are parasitic. It has been estimated that the total number of nematode...
s Molineus patens, Strongyloides papillosus, Capilliaria putorii, Filaroides martis and Skjrabingylus nasicola.
Hunting and fur use
European polecat hunting was once a favourite sport of the WestmorelandWestmoreland
Westmoreland is a historic county in England. It may also refer to:-Places:Australia*Westmoreland County, New South WalesCanada*Westmorland County, New BrunswickJamaica*Westmoreland, Jamaica, a parishNew Zealand...
dalesmen and the Scot
Scottish people
The Scottish people , or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically they emerged from an amalgamation of the Picts and Gaels, incorporating neighbouring Britons to the south as well as invading Germanic peoples such as the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse.In modern use,...
s, who hunted them at night in midwinter. However, the majority of human caused deaths among polecats have been accidental, having mostly been caused by steel traps set for rabbits. Hunting polecats by moonlight was also a popular diversion among midland schoolboys. Up until the mid-19th century, polecats Britain were hunted from early February to late April with mixed packs of hunting dog
Hunting dog
A hunting dog refers to any dog who assists humans in hunting. There are several types of hunting dogs developed for various tasks. The major categories of hunting dogs include hounds, terriers, dachshunds, cur type dogs, and gun dogs...
s on the Welsh hills and Lakeland fells, though otterhound
Otterhound
The Otterhound is an old British dog breed, with Bloodhound ancestors, and one of the ancestors of the Airedale Terrier.-Appearance:The Otterhound is a large, rough-coated hound with an imposing head. Originally bred for hunting, it has great strength and a strong body with long striding steps....
s were used on the fells, the Border country
Border Country
Border Country is a novel by Raymond Williams. The book was re-published in December 2005 as one of the first group of titles in the Library of Wales series, having been out of print for several years. Written in English, the novel was first published in 1960.It is set in rural South Wales, close...
and the Scottish Lowlands
Scottish Lowlands
The Scottish Lowlands is a name given to the Southern half of Scotland.The area is called a' Ghalldachd in Scottish Gaelic, and the Lawlands ....
. John Tucker Edwardes, the creator of the Sealyham terrier
Sealyham Terrier
The Sealyham Terrier is a dog breed of the terrier type. The Sealyham Terrier was originally developed in Wales.- History :thumb|right|A Sealyham Terrier photographed in 1915....
, used captured wild male polecats to test the gameness of yearling terriers. In the former Soviet Union, polecats are hunted chiefly in late autumn and early winter with gun
Gun
A gun is a muzzle or breech-loaded projectile-firing weapon. There are various definitions depending on the nation and branch of service. A "gun" may be distinguished from other firearms in being a crew-served weapon such as a howitzer or mortar, as opposed to a small arm like a rifle or pistol,...
s and hunting dogs, as well as foothold traps and wooden snares. However, even in season, hunters rarely catch more than 10-15 polecats. The species does not constitute an important element in former Soviet commercial hunting, and is usually only caught incidentally.
The European polecat is a valuable fur bearer, whose pelt (termed "fitch") is more valuable than the steppe polecat's. Its skin is used primarily in the production of jacket
Jacket
A jacket is a hip- or waist-length garment for the upper body. A jacket typically has sleeves, and fastens in the front. A jacket is generally lighter, tighter-fitting, and less insulating than a coat, which is outerwear...
s, cape
Cape
Cape can be used to describe any sleeveless outer garment, such as a poncho, but usually it is a long garment that covers only the back half of the wearer, fastening around the neck. They were common in medieval Europe, especially when combined with a hood in the chaperon, and have had periodic...
s and coat
Coat (clothing)
A coat is a long garment worn by both men and women, for warmth or fashion. Coats typically have long sleeves and are open down the front, closing by means of buttons, zippers, hook-and-loop fasteners, toggles, a belt, or a combination of some of these...
s. It is particularly well suited for trim
Trim (sewing)
Trim or trimming in clothing and home decorating is applied ornament, such as gimp, passementerie, ribbon, ruffles, or, as a verb, to apply such ornament....
mings for women's clothing. The tail is sometimes used for the making of paintbrushes. One disadvantage of polecat skin, however, is its unpleasant odour, which is difficult to remove. The European polecat was first commercially farmed for its fur in Great Britain during the 1920s, but was only elevated to economic importance in Finland in 1979. It never became popular in the USA and Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, due to import laws regarding non-native species. It did however gain economic importance in the USSR.
