Banksia aemula
Encyclopedia
Banksia aemula, commonly known as the wallum banksia, is a lignotuber
ous shrub
of the Proteaceae
family. Found from Bundaberg south to Sydney
on the Australian east coast, it is encountered as a shrub or a taller tree to 8 m (25 ft) in coastal heath
on deep sandy soil, known as Wallum
. It has wrinkled orange bark and shiny green serrated leaves, with green-yellow flower spikes, known as inflorescence
s, appearing in autumn. The flower spikes turn grey as they age and large grey follicles
appear. Banksia aemula resprouts from its woody lignotuber
after bushfires.
First described by the botanist Robert Brown
in the early 19th century, it derives its specific named 'similar' from its resemblance to the closely related Banksia serrata
. No varieties are recognised. It was known for many years in New South Wales as Banksia serratifolia, contrasting with the use of B. aemula elsewhere. However, the former name, originally coined by Richard Anthony Salisbury
, proved invalid, and Banksia aemula has been universally adopted as the correct scientific name since 1981. A wide array of mammals, birds, and invertebrates visit the inflorescences and are instrumental in pollination; honeyeaters are particularly prominent visitors. Grown as a garden plant, it is less commonly seen in horticulture than its close relative B. serrata.
Banksia aemula is generally a gnarled shrub or small tree to 8 m (25 ft), although usually smaller. The trunk has thick orange-brown wrinkled and warty bark, and the new growth is hairy but becoming smooth. New shoot growth is in spring and summer. The shiny green leaves are obovate
to oblong in shape and measure 3–22 cm (1.4–9 in) in length, and 1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 in) in width. The leaf ends are truncate and the margins flat and serrated
. Flowering is in autumn, from March to June; the green-yellow flower spikes, known as inflorescence
s, are terminal, found on the ends of branches and emerging from the foliage. Measuring 4 to 20 cm (1.6–8 in) in height and 8 to 9 cm (2.8–3.2 in) in width, they are various shades of pale and greenish yellow. Anywhere from 800 to 1700 individual small flowers arise from a central woody spike (or rachis). Initially tipped with white conical pollen presenters, the flowers open sequentially from the bottom to the top of the inflorescence over one to two weeks, in a process known as anthesis
. Each flower produces nectar for around seven days after opening. The flower spikes turn grey as they age and up to 25 finely furred grey follicles
appear, which can be very large, measuring 3–4.5 cm (1.2–2.6 in) long, 2–3.5 cm (0.8–1.4 in) high, and 2–3.5 cm (0.8–1.4 in) wide. They split open either after bushfire or spontaneously, and release oval seeds 4–4.7 cm (1.6–1.9 in) in length, composed of a wedge-shaped body 1–1.5 cm (0.4–0.6 in) long and 1.1–1.6 cm (0.4–0.6 in) wide, and curved wing 2–3.2 cm (0.8–1.3 in) wide. Banksia aemula resprouts from its woody lignotuber
after fire.
Banksia aemula closely resembles Banksia serrata
, but the latter can be distinguished by a greyer, not orange-brown, trunk, and adult leaves wider than 2 cm (0.8 in) in diameter. Inflorescences of serrata are generally a duller grey-yellow in colour, and have longer (2–3 mm), more fusiform (spindle-shaped) or cylindrical pollen presenters tipping unopened flowers. Finally, the follicles are smaller.
, giving rise not only to its common name of wallum banksia but also to the name of the ecological community it grows in. Banyalla is another aboriginal name for the species.
Banksia aemula was collected by Scottish botanist Robert Brown
in June 1801 in the vicinity of Port Jackson
, and published by him in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen
. The specific name , Latin for 'similar', refers to its similarity to B. serrata. Brown also collected a taller tree-like specimen from Sandy Cape which he called Banksia elatior; the specific name is the comparative
form of the Latin
adjective ēlātus "elevated".
For many years in New South Wales, the wallum banksia had gone by the scientific name of Banksia serratifolia. Richard Anthony Salisbury
had published this binomial name in 1796, which was followed by Otto Kuntze
, and then Karel Domin
in 1921. Botanist and banksia authority Alex George conclusively established aemula as the correct name to be used in his 1981 revision of the genus. He pointed out that Salisbury's original described the leaves only, was insufficient to diagnose the species and is hence a nomen dubium
—the description could have fit juvenile leaves of B. paludosa
as well. In fact, Brown himself had been unsure whether serratifolia applied to what he called Banksia aemula. Salisbury's taxon appeared as Banksia serraefolia in Knight's
1809 work On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae
, but that entry possibly refers to serrata. Where Salisbury got his material is unclear, but John White
had sent material to James Edward Smith
now held in the Linnean Society marked as B. serratifolia Salisb. as well as B. aemula R.Br.
Under Brown's taxonomic arrangement
, B. aemula and B. elatior were placed in subgenus
Banksia verae, the "True Banksias", because the inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike. Banksia verae was renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher
in 1847, and demoted to sectional
rank by Carl Meissner
in his 1856 classification
. Meissner further divided Eubanksia into four series
, with B. aemula placed in series Quercinae
on the basis of its toothed leaves. When George Bentham
published his 1870 arrangement
in Flora Australiensis
, he discarded Meissner's series, replacing them with four sections
. B. aemula was placed in Orthostylis, a somewhat heterogeneous section containing 18 species. This arrangement would stand for over a century.
In 1891, German botanist Otto Kuntze
challenged the generic name Banksia L.f.
, on the grounds that the name Banksia had previously been published in 1775 as Banksia J.R.Forst
& G.Forst
, referring to the genus now known as Pimelea
. Kuntze proposed Sirmuellera as an alternative, republishing B. aemula as Sirmuellera serratifolia. The challenge failed, and Banksia L.f. was formally conserved.
published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his classic 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)
. Endlicher's Eubanksia became B. subg. Banksia
, and was divided into three sections. B. aemula was placed in B. sect. Banksia
, and this was further divided into nine series, with B. aemula placed in B. ser. Banksia
.
He thought its closest relative was clearly Banksia serrata and then B. ornata, and that the three formed a link with western species. Since Brown's original publication had treated all of Fraser's specimens as syntype
s (shared type specimens) for the species, George also chose a lectotype
(a single specimen to serve as the type specimen).
In 1996, Kevin Thiele
and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus, after cladistic
analyses yielded a cladogram
significantly different from George's arrangement. Thiele and Ladiges' arrangement
retained B. aemula in series Banksia, placing it in B. subser. Banksia
along with serrata as its sister taxon (united by their unusual seedling leaves) and ornata as next closest relative. This arrangement stood until 1999, when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia
series.
