Astur
Encyclopedia
The Astures were the Hispano-Celtic
Gallaecian
inhabitants of the northwest area of Hispania
that now comprises almost the entire modern autonomous community of Asturias
and the modern provinces León
, and northern Zamora
(all in Spain
), and east of Trás os Montes
in Portugal
. They were a horse-riding highland cattle-raising people who lived in circular huts of stone drywall construction. The Albiones
were a major tribe of the Astures from western Asturias
. Isidore of Seville
, gave an etymology as coming from a river Asturia, identified by David Magie with the Órbigo in the plain of León, by others the modern Esla.
and the León
, western Lugo
, Orense, and northern Zamora
provinces, along with the northeastern tip of the Portuguese region of Trás-os-Montes
. Here they held the towns of Lancia (Villasabariego
– León), Asturica (Astorga – León), Mons Medullius (Las Medulas
? – León), Bergidum (Cacabelos
, near Villafranca del Bierzo
– León), Bedunia (Castro de Cebrones – León), Aliga (Alixa? – León), Curunda (Castro de Avelhães, Trás-os-Montes), Lucus Asturum (Lugo de Llanera – Asturias), Brigaetium (Benavente
– Zamora), and Nemetobriga (Puebla de Trives – Orense), which furfilled the role of religious center.
expansion that left the Bavarian-Bohemian homeland and migrated into Gaul, some continuing over the mountains into Spain and Portugal. By the 6th century BC they occupied castros (hillforts) such as Coanna and Mohias near Navia on the coast of the Bay of Biscay. From the Roman point-of-view, expressed in the brief remarks of the historians Florus
, epitomising Livy
, and Orosius , the Astures were divided into two factions, following the natural division made by the alpine karst
mountains of the Picos de Europa
range: the Transmontani (located in the modern Asturias
, "beyond"— that is, north of— the Picos de Europa
) and Cismontani (located on the "near" side, in the modern area of León
). The Transmontani, placed between the Navia River and the central massif
of the Picos de Europa comprised the Cabarci, Iburri, Luggones, Paesici, Penios, Selini, Vincianos, Viromenicos, Brigaentini and Baedunenses; the Cismontani included the Amacos, Lancienses, Lougei, Tiburi, Orniacos, Supertii, Gigurri, Zoelae
and Susarri which dwelled around Asturica Augusta, the main Astur town in Roman times, in the Astura river valley. Prior to the roman conquest at the late 1st Century BC, they were united into a tribal federation with the mountain-top citadel of Asturica (Astorga) as their capital.
studies suggest they spoke a ‘Q-Celtic’ language akin to the neighbouring Gallaeci Lucenses and Braccarenses (see Gallaecia
).
According to classic authors, their family structure was matrilineal, whereby the woman inherits and is the owner of property.
The Astures lived in hill fort
s, established in strategic areas and built with round walls in today's Asturias
and the mountainous areas of León
, and with rectangular walls in flatter areas, similarly to their fellow Galicians. Their warrior class consisted of men and women and both sexes were considered fierce fighters.
, and references to other Celtic deities
like Taranis
or Belenos still remain in the toponomy of the places inhabited by the Astures. They may have venerated the deity Busgosu.
highlanders who raided Roman outposts in the lowlands, a reputation enhanced by ancient authors such as Florus
("Duae validissmae gentes, Cantabriae et Astures, immunes imperii agitabant") and Paulus Orosius ("duas fortissimas Hispaniae gentes"), but archeological evidence confirms that they also engaged in stock-raising in mountain pastures, complemented by substenance farming in the slopes and lower valleys. They reared mostly sheep, goats, a few oxen and a local breed of mountain horse famed in Antiquity, the Asturcon
, which still exists today. According to Pliny the Elder
, these were small-stature saddle horses, slightly larger than ponies, of graceful walk and very fast, being trained for both hunting and mountain warfare.
During a large part of the year they used the acorn
as a staple food source, drying and powdering it and using the flour for a type of easily preserved bread; from their few sown fields during the pre-Roman period, they harvested barley
from which they produced beer
(Zythos), as well as wheat
and flax
. Due to the scarcity of their agricultural production as well as their strong war-like character, they made frequent incursions into the lands of the Vaccaei, who had a much more developed agriculture. Lucan
calls them "Pale seekers after gold" ("Asturii scrutator pallidus auri").
