Ancient Chinese states
Encyclopedia
Ancient Chinese States were typified by variously sized city states and territories that existed in China prior to its unification by Qin Shi Huang
in 221 BCE. In many cases these were vassal states characterized by tribute paid to the ruling Zhou Dynasty
(1046–256 BCE). Known as Zhuhou (諸侯/诸侯), independent states or fiefdom
s would again emerge during later dynasties as a political expedient when required.
viewpoint and the Mandate of Heaven
, China was the center of the world and the incumbent emperor its only ruler; all other would-be potentates and rulers were merely vassals of the Middle Kingdom or Zhōngguó (中国/中国). As a result, from the earliest times the Chinese viewed the world as a series of concentric spheres of influence emanating outward from their capital. Within the closest circle lay the vassal states who pledged allegiance to the Zhou ruler. Apart from Zhou itself which occupied territory around its capital, each state bore the suffix Guó (国/国) meaning state or nation. Of the 150 or so states, some were little more than a small fortified town or city whilst others possessed a capital as well as other urban areas and controlled significant amounts of territory.
in 1046 BCE, the early kings made land grants to various relatives and descendants, some of which would become hereditary. These enfeoffment
s were accompanied by a title according to the Five Orders of Nobility
（五等爵位）, with only the Zhou ruler bearing the title of King or Wáng (王). Along with the land and title came a responsibility to support the Zhou king during an emergency and to pay ritual homage
to the Zhou ancestors. In the Western Yellow River
Valley, of the earliest vassal states, the State of Cai
was founded following a grant of land by the first Zhou King
to his younger brother. Other states founded at this time included Cao
, Yan
, Lu
, Wei
, and Zheng
. The central State of Song
was created as a land grant to the king of the former Shang Dynasty. On the periphery, the states of Yan
, Qi
, and Jin in the north and north east had more room to expand and grew into large states. In the south, Xiong Yi
was granted the fiefdom of Chu
, which grew powerful and its later rulers declared themselves kings. At this time, Qin in the west, and Wu and Yue in the east were considered not as civilized or "semi-barbaric" and therefore not eligible for vassaldom. In the far west the territories of Shu
and Ba
in the Sichuan Basin were not considered. Around the borders of the main states lay many smaller entities which over time would be absorbed by their larger neighbors.
nomads allied with several vassal states including Shen
and Zheng, the Zhou ruler King You
was killed in his palace at Haojing
. His son fled east and was enthroned by several vassal leaders as King Ping of Zhou
.Thus began the Eastern Zhou Dynasty when a new capital constructed a capital at Luoyi (洛邑), modern day Luoyang
. Since territory around the city was restricted because other states including Han
and Wei were already established in the area, it was impossible for the Zhou to expand their territory, a factor that became increasingly important as a survival mechanism for smaller states. New states continued to emerge whilst Chu was by this stage a powerful southern vassal, having shaken off its former “barbarian” image, as was Qin in the West.
Between the seventh and sixth centuries a four-way balance of power emerged between Qin (west), Jin (west-center), Chu (south) and Qi (east) whilst a number of smaller states continued to exist between Jin and Qi. The State of Deng
was overthrown by Chu in 678 BCE followed by Qin’s annexation of State of Hua
in 627 BCE, establishing a pattern that would gradually see all smaller states eliminated.
Towards the end of the Spring and Autumn Period wars between states became increasingly common and a pattern of alliances developed amongst the more powerful rulers.
who held power over all other vassal states to raise armies and attack mutual enemies.
Meetings were also held between the current hegemon and the rulers of the vassal states where ritual ceremonies took place that included swearing of oaths of allegiance to the current Zhou king and each other .
. All the other states gradually followed suit until Zhou rule finally collapsed in 256 BCE. States continued to emerge as in the case of Zhongshan
in the north, which was established by the nomadic Bai Di
(白翟) in the 5th century BCE and would last until 295 BCE.