Under George's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia
, B. aemula' s taxonomic placement may be summarised as follows:
In 2002, a molecular study by Austin Mast
again showed the three eastern species to form a group, but they were only distantly related to other members of the series Banksia. Instead, they formed a sister group to a large group comprising the series Prostratae
, Ochraceae
, Tetragonae
(including Banksia elderiana), Banksia lullfitzii
and Banksia baueri
.
In 2005, Mast, Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence
data for Banksia. They inferred a phylogeny greatly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement, including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic
with respect to Dryandra. A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time, but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia, and publishing B. subg. Spathulatae
for the species having spoon-shaped cotyledon
s; in this way they also redefined the autonym
B. subg. Banksia
. They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling
of Dryandra was complete. In the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then B. aemula is placed in B. subg. Banksia.
in central Queensland down to Sydney. Specifically, its southernmost occurrence is at La Perouse
on the northern side of Botany Bay
. It is also found on Fraser, Moreton
and North Stradbroke Island
s. Almost all populations are within a few kilometres of the coast, except for one at Agnes Banks
in western Sydney, and two just north and south of Grafton
at Coaldale and Glenreagh
, and a last around 30 km (19 mi) southwest of Bundaberg.
Banksia aemula is most commonly found in deep sandy soils, either on dunes or flattish areas which may be seasonally wet. On coastal dunes in southern Queensland, it replaces Banksia serrata, which occupies the same niche to the south. The latter areas, with open woodland or heathland, are known as wallum
. In Queensland it is found with Banksia robur
, with the latter species found in flatter wetter areas and B. aemula found on rises. It is also found with Banksia oblongifolia
in Queensland. In some areas of wallum, it may grow as a small tree, along with mallee forms
of the red bloodwood (Corymbia gummifera
). In Cooloola National Park, it is an occasional emergent plant (along with Melaleuca quinquenervia
and Eucalyptus umbra
) in closed graminoid heathland, a community of shrubs 0.5–2 m (1.5–7 ft) high containing Xanthorrhoea fulva
, Empodisma minus
, Petrophile shirleyae
, and Hakea
and Leptospermum
species. On the New South Wales Central Coast, it generally grows as a 1–2 m (3–7 ft) high shrub and is a canopy component of Banksia aemula open heathland, located on coastal headlands on highly leached Pleistocene
white sands overlying Triassic and Permian strata. Areas include Wybung Head in Munmorah State Conservation Area
, and near Myall Lakes
. Other plants it grows in association with include Ricinocarpos pinifolius
, Brachyloma daphnoides
, Dillwynia glaberrima
, D. retorta
, Allocasuarina distyla
, Bossiaea ensata
, Aotus ericoides
, Phyllota phylicoides
, and Empodisma minus. Sandmining has eradicated much of the community around Redhead
. In less leached yellower sands, the community (and B. aemula) is replaced by a taller heath containing B. serrata and B. oblongifolia.
At the southern end of its range, Banksia aemula is a component of the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub (ESBS), designated an endangered ecological community. This community is found on younger, windblown sands than the heathlands to the north.
The Agnes Banks Woodland in western Sydney has been recognised by the New South Wales Government as an Endangered Ecological Community. Here Banksia aemula is an understory
plant in low open woodland, with scribbly gum (Eucalyptus sclerophylla
), narrow-leaved apple (Angophora bakeri
) and B. serrata as canopy trees, and B. oblongifolia, Conospermum taxifolium
, Ricinocarpus pinifolius, Dillwynia sericea
and nodding geebung (Persoonia nutans
) as other understory species.
On North Stradbroke Island, Banksia aemula is one of three canopy tree species of Eucalyptus signata
dominated forest 12–15 m (40–50 ft) high, the third species being E. umbra. This forest is found on a ridge 100 m (400 ft) above sea level formed from an ancient sand dune. Here bracken (Pteridium esculentum
) dominates the understory. Other tall shrubs associated include Persoonia cornifolia
and Acacia concurrens
. Here individual wallum banksias were measured at 8.3–12.1 m (25–40 ft) high, with a maximum diameter at breast height of 44 cm (20 in).
and all Banksia species, including B. scabrella, have proteoid root
s, roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These roots are particularly efficient at absorbing nutrients from nutrient-poor soils, such as the phosphorus
-deficient native soils of Australia. A study of six wallum species, including B. aemula, found they have adapted to very low levels of phosphorus and are highly sensitive to increased levels of the element, leading to phosphorus toxicity. Some evidence suggests they are efficient at using potassium, and sensitive to calcium toxicity as well. A field study on North Stradbroke Island noted increased root growth in autumn (around April), but that overall root growth was more constant than other species looked at, possibly because its deeper roots had more regular access to groundwater.
A 1998 study in Bundjalung National Park
in northern New South Wales found that B. aemula inflorescences are foraged by a variety of small mammals, including marsupial
s such as Yellow-footed Antechinus
(Antechinus flavipes), and rodent
s such as Pale Field Rat
(Rattus tunneyi), Australian Swamp Rat
(R. lutreolus) and Grassland Melomys (Melomys burtoni) and even the House Mouse
(Mus musculus). These animals carry pollen loads comparable to those of nectarivorous birds, making them effective pollinators. Grey-headed Flying Fox
es (Pteropus poliocephalus) were also observed visiting B. aemula and their heads and bellies were noted to contact stigmas while feeding. Bird species that have been observed feeding at the flowers of B. aemula include Rainbow Lorikeet
, Scarlet
, and Lewin's Honeyeater
s. Several other honeyeaters were recorded on B. aemula inflorescences for The Banksia Atlas
, including the New Holland
, Brown
, White-cheeked
, and Tawny-crowned Honeyeater
s, Noisy Miner
, Little Wattlebird
and Noisy Friarbird
. The Bundjalung field study found the Brown Honeyeater carried much higher loads of B. aemula pollen than other species measured, which included White-cheeked and Yellow-faced Honeyeater
s and Silvereye
s. Insects such as ants and bees (including the introduced honeybee) have also been recorded.
Banksia aemula resprouts from a lignotuber or shoots from epicormic buds after fire. Fire management of Banksia aemula heath in Southeast Queensland recommends 7- to 20-year fire intervals. Intervals of 10–15 years are recommended for the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub, as longer leads to overgrowth by Leptospermum laevigatum
. Experimenting with seed germination and early growth of B. aemula showed that phosphorus was toxic to seedlings, inhibiting growth at double normal soil concentrations and causing seedling death at quadruple normal soil concentrations. The addition of potassium or magnesium ameliorated these effects a little although potassium in high concentrations impacted on growth as well. Overall, seedlings grow slowly over the first 21 weeks of life compared with other plant species, the reasons for which are unclear, although it may be that it offers a increased chance of survival in a nutrient- or water-poor environment. Seed was killed by exposure to 150 C, but survived seven minute exposure to 100 C.