’s army at the battle of Metaurus River in 207 BC. After the 2nd Punic War, their history is less clear. Rarely mentioned in the sources regarding the Lusitanian
, Celtiberian
or Roman Civil Wars
of the 2nd-1st centuries BC, they re-emerged from a relative obscurity just prior to the outbreak of the first Astur-Cantabrian war
at the late 1st century BC.
Led by the ex-mercenary General Gauson
, the Astures’ joined forces with the Cantabri
in a effort to forestall Emperor Augustus
’ all-out offensive to conquer the whole of the Iberian northwest, even backing an unsuccessful Vaccaei revolt in 29 BC. The Campaign against the Astures and Cantabri tribes proved so difficult that required the presence of the emperor himself to bolster the failing courage of the seven legions and one naval squadron involved. The first Roman campaign against the Astures (the Bellum Asturicum), which commenced in the spring of 26 BC, was successfully concluded in 25 BC with the ceremonial surrender of Mons Medullus to Augustus in person, allowing the latter to return to Rome
and close ostentatiously the gates of the temple of Janus
that same year. The reduction of the remaining Asture holdouts was entrusted to Publius Carisius, the Legate of Lusitania
who, after managing to trap the Asturian General Gauson and the remnants of his troops at the hillfort of Lancia, subsequentely forced them to surrender when he threatened to set fire to the town. The Astures were subdued by the Romans but were never fully conquered, and their tribal way of life changed very little.
As far as the official Roman history was concerned, the fall of this last redoubt marked the conclusion of the conquest of the Asturian lands, hencefoward included alongside Gallaecia
and Cantabria
into the new Transduriana Province. This was followed by the establishment of military garrisons at Castra
Legio VII Gemina
(León
) and Petavonium (Rosinos de Vidriales – Zamora
), along with colonies at Asturica Augusta (Astorga) and Lucus Asturum.
In spite of the harsh pacification policies implemented by Augustus, the Asturian country remained an unstable region subjected to sporadic revolts – often carried out in collusion with the Cantabri – and persistent guerrilla activity which kept the roman occupation forces busy until the mid-1st century AD. New risings occurred in 24-22 BC (the 2nd Astur-Cantabrian War), in 20-18 BC (3rd Astur-Cantabrian ‘War’) – sparked off by runway Cantabrian slaves returning from Gaul
, which were brutally quashed by General Marcus Vispanius Agrippa – and again in 16-13 BC when Augustus’ crushed the last joint Astur-Cantabrian rebellion.
province, the assimilation of the Asturian region into the Roman world was a slow and hazardous process, with its partially romanized people retaining the Celtic language, Religion and much of their ancient culture throughout the Roman Imperial period. This included their martial traditions, which enabled them to provide the Roman Army with auxiliary cavalry units (Alae), who participated in Emperor Claudius
’ invasion of Britain in AD 43-60. However, ephigraphic evidence in the form of an inscribed votive stele dedicated by a Primpilus Centurio of Legio VI Victrix
decorated for bravery in action confirms that the Astures staged a revolt in AD 54, prompting another vicious guerrilla war – unrecorded by the ancient sources – that lasted for fourteen years but the situation was finally calm around AD 68. Incredibly, they even enjoyed a brief revival during the Germanic invasions of late 4th Century AD, until being later overrun and absorbed by the Visigothic Kingdom
in the early 6th Century AD.
period in the early Middle Ages, their name was preserved in the medieval Kingdom of Asturias
and in the modern town of Astorga, León
, whose designation still reflects its early Roman name of Asturica Augusta, the "Augustan settlement of the Astures".
Hispano-Celtic language
Hispano-Celtic is a hypernym to include all the linguistic varieties of Celtic spoken in the Iberian Peninsula before the arrival of the Romans :...
Gallaecian
Gallaecian language
The Northwestern Hispano-Celtic, Gallaecian or Gallaic, is classified as a Q-Celtic language under the P-Q system and was closely related to Celtiberian...
inhabitants of the northwest area of Hispania
Hispania
Another theory holds that the name derives from Ezpanna, the Basque word for "border" or "edge", thus meaning the farthest area or place. Isidore of Sevilla considered Hispania derived from Hispalis....
that now comprises almost the entire modern autonomous community of Asturias
Asturias
The Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community of the Kingdom of Spain, coextensive with the former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages...
and the modern provinces León
León (province)
León is a province of northwestern Spain, in the northwestern part of the autonomous community of Castile and León.About one quarter of its population of 500,200 lives in the capital, León. The weather is cold and dry during the winter....