Tameability
Unlike the stoatStoat
The stoat , also known as the ermine or short-tailed weasel, is a species of Mustelid native to Eurasia and North America, distinguished from the least weasel by its larger size and longer tail with a prominent black tip...
and least weasel
Least Weasel
The least weasel is the smallest member of the Mustelidae , native to Eurasia, North America and North Africa, though it has been introduced elsewhere. It is classed as Least Concern by the IUCN, due to its wide distribution and presumably large population...
, the European polecat is easy to breed in captivity. According to Aubyn Trevor-Battye
Aubyn Trevor-Battye
Aubyn Bernard Rochfort Trevor-Battye, MA, MBOU, FLS, FRGS, FZS was a British traveller, naturalist and writer....
, the European polecat is difficult to tame, but is superior to its domesticated form, the ferret, in bolting rats from their holes due to its greater agility. It is however prone to attempting escape once finished bolting rats, but can be easily outrun. Polecat kits can be successfully raised and suckled by mother cat
Cat
The cat , also known as the domestic cat or housecat to distinguish it from other felids and felines, is a small, usually furry, domesticated, carnivorous mammal that is valued by humans for its companionship and for its ability to hunt vermin and household pests...
s. According to Owen's Welsh Dictionary, the Gwythelians (early Irish
Irish people
The Irish people are an ethnic group who originate in Ireland, an island in northwestern Europe. Ireland has been populated for around 9,000 years , with the Irish people's earliest ancestors recorded having legends of being descended from groups such as the Nemedians, Fomorians, Fir Bolg, Tuatha...
settlers in Northern Wales) kept polecats as pets. Attempts to tame the European polecat are generally hampered by the adult's nervous and unsociable disposition. First generation hybrids between polecats and ferrets, conceived in order to improve the latter's bloodlines, produce animals with similar personalities to their wild parents.
In culture
In the British Isles, the polecat has a historically negative reputation. References to the polecat in early English literatureEnglish literature
English literature is the literature written in the English language, including literature composed in English by writers not necessarily from England; for example, Robert Burns was Scottish, James Joyce was Irish, Joseph Conrad was Polish, Dylan Thomas was Welsh, Edgar Allan Poe was American, J....
are often vilifying, usually being synonymous with prostitutes and generally immoral people, as is the case in Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor
The Merry Wives of Windsor
The Merry Wives of Windsor is a comedy by William Shakespeare, first published in 1602, though believed to have been written prior to 1597. It features the fat knight Sir John Falstaff, and is Shakespeare's only play to deal exclusively with contemporary Elizabethan era English middle class life...
: "Out of my door, you witch, you hag, you baggage, you polecat, you runyon!". In some rural areas, the belief persists that the polecat chews off the ears of sleeping sheep and can paralyse or kill men by jumping on them from behind and biting their necks. However, in some regions, it was widely believed among farmers that allowing a polecat to nest in a chicken coop would ensure that the animal would not kill the poultry out of gratitude, and instead kill vermin. Cases in which polecats did kill poultry were attributed to animals which were guests at other farms. In Wales, it was widely believed that polecats migrated in large numbers every spring to the great peat bog of Tregaron
Tregaron
Tregaron is a market town in the county of Ceredigion, Wales, lying on the River Brenig , a tributary of the River Teifi. The town is twinned with Plouvien, in Finistere, France. According to the 2001 Census, Tregaron's population was 1,183, of whom 68.8% spoke Welsh fluently.-History:Tregaron...
in order to feed on the breeding frogs there. This was later proven to be incorrect, as the climate in Tregaron is too wet for the European polecat, and it does not hold large frog populations. Compared to other endangered British mammals, such as otter
European Otter
The European Otter , also known as the Eurasian otter, Eurasian river otter, common otter and Old World otter, is a European and Asian member of the Lutrinae or otter subfamily, and is typical of freshwater otters....
s and badgers, the polecat has received little exposure in popular media. A study conducted on rural school children showed that only 3.8% of surveyed children could identify polecats on photographs, whereas 83.7% correctly identified otters.
External links
- Polecat FAQs © The Vincent Wildlife Trust 2010
- The Polecat Project
- Pictures, sightings and distribution maps of European polecats in the Netherlands
- European polecat (Mustela putorius) - ARKive.org