A study of coastal heaths on Pleistocene sand dunes around the Myall Lakes found B. aemula grew on ridges (dry heath) and B. oblongifolia on slopes (wet heath), and the two species did not overlap. Manipulation of seedlings in the same study area showed that B. aemula grows longer roots seeking water and that seedlings do grow in wet heath, but it is as yet unclear why the species does not grow in wet heath as well as dry heath. Unlike similar situations with banksia species in Western Australia, the two species did not appear to impact negatively on each other. A field study on seedling recruitment conducted at Broadwater National Park
and Dirrawong Reserve on the New South Wales North Coast showed that generally Banksia aemula produced seedlings in low numbers but the attrition rate was low, and that seedlings had a greater survival rate on dry rather than wet heaths. Field work including the experimental planting out of seedlings at Crowdy Bay National Park
showed that Banksia aemula seedling roots reach the water table within six months of germination, and that they can germinate in the presence or absence of recent bushfire. The reasons for bradyspory (that is fewer seeds with greater percentage of survival) is unclear, but may be a defence against seed-eating animals. Similarly in field work on North Stradbroke Island, B aemula was noted to shed its winged seeds over time between (as well as after) fire, and germinate and grow readily with little predation by herbivores.
and the rival The Botanical Register
. Its shiny green leaves, showy flower spikes, huge follicles and wrinkled bark are attractive horticultural features. It is also a bird- and insect-attracting plant.
Trials in Western Australia and Hawaii have shown Banksia aemula to be resistant to Phytophthora cinnamomi
dieback. It requires a well drained slightly acid (pH
5.5–6.5) soil, preferably fairly sandy and a sunny aspect. Summer watering is also prudent, as it does not suffer water stress well. Slow-growing, the plant takes four to six years to flower from seed. It is less commonly grown than Banksia serrata. An investigation into optimum temperatures for germination found a nighttime temperature of 20–28 °C, and a daytime of 24–33 °C gave best results, and recommended summer planting times.
It has also been used as a rootstock for grafting Banksia speciosa
, and has potential in bonsai
. The red textured timber has been used in cabinet-making.
was the common banksia in Australian children's author May Gibbs
' own childhood in Western Australia, the old flower spikes of Banksia aemula with their large follicles are thought to have been the inspiration for the villains of her Snugglepot and Cuddlepie
books, the "Big Bad Banksia Men".
Lignotuber
A lignotuber is a starchy swelling of the root crown possessed by some plants as a protection against destruction of the plant stem by fire. The crown contains buds from which new stems may sprout, and a sufficient store of nutrients to support a period of growth in the absence of...
ous shrub
Shrub
A shrub or bush is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and shorter height, usually under 5–6 m tall. A large number of plants may become either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions they experience...
of the Proteaceae
Proteaceae
Proteaceae is a family of flowering plants distributed in the Southern Hemisphere. The family comprises about 80 genera with about 1600 species. Together with the Platanaceae and Nelumbonaceae they make up the order Proteales. Well known genera include Protea, Banksia, Embothrium, Grevillea,...
family. Found from Bundaberg south to Sydney
Sydney
Sydney is the most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. As of June 2010, the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4.6 million people...
on the Australian east coast, it is encountered as a shrub or a taller tree to 8 m (25 ft) in coastal heath
Heath (habitat)
A heath or heathland is a dwarf-shrub habitat found on mainly low quality acidic soils, characterised by open, low growing woody vegetation, often dominated by plants of the Ericaceae. There are some clear differences between heath and moorland...
on deep sandy soil, known as Wallum
Wallum
Wallum, or Wallum country, is an Australian ecosystem of coastal south-east Queensland, extending into north-eastern New South Wales. It is characterised by floristically-rich shrubland and heathland on deep, nutrient-poor acidic sandy soils and regular wildfire. Seasonal changes in the...
. It has wrinkled orange bark and shiny green serrated leaves, with green-yellow flower spikes, known as inflorescence
Inflorescence
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Strictly, it is the part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed and which is accordingly modified...
s, appearing in autumn. The flower spikes turn grey as they age and large grey follicles
Follicle (fruit)
In botany, a follicle is a dry unilocular many-seeded fruit formed from one carpel and dehiscing by the ventral suture in order to release seeds, such as in larkspur, magnolia, banksia, peony and milkweed....
appear. Banksia aemula resprouts from its woody lignotuber
Lignotuber
A lignotuber is a starchy swelling of the root crown possessed by some plants as a protection against destruction of the plant stem by fire. The crown contains buds from which new stems may sprout, and a sufficient store of nutrients to support a period of growth in the absence of...
after bushfires.
First described by the botanist Robert Brown
Robert Brown (botanist)
Robert Brown was a Scottish botanist and palaeobotanist who made important contributions to botany largely through his pioneering use of the microscope...
in the early 19th century, it derives its specific named 'similar' from its resemblance to the closely related Banksia serrata
Banksia serrata
Banksia serrata, commonly known as Old Man Banksia, Saw Banksia, Saw-tooth Banksia and Red Honeysuckle, is a species of woody shrub or tree of the genus Banksia in the Proteaceae family. Native the east coast of Australia, it is found from Queensland through to Victoria with outlying populations on...
. No varieties are recognised. It was known for many years in New South Wales as Banksia serratifolia, contrasting with the use of B. aemula elsewhere. However, the former name, originally coined by Richard Anthony Salisbury
Richard Anthony Salisbury
Richard Anthony Salisbury FRS was a British botanist. While he is remembered as a valuable worker in horticultural and botanical sciences, several bitter disputes caused him to be ostracised by his contemporaries.-Life:...
, proved invalid, and Banksia aemula has been universally adopted as the correct scientific name since 1981. A wide array of mammals, birds, and invertebrates visit the inflorescences and are instrumental in pollination; honeyeaters are particularly prominent visitors. Grown as a garden plant, it is less commonly seen in horticulture than its close relative B. serrata.
Description
Leaf shape
In botany, leaf shape is characterised with the following terms :* Acicular : Slender and pointed, needle-like* Acuminate : Tapering to a long point...
to oblong in shape and measure 3–22 cm (1.4–9 in) in length, and 1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 in) in width. The leaf ends are truncate and the margins flat and serrated
Leaf
A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant, as defined in botanical terms, and in particular in plant morphology. Foliage is a mass noun that refers to leaves as a feature of plants....
. Flowering is in autumn, from March to June; the green-yellow flower spikes, known as inflorescence
Inflorescence
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Strictly, it is the part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed and which is accordingly modified...
s, are terminal, found on the ends of branches and emerging from the foliage. Measuring 4 to 20 cm (1.6–8 in) in height and 8 to 9 cm (2.8–3.2 in) in width, they are various shades of pale and greenish yellow. Anywhere from 800 to 1700 individual small flowers arise from a central woody spike (or rachis). Initially tipped with white conical pollen presenters, the flowers open sequentially from the bottom to the top of the inflorescence over one to two weeks, in a process known as anthesis
Anthesis
Anthesis is the period during which a flower is fully open and functional. It may also refer to the onset of that period.The onset of anthesis is spectacular in some species. In Banksia species, for example, anthesis involves the extension of the style far beyond the upper perianth parts...