, and northern Zamora
Zamora (province)
Zamora is a Spanish province of western Spain, in the western part of the autonomous community of Castile and León.The present-day province of Zamora province was one of three provinces formed from the former Kingdom of León in 1833, when Spain was re-organised into 49 provinces.It is bordered by...
(all in Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
), and east of Trás os Montes
Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro
Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro is a historical province of Portugal located in the northeastern corner of the country. Vast plateaus, river valleys, mountains, and castles abound in Trás os Montes e Alto Douro....
in Portugal
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
. They were a horse-riding highland cattle-raising people who lived in circular huts of stone drywall construction. The Albiones
Albiones
The Albiones were a Pre-Roman Celtic tribe of the Iberian Peninsula living the north coast of modern Spain in western Asturias, probably belonging to the Gallaeci and Astur group, and mentioned by Pliny...
were a major tribe of the Astures from western Asturias
Asturias
The Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community of the Kingdom of Spain, coextensive with the former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages...
. Isidore of Seville
Isidore of Seville
Saint Isidore of Seville served as Archbishop of Seville for more than three decades and is considered, as the historian Montalembert put it in an oft-quoted phrase, "le dernier savant du monde ancien"...
, gave an etymology as coming from a river Asturia, identified by David Magie with the Órbigo in the plain of León, by others the modern Esla.
Location
The Asturian homeland encompassed the modern autonomous community of AsturiasAsturias
The Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community of the Kingdom of Spain, coextensive with the former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages...
and the León
León (historical region)
The region of León or Leonese region is a hitoric territory defined by the 1833 Spanish administrative organisation. The Leonese region encompassed the provinces of Salamanca, Zamora, and León, now part of the modern Spanish autonomous community of Castile and León.-Leonese History:Until 1833, the...
, western Lugo
Lugo (province)
Lugo is a province of northwestern Spain, in the northeastern part of the autonomous community of Galicia. It is bordered by the provinces of Ourense, Pontevedra, and A Coruña, the principality of Asturias, the State of León, and in the north by the Cantabrian Sea .The population is 356,595 , of...
, Orense, and northern Zamora
Zamora (province)
Zamora is a Spanish province of western Spain, in the western part of the autonomous community of Castile and León.The present-day province of Zamora province was one of three provinces formed from the former Kingdom of León in 1833, when Spain was re-organised into 49 provinces.It is bordered by...
provinces, along with the northeastern tip of the Portuguese region of Trás-os-Montes
Trás-os-Montes (region)
Trás-os-Montes was one of the 13 regions of continental Portugal identified by geographer Amorim Girão, in a study published between 1927 and 1930.Together with Alto Douro it formed Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro Province.- See also :...
. Here they held the towns of Lancia (Villasabariego
Villasabariego
Villasabariego is a municipality located in the province of León, Castile and León, Spain. According to the 2004 census , the municipality has a population of 1,182 inhabitants....
– León), Asturica (Astorga – León), Mons Medullius (Las Medulas
Las Médulas
Las Médulas is a historical site near the town of Ponferrada in the region of El Bierzo , which used to be the most important gold mine in the Roman Empire...
? – León), Bergidum (Cacabelos
Cacabelos
Cacabelos is a village and municipality located in the region of El Bierzo . According to the 2010 census , Cacabelos has a population of 5,498 inhabitants. It is well known for its wines....
, near Villafranca del Bierzo
Villafranca del Bierzo
thumb|250px|Castle of Villafranca.Vilafranca del Bierzo is a village and municipality located in the comarca of El Bierzo, in the province of León, Castile and León, Spain.It is one of Galician speaking councils of Castilla y León....
– León), Bedunia (Castro de Cebrones – León), Aliga (Alixa? – León), Curunda (Castro de Avelhães, Trás-os-Montes), Lucus Asturum (Lugo de Llanera – Asturias), Brigaetium (Benavente
Benavente
Benavente may refer to: Benavente, Portugal— a municipality in Portugal Benavente, Zamora— a municipality in Zamora province, Spain Benavente, Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico one of the five Barrios that make up Hormigueros.As a surname...