By about 300 BCE, only seven states remained: Chu, Han, Qi, Qin, Yan, Wei and Zhao. Some of these built rammed earth
walls along their frontiers to protect themselves both from the other states and raids by nomadic tribes like the Quanrong and Xiongnu
. Smaller states like Zheng and Song were absorbed by their more powerful neighbors. The “non-Chinese” states of Ba and Shu were both conquered by Qin by 316 BCE.
eliminated noble titles which did not conform to his legalist
system of government; one that believed in merit rather than the privileges of birth. He forced all the vassal leaders to attend the capital where he seized their states and turned them into administrative districts classified as either commanderies or counties depending on their size. The officials who ran the new districts were selected on merit rather than by family connections.
(r. 156–141 BCE), his political advisor Chao Cuo
recommended abolition of all fiefdoms, an action that in 154 BCE led to the Rebellion of the Seven States
. During the rebellion, the King of the Wu State, Liu Bi (劉濞) revolted first and was followed by the rulers of six further states. The rebellion continued for three months until it was finally quelled. Later, Emperor Wu of Han
further weakened the power of the vassal states by eliminating many fiefdoms and restoring central control over their prefectures and counties.
Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang , personal name Ying Zheng , was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 246 BC to 221 BC during the Warring States Period. He became the first emperor of a unified China in 221 BC...
in 221 BCE. In many cases these were vassal states characterized by tribute paid to the ruling Zhou Dynasty
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
(1046–256 BCE). Known as Zhuhou (諸侯/诸侯), independent states or fiefdom
Fiefdom
A fee was the central element of feudalism and consisted of heritable lands granted under one of several varieties of feudal tenure by an overlord to a vassal who held it in fealty in return for a form of feudal allegiance and service, usually given by the...
s would again emerge during later dynasties as a political expedient when required.
Background and introduction
According to the sinocentricSinocentrism
Sinocentrism is an ethnocentric perspective that regards China to be the center of civilization and superior to all other nations. The related but distinct concept of the superiority of the Han Chinese ethnicity both within and without China is known as Han chauvinism.- Overview and context...
viewpoint and the Mandate of Heaven
Mandate of Heaven
The Mandate of Heaven is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers. It is similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings, in that both sought to legitimaze rule from divine approval; however, unlike the divine right of kings, the Mandate of...
, China was the center of the world and the incumbent emperor its only ruler; all other would-be potentates and rulers were merely vassals of the Middle Kingdom or Zhōngguó (中国/中国). As a result, from the earliest times the Chinese viewed the world as a series of concentric spheres of influence emanating outward from their capital. Within the closest circle lay the vassal states who pledged allegiance to the Zhou ruler. Apart from Zhou itself which occupied territory around its capital, each state bore the suffix Guó (国/国) meaning state or nation. Of the 150 or so states, some were little more than a small fortified town or city whilst others possessed a capital as well as other urban areas and controlled significant amounts of territory.
Western Zhou Dynasty (1046–770 BCE)
Following the overthrow of the Shang DynastyShang Dynasty
The Shang Dynasty or Yin Dynasty was, according to traditional sources, the second Chinese dynasty, after the Xia. They ruled in the northeastern regions of the area known as "China proper" in the Yellow River valley...
in 1046 BCE, the early kings made land grants to various relatives and descendants, some of which would become hereditary. These enfeoffment
Enfeoffment
Under the European feudal system, enfeoffment was the deed by which a person was given land in exchange for a pledge of service. This mechanism was later used to avoid restrictions on the passage of title in land by a system in which a landowner would give land to one person for the use of another...
s were accompanied by a title according to the Five Orders of Nobility
Chinese nobility
Chinese sovereignty and peerage, the nobility of China, were an important feature of traditional social and political organization of Imperial China. While the concepts of hereditary sovereign and peerage titles and noble families were featured as early as the semi-mythical, early historical...