. Each flower produces nectar for around seven days after opening. The flower spikes turn grey as they age and up to 25 finely furred grey follicles
Follicle (fruit)
In botany, a follicle is a dry unilocular many-seeded fruit formed from one carpel and dehiscing by the ventral suture in order to release seeds, such as in larkspur, magnolia, banksia, peony and milkweed....
appear, which can be very large, measuring 3–4.5 cm (1.2–2.6 in) long, 2–3.5 cm (0.8–1.4 in) high, and 2–3.5 cm (0.8–1.4 in) wide. They split open either after bushfire or spontaneously, and release oval seeds 4–4.7 cm (1.6–1.9 in) in length, composed of a wedge-shaped body 1–1.5 cm (0.4–0.6 in) long and 1.1–1.6 cm (0.4–0.6 in) wide, and curved wing 2–3.2 cm (0.8–1.3 in) wide. Banksia aemula resprouts from its woody lignotuber
Lignotuber
A lignotuber is a starchy swelling of the root crown possessed by some plants as a protection against destruction of the plant stem by fire. The crown contains buds from which new stems may sprout, and a sufficient store of nutrients to support a period of growth in the absence of...
after fire.
Banksia aemula closely resembles Banksia serrata
Banksia serrata
Banksia serrata, commonly known as Old Man Banksia, Saw Banksia, Saw-tooth Banksia and Red Honeysuckle, is a species of woody shrub or tree of the genus Banksia in the Proteaceae family. Native the east coast of Australia, it is found from Queensland through to Victoria with outlying populations on...
, but the latter can be distinguished by a greyer, not orange-brown, trunk, and adult leaves wider than 2 cm (0.8 in) in diameter. Inflorescences of serrata are generally a duller grey-yellow in colour, and have longer (2–3 mm), more fusiform (spindle-shaped) or cylindrical pollen presenters tipping unopened flowers. Finally, the follicles are smaller.
Taxonomy
Banksia aemula was called wallum by the Kabi people of the Sunshine CoastSunshine Coast, Queensland
The Sunshine Coast is an urban area in South East Queensland, north of the state capital of Brisbane on the Pacific Ocean coastline. Although it does not have a central business district, by population it ranks as the 10th largest metropolis in Australia and the third largest in...
, giving rise not only to its common name of wallum banksia but also to the name of the ecological community it grows in. Banyalla is another aboriginal name for the species.
Banksia aemula was collected by Scottish botanist Robert Brown
Robert Brown (botanist)
Robert Brown was a Scottish botanist and palaeobotanist who made important contributions to botany largely through his pioneering use of the microscope...
in June 1801 in the vicinity of Port Jackson
Port Jackson
Port Jackson, containing Sydney Harbour, is the natural harbour of Sydney, Australia. It is known for its beauty, and in particular, as the location of the Sydney Opera House and Sydney Harbour Bridge...
, and published by him in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen
Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen
Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen is an 1810 flora of Australia by botanist Robert Brown. Often referred to as Prodromus Flora Novae Hollandiae, or by its standard botanical abbreviation Prodr. Fl. Nov. Holland., it was the first attempt at a survey of the Australian flora...
. The specific name , Latin for 'similar', refers to its similarity to B. serrata. Brown also collected a taller tree-like specimen from Sandy Cape which he called Banksia elatior; the specific name is the comparative
Comparative
In grammar, the comparative is the form of an adjective or adverb which denotes the degree or grade by which a person, thing, or other entity has a property or quality greater or less in extent than that of another, and is used in this context with a subordinating conjunction, such as than,...
form of the Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
adjective ēlātus "elevated".
For many years in New South Wales, the wallum banksia had gone by the scientific name of Banksia serratifolia. Richard Anthony Salisbury
Richard Anthony Salisbury
Richard Anthony Salisbury FRS was a British botanist. While he is remembered as a valuable worker in horticultural and botanical sciences, several bitter disputes caused him to be ostracised by his contemporaries.-Life:...
had published this binomial name in 1796, which was followed by Otto Kuntze
Otto Kuntze
Otto Carl Ernst Kuntze was a German botanist.-Biography:Otto Kuntze was born in Leipzig.An apothecary in his early career, he published an essay entitled Pocket Fauna of Leipzig. Between 1863 and...
, and then Karel Domin
Karel Domin
Karel Domin was a Czech botanist and politician.After gymnasium school studies in Příbram, he studied botany at the Charles University in Prague, and graduated in 1906. In 1916 he was named as professor of botany. Domin specialised in phytogeography, geobotany and plant taxonomy...
in 1921. Botanist and banksia authority Alex George conclusively established aemula as the correct name to be used in his 1981 revision of the genus. He pointed out that Salisbury's original described the leaves only, was insufficient to diagnose the species and is hence a nomen dubium
Nomen dubium
In zoological nomenclature, a nomen dubium is a scientific name that is of unknown or doubtful application...
—the description could have fit juvenile leaves of B. paludosa
Banksia paludosa
Banksia paludosa, commonly known as the marsh or swamp banksia, is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It is endemic to New South Wales, where it is found between Sydney and Batemans Bay, with an isolate population further south around Eden...
as well. In fact, Brown himself had been unsure whether serratifolia applied to what he called Banksia aemula. Salisbury's taxon appeared as Banksia serraefolia in Knight's
Joseph Knight (horticulturist)
Joseph Knight , gardener to George Hibbert, was one of the first people in England to successfully propagate Proteaceae...
1809 work On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae
On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae
On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae is an 1809 paper on the Proteaceae family of flowering plants. Although nominally written by Joseph Knight as a paper on cultivation techniques, all but 13 pages consists of an unattributed taxonomic revision now known to...
, but that entry possibly refers to serrata. Where Salisbury got his material is unclear, but John White
John White (surgeon)
John White was an English surgeon and botanical collector.White was born in Sussex and entered the Royal Navy on 26 June 1778 as third surgeon's mate. He was promoted surgeon in 1780, and was the principal surgeon during the voyage of the First Fleet to Australia...
had sent material to James Edward Smith
James Edward Smith
Sir James Edward Smith was an English botanist and founder of the Linnean Society.Smith was born in Norwich in 1759, the son of a wealthy wool merchant. He displayed a precocious interest in the natural world...
now held in the Linnean Society marked as B. serratifolia Salisb. as well as B. aemula R.Br.