– Zamora), and Nemetobriga (Puebla de Trives – Orense), which furfilled the role of religious center.
Origins
The Astures may have been part of the early HallstattHallstatt culture
The Hallstatt culture was the predominant Central European culture from the 8th to 6th centuries BC , developing out of the Urnfield culture of the 12th century BC and followed in much of Central Europe by the La Tène culture.By the 6th century BC, the Hallstatt culture extended for some...
expansion that left the Bavarian-Bohemian homeland and migrated into Gaul, some continuing over the mountains into Spain and Portugal. By the 6th century BC they occupied castros (hillforts) such as Coanna and Mohias near Navia on the coast of the Bay of Biscay. From the Roman point-of-view, expressed in the brief remarks of the historians Florus
Florus
Florus, Roman historian, lived in the time of Trajan and Hadrian.He compiled, chiefly from Livy, a brief sketch of the history of Rome from the foundation of the city to the closing of the temple of Janus by Augustus . The work, which is called Epitome de T...
, epitomising Livy
Livy
Titus Livius — known as Livy in English — was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people. Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Chapters from the Foundation of the City," covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC...
, and Orosius , the Astures were divided into two factions, following the natural division made by the alpine karst
KARST
Kilometer-square Area Radio Synthesis Telescope is a Chinese telescope project to which FAST is a forerunner. KARST is a set of large spherical reflectors on karst landforms, which are bowlshaped limestone sinkholes named after the Kras region in Slovenia and Northern Italy. It will consist of...
mountains of the Picos de Europa
Picos de Europa
The Picos de Europa is a range of mountains 20 km inland from the northern coast of Spain, located in the Autonomous Communities of Asturias, Cantabria and Castile and León, forming part of the Cantabrian Mountains...
range: the Transmontani (located in the modern Asturias
Asturias
The Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community of the Kingdom of Spain, coextensive with the former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages...
, "beyond"— that is, north of— the Picos de Europa
Picos de Europa
The Picos de Europa is a range of mountains 20 km inland from the northern coast of Spain, located in the Autonomous Communities of Asturias, Cantabria and Castile and León, forming part of the Cantabrian Mountains...
) and Cismontani (located on the "near" side, in the modern area of León
León (province)
León is a province of northwestern Spain, in the northwestern part of the autonomous community of Castile and León.About one quarter of its population of 500,200 lives in the capital, León. The weather is cold and dry during the winter....
). The Transmontani, placed between the Navia River and the central massif
Massif
In geology, a massif is a section of a planet's crust that is demarcated by faults or flexures. In the movement of the crust, a massif tends to retain its internal structure while being displaced as a whole...
of the Picos de Europa comprised the Cabarci, Iburri, Luggones, Paesici, Penios, Selini, Vincianos, Viromenicos, Brigaentini and Baedunenses; the Cismontani included the Amacos, Lancienses, Lougei, Tiburi, Orniacos, Supertii, Gigurri, Zoelae
Zoelae
The Zoelae were an ancient Celtic tribe of Gallaecia, living in the north of modern Portugal, in the province of Trás-os-Montes, between the mountains of Serra da Nogueira and the mountains of Mogadouro.-External links:*...
and Susarri which dwelled around Asturica Augusta, the main Astur town in Roman times, in the Astura river valley. Prior to the roman conquest at the late 1st Century BC, they were united into a tribal federation with the mountain-top citadel of Asturica (Astorga) as their capital.
Culture
Recent epigraphicEpigraphy
Epigraphy Epigraphy Epigraphy (from the , literally "on-writing", is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs as writing; that is, the science of identifying the graphemes and of classifying their use as to cultural context and date, elucidating their meaning and assessing what conclusions can be...
studies suggest they spoke a ‘Q-Celtic’ language akin to the neighbouring Gallaeci Lucenses and Braccarenses (see Gallaecia
Gallaecia
Gallaecia or Callaecia, also known as Hispania Gallaecia, was the name of a Roman province and an early Mediaeval kingdom that comprised a territory in the north-west of Hispania...
).
According to classic authors, their family structure was matrilineal, whereby the woman inherits and is the owner of property.