（五等爵位）, with only the Zhou ruler bearing the title of King or Wáng (王). Along with the land and title came a responsibility to support the Zhou king during an emergency and to pay ritual homage
Ancestor Veneration in China
Ancestral veneration in Chinese culture is the practice of living family members who try to provide a deceased family member with continuous happiness and well-being in the afterlife. It is a way of continuing to show respect towards them, and it reinforces the unity of family and lineage. Showing...
to the Zhou ancestors. In the Western Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
Valley, of the earliest vassal states, the State of Cai
Cai (state)
The State of Cài was a Chinese state during the Zhōu Dynasty , prominent in the Spring and Autumn Period before being extinguished early in the Warring States Period .-History:...
was founded following a grant of land by the first Zhou King
King Wu of Zhou
King Wu of Zhōu or King Wu of Chou was the first sovereign, or ruler of the Chinese Zhou Dynasty. The dates of his reign are 1046-1043 BCE or 1049/45-1043. Various sources quoted that he died at the age of 93, 54 or 43. He was considered a just and able leader. Zhou Gong Dan was one of his...
to his younger brother. Other states founded at this time included Cao
Cao (state)
The State of Cáo was a vassal state in China during the Zhou Dynasty . The state was founded sometime in the 11th century BCE by Caoshu Zhènduó （曹叔振鐸）, son of King Wen of Zhou and the younger brother of King Wu of Zhou. With its capital at Táoqiū , the State of Cáo covered roughly the area of...
, Yan
Yan (state)
Yān was a state during the Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods of Chinese history. Its capital was Ji...
, Lu
Lu (state)
The State of Lu, was a Zhou Dynasty ducal vassal state before and during the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history. Founded in the 10th century BC, its dukes used Ji as their family name. The first duke was Boqin |Qi]] and to the south by the powerful state of Chu...
, Wei
Wei (state)
The State of Wei was a Zhou Dynasty vassal state during the Warring States Period of Chinese history. Its territory lay between the states of Qin and Qi and included parts of modern day Henan, Hebei, Shanxi and Shandong...
, and Zheng
Zheng (state)
Zheng （) was a vassal state in China during the Zhou Dynasty located in the centre of ancient China in modern day Henan Province on the North China Plain about east of the royal capital at Luoyang. It was the most powerful of the vassal states at the beginning of the Eastern Zhou...
. The central State of Song
Song (state)
Sòng was a state during the Eastern Zhou Spring and Autumn Period . Its capital was Shangqiu . In 701 BC, a political marriage between Lady Yong of Song and Duke Zhuang of Zheng empowered Song to manipulate the management of Zheng.- Origin :After King Wu of Zhou overthrew King Zhou of Shang,...
was created as a land grant to the king of the former Shang Dynasty. On the periphery, the states of Yan
Yan (state)
Yān was a state during the Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods of Chinese history. Its capital was Ji...
, Qi
Qi (state)
Qi was a powerful state during the Spring and Autumn Period and Period of the Warring States in ancient China. Its capital was Linzi, now part of the modern day city of Zibo in Shandong Province....
, and Jin in the north and north east had more room to expand and grew into large states. In the south, Xiong Yi
Xiong Yi
Xióng Yì , Family name : 芈, Clan name , was a ruler of the Zhou Dynasty vassal State of Chu in 11th Century BCE China...
was granted the fiefdom of Chu
Chu (state)
The State of Chu was a Zhou Dynasty vassal state in present-day central and southern China during the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States Period . Its ruling house had the surname Nai , and clan name Yan , later evolved to surname Mi , and clan name Xiong...
, which grew powerful and its later rulers declared themselves kings. At this time, Qin in the west, and Wu and Yue in the east were considered not as civilized or "semi-barbaric" and therefore not eligible for vassaldom. In the far west the territories of Shu
Shu (state)
The State of Shu was an ancient state in what is now Sichuan, China. It was conquered by Qin in 316 BC. Shu was based on the Chengdu Plain, in the western Sichuan basin with some extension northeast to the upper Han River valley. To the east was the Ba tribal confederation. Further east down the...
and Ba
Ba (state)
Ba was an ancient state in eastern Sichuan, China. Its original capital was Yicheng , Hubei. Ba was conquered by Qin in 316 BC. The modern ethnic minority Tujia people trace some of their origins back to the Ba people....
in the Sichuan Basin were not considered. Around the borders of the main states lay many smaller entities which over time would be absorbed by their larger neighbors.
Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BCE)
After an attack by QuanrongQuanrong
The Quǎnróng , literally "Dog Rong", were an ethnic group active in the north western part of China during the Zhōu and later dynasties. Their language is classified as part of the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages family....
nomads allied with several vassal states including Shen
Shen (state)
The State of Shen was a Chinese vassal state during the Zhou Dynasty ruled by the Jiāng family as an earldom. At the beginning of the Spring and Autumn Period the State of Shen was annexed by the State of Chu and became one of its counties.-Territory:Located around the states of Chén and Zhèng,...
and Zheng, the Zhou ruler King You
King You of Zhou
King You of Zhou was the twelfth sovereign of the Chinese Zhou Dynasty and the last of Western Zhou Dynasty. He reigned from 781 to 771 BCE.In 780 BCE, a major earthquake hit Guanzhong...
was killed in his palace at Haojing
Haojing
This article is about the ancient Zhou Dynasty capital, for Haojing'ao see MacauHaojing was one of the two settlements comprising the capital of the Western Zhou Dynasty , the other of which was Fēngjīng . Together they were known as Fēnghào and stood on opposite banks of the Feng River with...
. His son fled east and was enthroned by several vassal leaders as King Ping of Zhou
King Ping of Zhou
King Ping of Zhou , also referred to as Crown Prince Yijiu or King P'ing of Chou was the thirteenth sovereign of the Chinese Zhou Dynasty and the first of Eastern Zhou Dynasty...
.Thus began the Eastern Zhou Dynasty when a new capital constructed a capital at Luoyi (洛邑), modern day Luoyang
Luoyang
Luoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of...
. Since territory around the city was restricted because other states including Han
Han
-China:* China , an abbreviation or adjectival modifier for things Chinese* Han Chinese , the dominant majority ethnic group of China and overseas Chinese...
and Wei were already established in the area, it was impossible for the Zhou to expand their territory, a factor that became increasingly important as a survival mechanism for smaller states. New states continued to emerge whilst Chu was by this stage a powerful southern vassal, having shaken off its former “barbarian” image, as was Qin in the West.
Between the seventh and sixth centuries a four-way balance of power emerged between Qin (west), Jin (west-center), Chu (south) and Qi (east) whilst a number of smaller states continued to exist between Jin and Qi. The State of Deng
Deng (state)
The State of Deng was a Chinese vassal state during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and the Spring and Autumn Period ruled by the Màn family .-Territory:...
was overthrown by Chu in 678 BCE followed by Qin’s annexation of State of Hua
Hua (state)
Huáguó was a vassal state of Western Zhou that existed in what is now Henan, whose ruling elites belonged to the royal family but which was destroyed by the State of Qin in 627 BC. The population were the earlier Hua of the Spring and Autumn Period not the later Huá of the Hephthalites...
in 627 BCE, establishing a pattern that would gradually see all smaller states eliminated.
Towards the end of the Spring and Autumn Period wars between states became increasingly common and a pattern of alliances developed amongst the more powerful rulers.
Hegemons
As the power of the Zhou king’s weakened, the Spring and Autumn period saw the emergence of hegemonsHegemony
Hegemony is an indirect form of imperial dominance in which the hegemon rules sub-ordinate states by the implied means of power rather than direct military force. In Ancient Greece , hegemony denoted the politico–military dominance of a city-state over other city-states...
who held power over all other vassal states to raise armies and attack mutual enemies.
Meetings were also held between the current hegemon and the rulers of the vassal states where ritual ceremonies took place that included swearing of oaths of allegiance to the current Zhou king and each other .
Warring States Period (476–221 BCE)
In 704 BCE, Chu state leader Xiong Tong (熊通) was the first vassal ruler to declare himself equal to the Zhou when he adopted the title King Wu of ChuKing Wu of Chu
King Wu of Chu was a ruler of the Zhou Dynasty vassal State of Chu during the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history. He was the second son of Xiao'ao , and brother of former ruler Fenmao whom he is rumored to have murdered in 740 BCE in order to usurp the throne.-Biographical sketch:King Wu...