Under Brown's taxonomic arrangement
Brown's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia
Robert Brown's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia was published in his 1810 Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen, and expanded in this 1830 supplement to that publication, Supplementum Primum Prodromi Florae Novae Hollandiae...
, B. aemula and B. elatior were placed in subgenus
Subgenus
In biology, a subgenus is a taxonomic rank directly below genus.In zoology, a subgeneric name can be used independently or included in a species name, in parentheses, placed between the generic name and the specific epithet: e.g. the Tiger Cowry of the Indo-Pacific, Cypraea tigris Linnaeus, which...
Banksia verae, the "True Banksias", because the inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike. Banksia verae was renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher
Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher
Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher was an Austrian botanist, numismatist and Sinologist. He was a director of the Botanical Garden of Vienna. He was born in Pressburg and died in Vienna....
in 1847, and demoted to sectional
Section (botany)
In botany, a section is a taxonomic rank below the genus, but above the species. The subgenus, if present, is higher than the section, and the rank of series, if present, is below the section. Sections are typically used to help organise very large genera, which may have hundreds of species...
rank by Carl Meissner
Carl Meissner
Carl Daniel Friedrich Meissner was a Swiss botanist.Born in Bern, Switzerland on 1 November 1800, he was christened Meisner but later changed the spelling of his name to Meissner. For most of his 40 year career he was Professor of Botany at University of Basel...
in his 1856 classification
Meissner's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia
Carl Meissner's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia was published in 1856, as part of his chapter on the Proteaceae in A. P. de Candolle's Prodromus systematis naturalis regni vegetabilis. It was the first attempt to provide an infrageneric classification for the genus, aside from Robert Brown's...
. Meissner further divided Eubanksia into four series
Series (botany)
Series is a low-level taxonomic rank below that of section but above that of species.In botany, a series is a subdivision of a genus...
, with B. aemula placed in series Quercinae
Banksia ser. Quercinae
Banksia ser. Quercinae is avalid botanic name for a series of Banksia. First published by Carl Meissner in 1856, the name has had three circumscriptions.-According to Meissner:...
on the basis of its toothed leaves. When George Bentham
George Bentham
George Bentham CMG FRS was an English botanist, characterized by Duane Isely as "the premier systematic botanist of the nineteenth century".- Formative years :...
published his 1870 arrangement
Bentham's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia
George Bentham's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia was published in 1870, in Volume 5 of Bentham's Flora Australiensis. A substantial improvement on the previous arrangement, it would stand for over a century. It was eventually replaced by Alex George's 1981 arrangement, published in his classic...
in Flora Australiensis
Flora Australiensis
Flora Australiensis: a description of the plants of the Australian Territory, more commonly referred to as Flora Australiensis, and also known by its standard abbreviation Fl. Austral., is a seven-volume flora of Australia published between 1863 and 1878 by George Bentham, with the assistance of...
, he discarded Meissner's series, replacing them with four sections
Section (botany)
In botany, a section is a taxonomic rank below the genus, but above the species. The subgenus, if present, is higher than the section, and the rank of series, if present, is below the section. Sections are typically used to help organise very large genera, which may have hundreds of species...
. B. aemula was placed in Orthostylis, a somewhat heterogeneous section containing 18 species. This arrangement would stand for over a century.
In 1891, German botanist Otto Kuntze
Otto Kuntze
Otto Carl Ernst Kuntze was a German botanist.-Biography:Otto Kuntze was born in Leipzig.An apothecary in his early career, he published an essay entitled Pocket Fauna of Leipzig. Between 1863 and...
challenged the generic name Banksia L.f.
Carolus Linnaeus the Younger
Carl Linnaeus the Younger, Carl von Linné or Carolus Linnaeus the Younger was a Swedish naturalist...
, on the grounds that the name Banksia had previously been published in 1775 as Banksia J.R.Forst
Johann Reinhold Forster
Johann Reinhold Forster was a German Lutheran pastor and naturalist of partial Scottish descent who made contributions to the early ornithology of Europe and North America...
& G.Forst
Georg Forster
Johann Georg Adam Forster was a German naturalist, ethnologist, travel writer, journalist, and revolutionary. At an early age, he accompanied his father on several scientific expeditions, including James Cook's second voyage to the Pacific...
, referring to the genus now known as Pimelea
Pimelea
Pimelea is a genus of plants belonging to the family Thymelaeaceae. There are about 80 species in the genus, native to Australia and New Zealand. Many of the species are poisonous to cattle.Selected species...
. Kuntze proposed Sirmuellera as an alternative, republishing B. aemula as Sirmuellera serratifolia. The challenge failed, and Banksia L.f. was formally conserved.
Current placement
Alex GeorgeAlex George
Alexander Segger George is a Western Australian botanist. He is the authority on the plant genera Banksia and Dryandra...
published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his classic 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)
The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)
The genus Banksia L.f. is a 1981 monograph by Alex George on the taxonomy of the plant genus Banksia. Published by the Western Australian Herbarium as Nuytsia 3, it presented George's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia, the first major taxonomic revision of the genus since George Bentham published...
. Endlicher's Eubanksia became B. subg. Banksia
Banksia subg. Banksia
Banksia subg. Banksia is a valid botanic name for a subgenus of Banksia. As an autonym, it necessarily contains the type species of Banksia, B. serrata . Within this constraint, however, there have been various circumscriptions.-Banksia verae:B. subg...
, and was divided into three sections. B. aemula was placed in B. sect. Banksia
Banksia sect. Banksia
Banksia sect. Banksia is one of four sections of Banksia subgenus Banksia. It contains those species of subgenus Banksia with straight or sometimes curved but not hooked styles. These species all have cylindrical inflorescences and usually exhibit a bottom-up sequence of flower anthesis...
, and this was further divided into nine series, with B. aemula placed in B. ser. Banksia
Banksia ser. Banksia
Banksia ser. Banksia is avalid botanic name for a series of Banksia. As an autonym, it necessarily contains the type species of Banksia, B. serrata . Within this constraint, however, there have been various circumscriptions.-According to Bentham:Banksia ser. Banksia originated in 1870 as...
.
He thought its closest relative was clearly Banksia serrata and then B. ornata, and that the three formed a link with western species. Since Brown's original publication had treated all of Fraser's specimens as syntype
Syntype
In biological nomenclature, a syntype is a term used to indicate a specimen with a special status.In zoological nomenclature, a syntype is defined as "Each specimen of a type series from which neither a holotype nor a lectotype has been designated [Arts. 72.1.2, 73.2, 74]. The syntypes...
s (shared type specimens) for the species, George also chose a lectotype
Lectotype
In botanical nomenclature and zoological nomenclature, a lectotype is a kind of name-bearing type. When a species was originally described on the basis of a name-bearing type consisting of multiple specimens, one of those may be designated as the lectotype...