The Astures lived in hill fort
Hill fort
A hill fort is a type of earthworks used as a fortified refuge or defended settlement, located to exploit a rise in elevation for defensive advantage. They are typically European and of the Bronze and Iron Ages. Some were used in the post-Roman period...
s, established in strategic areas and built with round walls in today's Asturias
Asturias
The Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community of the Kingdom of Spain, coextensive with the former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages...
and the mountainous areas of León
León (province)
León is a province of northwestern Spain, in the northwestern part of the autonomous community of Castile and León.About one quarter of its population of 500,200 lives in the capital, León. The weather is cold and dry during the winter....
, and with rectangular walls in flatter areas, similarly to their fellow Galicians. Their warrior class consisted of men and women and both sexes were considered fierce fighters.
Religion
Most of their tribes, like the Lugones, worshipped the Celtic god LughLugh
Lug or Lugh is an Irish deity represented in mythological texts as a hero and High King of the distant past. He is known by the epithets Lámhfhada , for his skill with a spear or sling, Ildánach , Samhildánach , Lonnbeimnech and Macnia , and by the...
, and references to other Celtic deities
Celtic polytheism
Celtic polytheism, commonly known as Celtic paganism, refers to the religious beliefs and practices adhered to by the Iron Age peoples of Western Europe now known as the Celts, roughly between 500 BCE and 500 CE, spanning the La Tène period and the Roman era, and in the case of the Insular Celts...
like Taranis
Taranis
In Celtic mythology Taranis was the god of thunder worshipped essentially in Gaul, the British Isles, but also in the Rhineland and Danube regions amongst others, and mentioned, along with Esus and Toutatis as part of a sacred triad, by the Roman poet Lucan in his epic poem Pharsalia as a Celtic...
or Belenos still remain in the toponomy of the places inhabited by the Astures. They may have venerated the deity Busgosu.
Way of life
The Astures were vigorous hunters and gatherersHunter-gatherer
A hunter-gatherer or forage society is one in which most or all food is obtained from wild plants and animals, in contrast to agricultural societies which rely mainly on domesticated species. Hunting and gathering was the ancestral subsistence mode of Homo, and all modern humans were...
highlanders who raided Roman outposts in the lowlands, a reputation enhanced by ancient authors such as Florus
Florus
Florus, Roman historian, lived in the time of Trajan and Hadrian.He compiled, chiefly from Livy, a brief sketch of the history of Rome from the foundation of the city to the closing of the temple of Janus by Augustus . The work, which is called Epitome de T...
("Duae validissmae gentes, Cantabriae et Astures, immunes imperii agitabant") and Paulus Orosius ("duas fortissimas Hispaniae gentes"), but archeological evidence confirms that they also engaged in stock-raising in mountain pastures, complemented by substenance farming in the slopes and lower valleys. They reared mostly sheep, goats, a few oxen and a local breed of mountain horse famed in Antiquity, the Asturcon
Asturcón
The Asturcón is a pony from the Asturias region of northern Spain. The ancient breed's ancestry is not known, although it is thought to have been from crosses between the Sorraia, Garrano, and the ancient Celtic pony...
, which still exists today. According to Pliny the Elder
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
, these were small-stature saddle horses, slightly larger than ponies, of graceful walk and very fast, being trained for both hunting and mountain warfare.
During a large part of the year they used the acorn
Acorn
The acorn, or oak nut, is the nut of the oaks and their close relatives . It usually contains a single seed , enclosed in a tough, leathery shell, and borne in a cup-shaped cupule. Acorns vary from 1–6 cm long and 0.8–4 cm broad...
as a staple food source, drying and powdering it and using the flour for a type of easily preserved bread; from their few sown fields during the pre-Roman period, they harvested barley
Barley
Barley is a major cereal grain, a member of the grass family. It serves as a major animal fodder, as a base malt for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods...
from which they produced beer
Beer
Beer is the world's most widely consumed andprobably oldest alcoholic beverage; it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of sugars, mainly derived from malted cereal grains, most commonly malted barley and malted wheat...
(Zythos), as well as wheat
Wheat
Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region of the Near East, but now cultivated worldwide. In 2007 world production of wheat was 607 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize and rice...
and flax
Flax
Flax is a member of the genus Linum in the family Linaceae. It is native to the region extending from the eastern Mediterranean to India and was probably first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent...