. All the other states gradually followed suit until Zhou rule finally collapsed in 256 BCE. States continued to emerge as in the case of Zhongshan
Zhongshan (state)
Zhongshan was a Di state created by the nomadic Xianyu tribe in China during the later Zhou Dynasty, in the Chinese written sources it is referred to as a state of the Bai Di .)...
in the north, which was established by the nomadic Bai Di
Di (ethnic group)
The Di were an ethnic group in China from the 8th century BCE to approximately the middle of the 6th century CE. Note that the character Di is used to differentiate this group from the Beidi , a generic term for "northern barbarians". They lived in areas of the present-day provinces of Gansu,...
(白翟) in the 5th century BCE and would last until 295 BCE.
By about 300 BCE, only seven states remained: Chu, Han, Qi, Qin, Yan, Wei and Zhao. Some of these built rammed earth
Rammed earth
Rammed earth, also known as taipa , tapial , and pisé , is a technique for building walls using the raw materials of earth, chalk, lime and gravel. It is an ancient building method that has seen a revival in recent years as people seek more sustainable building materials and natural building methods...
walls along their frontiers to protect themselves both from the other states and raids by nomadic tribes like the Quanrong and Xiongnu
Xiongnu
The Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
. Smaller states like Zheng and Song were absorbed by their more powerful neighbors. The “non-Chinese” states of Ba and Shu were both conquered by Qin by 316 BCE.
Qin (221 BCE–206 BCE)
Following his unification of China in 221 BCE, the first emperor Qin Shi HuangQin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang , personal name Ying Zheng , was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 246 BC to 221 BC during the Warring States Period. He became the first emperor of a unified China in 221 BC...
eliminated noble titles which did not conform to his legalist
Legalism
Legalism may refer to:In philosophy:* Legalism , Chinese political philosophy based on the idea that a highly efficient and powerful government is the key to social order....
system of government; one that believed in merit rather than the privileges of birth. He forced all the vassal leaders to attend the capital where he seized their states and turned them into administrative districts classified as either commanderies or counties depending on their size. The officials who ran the new districts were selected on merit rather than by family connections.
Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE)
In the early years of the Han Dynasty, the commanderies established during the Qin Dynasty once more became vassal states in all but name. Emperor Gaozu of Han (r. 202–195) granted virtually autonomous territories to his relatives and a few generals with military prowess. Over time these vassal states grew powerful and presented a threat to the ruler. Eventually, During the reign of Emperor Jing of HanEmperor Jing of Han
Emperor Jing of Han was an emperor of China in the Han Dynasty from 156 BC to 141 BC. His reign saw the limit and curtailment of power of feudal princes which resulted in the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC. Emperor Jing managed to crush the revolt and princes were thereafter denied rights...
(r. 156–141 BCE), his political advisor Chao Cuo
Chao Cuo
Cháo Cuò was a Chinese political advisor and official of the Han Dynasty , renowned for his intellectual capabilities and foresight in martial and political matters. Although not against the philosophy of Confucius , he was described by later Eastern Han scholars as a Legalist...
recommended abolition of all fiefdoms, an action that in 154 BCE led to the Rebellion of the Seven States
Rebellion of the Seven States
The Rebellion of the Seven States or Revolt of the Seven Kingdoms took place in 154 BC against China's Han Dynasty to resist the emperor's attempt to centralise the government further.-Prelude to the rebellion:...
. During the rebellion, the King of the Wu State, Liu Bi (劉濞) revolted first and was followed by the rulers of six further states. The rebellion continued for three months until it was finally quelled. Later, Emperor Wu of Han
Emperor Wu of Han
Emperor Wu of Han , , personal name Liu Che , was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty of China, ruling from 141 BC to 87 BC. Emperor Wu is best remembered for the vast territorial expansion that occurred under his reign, as well as the strong and centralized Confucian state he organized...
further weakened the power of the vassal states by eliminating many fiefdoms and restoring central control over their prefectures and counties.