(a single specimen to serve as the type specimen).
In 1996, Kevin Thiele
Kevin Thiele
Kevin R. Thiele is curator of the Western Australian Herbarium. His research interests include the systematics of the plant families Proteaceae, Rhamnaceae and Violaceae, and the conservation ecology of grassy woodland ecosystems...
and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus, after cladistic
Cladistics
Cladistics is a method of classifying species of organisms into groups called clades, which consist of an ancestor organism and all its descendants . For example, birds, dinosaurs, crocodiles, and all descendants of their most recent common ancestor form a clade...
analyses yielded a cladogram
Cladogram
A cladogram is a diagram used in cladistics which shows ancestral relations between organisms, to represent the evolutionary tree of life. Although traditionally such cladograms were generated largely on the basis of morphological characters, DNA and RNA sequencing data and computational...
significantly different from George's arrangement. Thiele and Ladiges' arrangement
Thiele and Ladiges' taxonomic arrangement of Banksia
Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges' taxonomic arrangement of Banksia, published in 1996, was a novel taxonomic arrangement that was intended to align the taxonomy of Banksia more closely with the phylogeny that they had inferred from their cladistic analysis of the genus...
retained B. aemula in series Banksia, placing it in B. subser. Banksia
Banksia subser. Banksia
Banksia subser. Banksia is a valid botanic name for a subseries of Banksia. It was first used by Kevin Thiele in 1996, although as an autonym it is not considered to have been published per se...
along with serrata as its sister taxon (united by their unusual seedling leaves) and ornata as next closest relative. This arrangement stood until 1999, when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia
Flora of Australia (series)
The Flora of Australia is a 59 volume series describing the vascular plants, bryophytes and lichens present in Australia and its external territories...
series.
Under George's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia
George's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia
Alex George's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia was the first modern-day arrangement for that genus. First published in 1981 in the classic monograph The genus Banksia L.f. , it superseded the arrangement of George Bentham, which had stood for over a hundred years. It was overturned in 1996 by Kevin...
, B. aemula
- Genus BanksiaBanksiaBanksia is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes and fruiting "cones" and heads. When it comes to size, banksias range from prostrate woody shrubs to trees up...
- Subgenus BanksiaBanksia subg. BanksiaBanksia subg. Banksia is a valid botanic name for a subgenus of Banksia. As an autonym, it necessarily contains the type species of Banksia, B. serrata . Within this constraint, however, there have been various circumscriptions.-Banksia verae:B. subg...
- Section BanksiaBanksia sect. BanksiaBanksia sect. Banksia is one of four sections of Banksia subgenus Banksia. It contains those species of subgenus Banksia with straight or sometimes curved but not hooked styles. These species all have cylindrical inflorescences and usually exhibit a bottom-up sequence of flower anthesis...
- Series BanksiaBanksia ser. BanksiaBanksia ser. Banksia is avalid botanic name for a series of Banksia. As an autonym, it necessarily contains the type species of Banksia, B. serrata . Within this constraint, however, there have been various circumscriptions.-According to Bentham:Banksia ser. Banksia originated in 1870 as...
- B. serrataBanksia serrataBanksia serrata, commonly known as Old Man Banksia, Saw Banksia, Saw-tooth Banksia and Red Honeysuckle, is a species of woody shrub or tree of the genus Banksia in the Proteaceae family. Native the east coast of Australia, it is found from Queensland through to Victoria with outlying populations on...
- B. aemula
- B. ornataBanksia ornataThe Desert Banksia is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia which grows up to 3 m tall. It occurs in western Victoria, and in South Australia, where it is common on the Eyre Peninsula, Kangaroo Island and east of Adelaide, but is apparently absent from Yorke Peninsula.It tends to grow...
- B. baxteriBanksia baxteriThe Baxter's Banksia , also known as Bird's Nest Banksia, is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs along the south coast of Western Australia between Albany and Esperance....
- B. speciosaBanksia speciosaThe Showy Banksia is a species of large shrub or small tree in the plant genus Banksia. It reaches up to 8 m in height...
- B. menziesiiBanksia menziesiiBanksia menziesii, commonly known as firewood banksia, is a species of flowering plant in the genus Banksia. It is a gnarled tree up to 10 m tall, or a lower spreading 1–3 m shrub in the more northern parts of its range. The serrated leaves are dull green with new growth a paler grey...
- B. candolleanaBanksia candolleanaThe Propeller Banksia is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs in sandplain country north of Gingin, Western Australia.-Description:...
- B. sceptrumBanksia sceptrumBanksia sceptrum, the Sceptre Banksia, occurs in Western Australia near the central west coast from Geraldton north through Kalbarri to Hamelin Pool. It extends inland almost to Mullewa....
- B. serrata
- Series Banksia
- Section Banksia
- Subgenus Banksia
In 2002, a molecular study by Austin Mast
Austin Mast
Austin R. Mast is a research botanist. Born in 1972, he obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 2000. He is currently an associate professor within the Department of Biological Science at Florida State University , and has been director of FSU's since August 2003.One of his...
again showed the three eastern species to form a group, but they were only distantly related to other members of the series Banksia. Instead, they formed a sister group to a large group comprising the series Prostratae
Banksia ser. Prostratae
Banksia ser. Prostratae is a taxonomic series in the genus Banksia. It consists of six closely related species in section Banksia, all endemic to Western Australia, with a prostrate habit.Banksia ser...
, Ochraceae
Banksia ser. Ochraceae
Banksia ser. Ochraceae is a valid botanic name for a taxonomic series within the plant genus Banksia. It was published by Kevin Thiele in 1996, but discarded by Alex George in 1999.-Cladistics:...
, Tetragonae
Banksia ser. Tetragonae
Banksia ser. Tetragonae is a taxonomic series in the genus Banksia. It consists of three closely related species of erect shrub with pendulous inflorescences in section Banksia. These are B. lemanniana , B. caleyi and B. aculeata ....
(including Banksia elderiana), Banksia lullfitzii
Banksia lullfitzii
Banksia lullfitzii is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. A many-branched, spreading bush with golden-orange flowers, it occurs in scattered populations over a large area of the eastern goldfields of Western Australia...
and Banksia baueri
Banksia baueri
The Woolly Banksia is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs in southwest Western Australia north and east of Albany. It has a distinctively large and hairy looking inflorescence which can be 300 mm or more long and up to 200 mm in diameter.It is placed alone in series...
.