. Due to the scarcity of their agricultural production as well as their strong war-like character, they made frequent incursions into the lands of the Vaccaei, who had a much more developed agriculture. Lucan
Marcus Annaeus Lucanus
Marcus Annaeus Lucanus , better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman poet, born in Corduba , in the Hispania Baetica. Despite his short life, he is regarded as one of the outstanding figures of the Imperial Latin period...
calls them "Pale seekers after gold" ("Asturii scrutator pallidus auri").
History
The Astures entered the historical record at the late 3rd Century BC, being listed amongst the Spanish mercenaries of Hasdrubal BarcaHasdrubal Barca
Hasdrubal was Hamilcar Barca's second son and a Carthaginian general in the Second Punic War. He was a younger brother of the much more famous Hannibal.-Youth and Iberian leadership:...
’s army at the battle of Metaurus River in 207 BC. After the 2nd Punic War, their history is less clear. Rarely mentioned in the sources regarding the Lusitanian
Lusitanian
Lusitanian may refer to:*Lusitanians, an ancient people of western Iberian Peninsula.**Lusitanian language, the language of the ancient Lusitanians.**Lusitanian mythology, the mythology of the ancient Lusitanians....
, Celtiberian
Celtiberians
The Celtiberians were Celtic-speaking people of the Iberian Peninsula in the final centuries BC. The group used the Celtic Celtiberian language.Archaeologically, the Celtiberians participated in the Hallstatt culture in what is now north-central Spain...
or Roman Civil Wars
Roman civil wars
There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the late Republic. The most famous of these are the war in the 40s BC between Julius Caesar and the optimate faction of the senatorial elite initially led by Pompey and the subsequent war between Caesar's successors, Octavian and Mark Antony in...
of the 2nd-1st centuries BC, they re-emerged from a relative obscurity just prior to the outbreak of the first Astur-Cantabrian war
Cantabrian Wars
The Cantabrian Wars occurred during the Roman conquest of the modern provinces of Cantabria, Asturias and León, against the Asturs and the Cantabri. They were the final stage of the conquest of Hispania.-Antecedents:...
at the late 1st century BC.
Led by the ex-mercenary General Gauson
Gausón
Gausón was a semi-legendary Astur general who fought the Romans in the Astur-Cantabrian Wars .Little is known about Gausón due to the lack of classical sources, but historical codexes, oral tradition and other several sources do mention his presence on the Cantabrian Wars as a military leader of...
, the Astures’ joined forces with the Cantabri
Cantabri
The Cantabri were a pre-Roman Celtic people which lived in the northern Atlantic coastal region of ancient Hispania, from the 4th to late 1st centuries BC.-Origins:...
in a effort to forestall Emperor Augustus
Augustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
’ all-out offensive to conquer the whole of the Iberian northwest, even backing an unsuccessful Vaccaei revolt in 29 BC. The Campaign against the Astures and Cantabri tribes proved so difficult that required the presence of the emperor himself to bolster the failing courage of the seven legions and one naval squadron involved. The first Roman campaign against the Astures (the Bellum Asturicum), which commenced in the spring of 26 BC, was successfully concluded in 25 BC with the ceremonial surrender of Mons Medullus to Augustus in person, allowing the latter to return to Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
and close ostentatiously the gates of the temple of Janus
Janus
-General:*Janus , the two-faced Roman god of gates, doors, doorways, beginnings, and endings*Janus , a moon of Saturn*Janus Patera, a shallow volcanic crater on Io, a moon of Jupiter...
that same year. The reduction of the remaining Asture holdouts was entrusted to Publius Carisius, the Legate of Lusitania
Lusitania
Lusitania or Hispania Lusitania was an ancient Roman province including approximately all of modern Portugal south of the Douro river and part of modern Spain . It was named after the Lusitani or Lusitanian people...
who, after managing to trap the Asturian General Gauson and the remnants of his troops at the hillfort of Lancia, subsequentely forced them to surrender when he threatened to set fire to the town. The Astures were subdued by the Romans but were never fully conquered, and their tribal way of life changed very little.