In 2005, Mast, Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence
DNA sequence
The sequence or primary structure of a nucleic acid is the composition of atoms that make up the nucleic acid and the chemical bonds that bond those atoms. Because nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, are unbranched polymers, this specification is equivalent to specifying the sequence of...
data for Banksia. They inferred a phylogeny greatly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement, including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic
Paraphyly
A group of taxa is said to be paraphyletic if the group consists of all the descendants of a hypothetical closest common ancestor minus one or more monophyletic groups of descendants...
with respect to Dryandra. A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time, but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia, and publishing B. subg. Spathulatae
Banksia subg. Spathulatae
Banksia subg. Spathulatae is a valid botanic name for a subgenus of Banksia. It was published in 2007 by Austin Mast and Kevin Thiele, and defined as containing all those Banksia species having spathulate cotyledons...
for the species having spoon-shaped cotyledon
Cotyledon
A cotyledon , is a significant part of the embryo within the seed of a plant. Upon germination, the cotyledon may become the embryonic first leaves of a seedling. The number of cotyledons present is one characteristic used by botanists to classify the flowering plants...
s; in this way they also redefined the autonym
Autonym (botany)
In botanical nomenclature, autonyms are automatically created names, as regulated by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature . Autonyms are cited without an author. Relevant provisions are in articles 6.8, 22.1-3 and 26.1-3....
B. subg. Banksia
Banksia subg. Banksia
Banksia subg. Banksia is a valid botanic name for a subgenus of Banksia. As an autonym, it necessarily contains the type species of Banksia, B. serrata . Within this constraint, however, there have been various circumscriptions.-Banksia verae:B. subg...
. They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling
Sampling (statistics)
In statistics and survey methodology, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a population to estimate characteristics of the whole population....
of Dryandra was complete. In the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then B. aemula is placed in B. subg. Banksia.
Distribution and habitat
Banksia aemula is found along the east coast of Australia from around 70 km (45 mi) north of BundabergBundaberg, Queensland
Bundaberg is a city in Queensland, Australia. It is part of the Local Government Area of the Bundaberg Region and is a major centre within Queensland's broader Wide Bay-Burnett geographical region...
in central Queensland down to Sydney. Specifically, its southernmost occurrence is at La Perouse
La Perouse, New South Wales
Lapérouse is a suburb in south-eastern Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. The suburb of Lapérouse is located about 14 kilometres south-east of the Sydney central business district, in the City of Randwick....
on the northern side of Botany Bay
Botany Bay
Botany Bay is a bay in Sydney, New South Wales, a few kilometres south of the Sydney central business district. The Cooks River and the Georges River are the two major tributaries that flow into the bay...
. It is also found on Fraser, Moreton
Moreton Island
Moreton Island is a large sand island on the eastern side of Moreton Bay, on the coast of south-east Queensland, Australia. Moreton Island lies 58 kilometres northeast of the Queensland capital, Brisbane. The island is 95% National Park and a popular destination for four wheel driving, camping,...
and North Stradbroke Island
North Stradbroke Island
North Stradbroke Island is an Australian island in the state of Queensland, 30 km southeast of the capital Brisbane. Before 1896 the island was part of the Stradbroke Island. In that year a storm separated it from South Stradbroke Island, forming the Jumpinpin Channel. It is known...
s. Almost all populations are within a few kilometres of the coast, except for one at Agnes Banks
Agnes Banks, New South Wales
Agnes Banks is a suburb of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Agnes Banks is located 68 kilometres west of the Sydney central business district, in the local government areas of the City of Penrith and City of Hawkesbury...
in western Sydney, and two just north and south of Grafton
Grafton, New South Wales
The city of Grafton is the commercial hub of the Clarence River Valley. Established in 1851, Grafton features many historic buildings and tree-lined streets. Located approximately 630 kilometres north of Sydney and 340 km south of Brisbane, Grafton and the Clarence Valley can be reached...
at Coaldale and Glenreagh
Glenreagh, New South Wales
Glenreagh is a small town in the Clarence Valley in the Northern Rivers region of north-eastern New South Wales, Australia. At the 2006 census, Glenreagh had a population of 422 people.It is on the North Coast railway line, completed to Glenreagh in 1915...
, and a last around 30 km (19 mi) southwest of Bundaberg.
Banksia aemula is most commonly found in deep sandy soils, either on dunes or flattish areas which may be seasonally wet. On coastal dunes in southern Queensland, it replaces Banksia serrata, which occupies the same niche to the south. The latter areas, with open woodland or heathland, are known as wallum
Wallum
Wallum, or Wallum country, is an Australian ecosystem of coastal south-east Queensland, extending into north-eastern New South Wales. It is characterised by floristically-rich shrubland and heathland on deep, nutrient-poor acidic sandy soils and regular wildfire. Seasonal changes in the...
. In Queensland it is found with Banksia robur
Banksia robur
Banksia robur, commonly known as Swamp Banksia or, less commonly, Broad-leaved Banksia grows in sand or peaty sand in coastal areas from Cooktown in north Queensland to the Illawarra region on the New South Wales south coast...
, with the latter species found in flatter wetter areas and B. aemula found on rises. It is also found with Banksia oblongifolia
Banksia oblongifolia
The Fern-leaved Banksia is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs along the eastern coast of Australia from Wollongong, New South Wales in the south to Rockhampton, Queensland in the north...
in Queensland. In some areas of wallum, it may grow as a small tree, along with mallee forms
Mallee (habit)
Mallee is the growth habit of certain eucalypt species that grow with multiple stems springing from an underground lignotuber, usually to a height of no more than ten metres...
of the red bloodwood (Corymbia gummifera
Corymbia gummifera
Corymbia gummifera, commonly known as Red Bloodwood, is a hardwood tree native to eastern Australia.-Description:It usually grows as a tree, but may take the form of a mallee in very poor soils. As a tree it typically grows to a height of 20 to 34 metres and a trunk diameter of one metre dbh....
). In Cooloola National Park, it is an occasional emergent plant (along with Melaleuca quinquenervia
Melaleuca quinquenervia
Melaleuca quinquenervia, commonly known as Niaouli or Broad-leaved paperbark or the Paper Bark Tea Tree, is a small- to medium-sized tree of the allspice family, Myrtaceae. The plant is native to New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea and coastal Eastern Australia, from Botany Bay in New South Wales...
and Eucalyptus umbra
Eucalyptus umbra
Eucalyptus umbra, known as the Broad-leaved White Mahogany is a common eucalyptus tree of the high rainfall coastal areas of New South Wales and adjacent areas in south eastern Queensland. The bark is rough, resembling a "stringybark", though not as coarse, and in flat strips. Thick, fibrous bark,...
) in closed graminoid heathland, a community of shrubs 0.5–2 m (1.5–7 ft) high containing Xanthorrhoea fulva
Xanthorrhoea fulva
Xanthorrhoea fulva a species of grasstree of the genus Xanthorrhoea native to New South Wales and Queensland. It was previously regarded as a subspecies of Xanthorrhoea resinosa, but reclassified as a species in its own right in 1986....