As far as the official Roman history was concerned, the fall of this last redoubt marked the conclusion of the conquest of the Asturian lands, hencefoward included alongside Gallaecia
Gallaecia
Gallaecia or Callaecia, also known as Hispania Gallaecia, was the name of a Roman province and an early Mediaeval kingdom that comprised a territory in the north-west of Hispania...
and Cantabria
Cantabria
Cantabria is a Spanish historical region and autonomous community with Santander as its capital city. It is bordered on the east by the Basque Autonomous Community , on the south by Castile and León , on the west by the Principality of Asturias, and on the north by the Cantabrian Sea.Cantabria...
into the new Transduriana Province. This was followed by the establishment of military garrisons at Castra
Castra
The Latin word castra, with its singular castrum, was used by the ancient Romans to mean buildings or plots of land reserved to or constructed for use as a military defensive position. The word appears in both Oscan and Umbrian as well as in Latin. It may have descended from Indo-European to Italic...
Legio VII Gemina
Legio VII Gemina
Legio septima Gemina was a Roman legion; its full name was Legio VII Gemina Felix. VII Gemina dates back to the Year of the four emperors , when the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, Galba, levied a legion to march on Rome...
(León
León, Spain
León is the capital of the province of León in the autonomous community of Castile and León, situated in the northwest of Spain. Its city population of 136,985 makes it the largest municipality in the province, accounting for more than one quarter of the province's population...
) and Petavonium (Rosinos de Vidriales – Zamora
Zamora, Spain
Zamora is a city in Castile and León, Spain, the capital of the province of Zamora. It lies on a rocky hill in the northwest, near the frontier with Portugal and crossed by the Duero river, which is some 50 km downstream as it reaches the Portuguese frontier...
), along with colonies at Asturica Augusta (Astorga) and Lucus Asturum.
In spite of the harsh pacification policies implemented by Augustus, the Asturian country remained an unstable region subjected to sporadic revolts – often carried out in collusion with the Cantabri – and persistent guerrilla activity which kept the roman occupation forces busy until the mid-1st century AD. New risings occurred in 24-22 BC (the 2nd Astur-Cantabrian War), in 20-18 BC (3rd Astur-Cantabrian ‘War’) – sparked off by runway Cantabrian slaves returning from Gaul
Gaul
Gaul was a region of Western Europe during the Iron Age and Roman era, encompassing present day France, Luxembourg and Belgium, most of Switzerland, the western part of Northern Italy, as well as the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the left bank of the Rhine. The Gauls were the speakers of...
, which were brutally quashed by General Marcus Vispanius Agrippa – and again in 16-13 BC when Augustus’ crushed the last joint Astur-Cantabrian rebellion.
Romanization
Aggregated to the Hispania TarraconensisHispania Tarraconensis
Hispania Tarraconensis was one of three Roman provinces in Hispania. It encompassed much of the Mediterranean coast of Spain along with the central plateau. Southern Spain, the region now called Andalusia, was the province of Hispania Baetica...
province, the assimilation of the Asturian region into the Roman world was a slow and hazardous process, with its partially romanized people retaining the Celtic language, Religion and much of their ancient culture throughout the Roman Imperial period. This included their martial traditions, which enabled them to provide the Roman Army with auxiliary cavalry units (Alae), who participated in Emperor Claudius
Claudius
Claudius , was Roman Emperor from 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and Antonia Minor. He was born at Lugdunum in Gaul and was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy...
’ invasion of Britain in AD 43-60. However, ephigraphic evidence in the form of an inscribed votive stele dedicated by a Primpilus Centurio of Legio VI Victrix
Legio VI Victrix
Legio sexta Victrix was a Roman legion founded by Octavian in 41 BC. It was the twin legion of VI Ferrata and perhaps held veterans of that legion, and some soldiers kept to the traditions of the Caesarian legion....
decorated for bravery in action confirms that the Astures staged a revolt in AD 54, prompting another vicious guerrilla war – unrecorded by the ancient sources – that lasted for fourteen years but the situation was finally calm around AD 68. Incredibly, they even enjoyed a brief revival during the Germanic invasions of late 4th Century AD, until being later overrun and absorbed by the Visigothic Kingdom
Visigothic Kingdom
The Visigothic Kingdom was a kingdom which occupied southwestern France and the Iberian Peninsula from the 5th to 8th century AD. One of the Germanic successor states to the Western Roman Empire, it was originally created by the settlement of the Visigoths under King Wallia in the province of...
in the early 6th Century AD.
Legacy
At a later date, in the beginning of the ReconquistaReconquista
The Reconquista was a period of almost 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms succeeded in retaking the Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula broadly known as Al-Andalus...
period in the early Middle Ages, their name was preserved in the medieval Kingdom of Asturias
Kingdom of Asturias
The Kingdom of Asturias was a Kingdom in the Iberian peninsula founded in 718 by Visigothic nobles under the leadership of Pelagius of Asturias. It was the first Christian political entity established following the collapse of the Visigothic kingdom after Islamic conquest of Hispania...
and in the modern town of Astorga, León
Astorga, Spain
Astorga is a town in the province of León, northern Spain. It lies southwest of the provincial capital of León, and is the head of the council of La Maragatería. The river Tuerto flows through it. , its population was about 12,100 people....
, whose designation still reflects its early Roman name of Asturica Augusta, the "Augustan settlement of the Astures".
Sources
- Almagro-Gorbea, Martín, Les Celtes dans la péninsule Ibérique, in Les Celtes, Éditions Stock, Paris (1997) ISBN 2-234-04844-3
- Alvarado, Alberto Lorrio J., Los Celtíberos, Editorial Complutense, Alicante (1997) ISBN 84-7908-335-2
- Duque, Ángel Montenegro et alli, Historia de España 2 – colonizaciones y formacion de los pueblos prerromanos, Editorial Gredos, Madrid (1989) ISBN 84-249-1013-3
- Motoza, Francisco Burillo, Los Celtíberos – Etnias y Estados, Crítica, Grijalbo Mondadori, S.A., Barcelona (1998, revised edition 2007) ISBN 84-7423-891-9
Further reading
- Berrocal-Rangel, Luis & Gardes, Philippe, Entre celtas e íberos, Fundación Casa de Velázquez, Madrid (2001)
- González Echegaray, J., Las Guerras Cántabras, Fundación Marcelino Botín, Santander (1999)
- Kruta, Venceslas, Les Celtes, Histoire et Dictionnaire: Des origines à la Romanization et au Christinisme, Èditions Robert Laffont, Paris (2000) ISBN 2-7028-6261-6
- Zapatero, Gonzalo Ruiz et alli, Los Celtas: Hispania y Europa, dirigido por Martín Almagro-Gorbea, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Editorial ACTAS, S.l., Madrid (1993)
See also
- Leonese peopleLeonese peopleThe Leoneses are an ethnic group whose homeland is the former Kingdom of León, now region of Leon which was a country in Southwestern Europe, embracing a territory situated in the north-west of Spain and northeast of Portugal. The languages of León are the Leonese language and Spanish in Spain and...
- Asturian peopleAsturian peopleThe Asturians are one of the nationalisms of Spain, issuing from the historical country of the Principality of Asturias. They have Celtiberian heritage, related to its historical and cultural links with neighbouring Galicia, as well as Visigothic cultural influences most notably found in the...
- Astur-Cantabrian Wars
- Castro cultureCastro cultureCastro culture is the archaeological term for naming the Celtic archaeological culture of the northwestern regions of the Iberian Peninsula from the end of the Bronze Age until it was subsumed in local Roman culture...
- GallaeciaGallaeciaGallaecia or Callaecia, also known as Hispania Gallaecia, was the name of a Roman province and an early Mediaeval kingdom that comprised a territory in the north-west of Hispania...
- EonavianEonavianEonavian or Galician-Asturian, is a term used to refer a set of Romance dialects or falas whose linguistic dominion extends in the zone of Asturias between the Eo and Navia rivers , and which have been variously classified as the...
- GausónGausónGausón was a semi-legendary Astur general who fought the Romans in the Astur-Cantabrian Wars .Little is known about Gausón due to the lack of classical sources, but historical codexes, oral tradition and other several sources do mention his presence on the Cantabrian Wars as a military leader of...
- Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian PeninsulaPre-Roman peoples of the Iberian PeninsulaThis is a list of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian peninsula .-Non-Indo-European:*Aquitanians**Aquitani**Autrigones - some consider them Celtic .**Caristii - some consider them Celtic ....
- Leonese languageLeonese languageThe Leonese language is the endonym term used to refer to all vernacular Romance dialects of the Astur-Leonese linguistic group in the Spanish provinces of León and Zamora; Astur-Leonese also includes the dialects...