, Empodisma minus
Empodisma minus
Empodisma minus, commonly known as the spreading rope rush, is a herbaceous plant or grass in the family, Restionaceae....
, Petrophile shirleyae
Petrophile shirleyae
Petrophile shirleyae is a shrub native to Queensland in eastern Australia....
, and Hakea
Hakea
Hakea is a genus of 149 species of shrubs and small trees in the Proteaceae, native to Australia. They are found throughout the country, with the highest species diversity being found in the south west of Western Australia....
and Leptospermum
Leptospermum
Leptospermum is a genus of about 80-86 species of plants in the myrtle family Myrtaceae. Most species are endemic to Australia, with the greatest diversity in the south of the continent; but one species extends to New Zealand, another to Malaysia, and L. recurvum is endemic to Malaysia.They...
species. On the New South Wales Central Coast, it generally grows as a 1–2 m (3–7 ft) high shrub and is a canopy component of Banksia aemula open heathland, located on coastal headlands on highly leached Pleistocene
Pleistocene
The Pleistocene is the epoch from 2,588,000 to 11,700 years BP that spans the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek and ....
white sands overlying Triassic and Permian strata. Areas include Wybung Head in Munmorah State Conservation Area
Munmorah State Conservation Area
Munmorah State Conservation Area is located on the Central Coast of New South Wales, Australia. The area's coastal setting and panoramic views, perched sand dunes, diverse vegetation communities, protected threatened species and migratory bird habitats and opportunities for nature based recreation...
, and near Myall Lakes
Myall Lakes
The Myall Lakes are a series of fresh water lakes on the mid-north coast of New South Wales, Australia in Great Lakes Council. The lakes are adjacent to the coast about north of Sydney....
. Other plants it grows in association with include Ricinocarpos pinifolius
Ricinocarpos pinifolius
Ricinocarpos pinifolius is a plant of the family Euphorbiaceae native to Eastern Australia. It was first described by French botanist René Louiche Desfontaines. Its showy fragrant white flowers are a familiar sight to bushwalkers in the spring, and are used locally in flower arranging....
, Brachyloma daphnoides
Brachyloma daphnoides
Brachyloma daphnoides, commonly known as Daphne Heath, is a small shrub in the heather family, Ericaceae. The species has an upright habit, growing to between 0.4 and 1.5 metres in height. The leaves are 4 to 15 mm long and 1.7 to 3.6 mm wide. These are glossy green above and paler underneath...
, Dillwynia glaberrima
Dillwynia glaberrima
Dillwynia glaberrima is a plant in the pea family, native to Australia.-Description:This species is a speading or erect shrub to 2 metres in height with cylindrical leaves to 2.5 cm long, with a short, often recurved apex. The bright yellow pea flowers have red markings and are proportionately...
, D. retorta
Dillwynia retorta
Dillwynia retorta is the name given to a shrub in the pea family. They grow to about 3m high. The leaves are spirally twisted, giving them needle-like shape. Like many other Dillwynia species, this one has yellow flowers with red centres .They grow in New South Wales and Queensland....
, Allocasuarina distyla
Allocasuarina distyla
Allocasuarina distyla, or Scrub She-Oak, is a shrub or small tree of the She-oak family Casuarinaceae endemic to New South Wales....
, Bossiaea ensata
Bossiaea ensata
Bossiaea ensata, commonly known as Sword Bossiaea, is a species of flowering plant in the pea family found in eastern Australia. It was first described by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle in 1825. The species occurs in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria....
, Aotus ericoides
Aotus ericoides
Aotus ericoides , also known as Common Aotus, is a shrub in the family Fabaceae. It is endemic to eastern Australia.The species grows up to two metres in height. Its leaves are 0.6 to 2 cm long and 0.1 to 0.5 cm wide...
, Phyllota phylicoides
Phyllota phylicoides
Phyllota phylicoides is a species of flowering plant in the pea family found in New South Wales and Queensland. It was first described by George Bentham in 1837....
, and Empodisma minus. Sandmining has eradicated much of the community around Redhead
Redhead, New South Wales
Redhead is a coastal suburb of the City of Lake Macquarie in New South Wales, Australia, located south of Newcastle's central business district on the Pacific Ocean. It was named for the appearance of its headland when viewed from the sea.- History :...
. In less leached yellower sands, the community (and B. aemula) is replaced by a taller heath containing B. serrata and B. oblongifolia.
At the southern end of its range, Banksia aemula is a component of the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub (ESBS), designated an endangered ecological community. This community is found on younger, windblown sands than the heathlands to the north.
The Agnes Banks Woodland in western Sydney has been recognised by the New South Wales Government as an Endangered Ecological Community. Here Banksia aemula is an understory
Understory
Understory is the term for the area of a forest which grows at the lowest height level below the forest canopy. Plants in the understory consist of a mixture of seedlings and saplings of canopy trees together with understory shrubs and herbs...
plant in low open woodland, with scribbly gum (Eucalyptus sclerophylla
Eucalyptus sclerophylla
Eucalyptus sclerophylla, known as the Scribbly Gum, is a tree native to eastern Australia. Very similar to the related Scribbly Gum , a better known tree. The best way of distinguishing the species is the smaller hemispherical to pear shaped gumnuts of Eucalyptus sclerophylla, being 0.6 cm by...
), narrow-leaved apple (Angophora bakeri
Angophora bakeri
Angophora bakeri, known as the narrow-leaved or small-leaved apple, is a common woodland and forest shrub or tree of eastern Australia. It grows between two and ten metres tall on dry sandy soils. Named in honour of Richard Thomas Baker...
) and B. serrata as canopy trees, and B. oblongifolia, Conospermum taxifolium
Conospermum taxifolium
Conospermum taxifolium is a shrub of the Proteaceae family native to eastern Australia, first described by Gaertner in 1807....
, Ricinocarpus pinifolius, Dillwynia sericea
Dillwynia sericea
Dillwynia sericea is a small shrub in the pea family found across southeastern Australia....
and nodding geebung (Persoonia nutans
Persoonia nutans
Persoonia nutans, or Nodding Geebung , is a rare shrub native to New South Wales in eastern Australia. It is one of many species first described by Robert Brown....
) as other understory species.
On North Stradbroke Island, Banksia aemula is one of three canopy tree species of Eucalyptus signata
Eucalyptus signata
Eucalyptus signata is a tree native to eastern Australia. It is one of many trees known as the Scribbly Gum. The habitat is dry eucalyptus forest or swampy areas at low altitude. Occurring from Morisset, New South Wales up the coast and ranges to beyond the Queensland border...
dominated forest 12–15 m (40–50 ft) high, the third species being E. umbra. This forest is found on a ridge 100 m (400 ft) above sea level formed from an ancient sand dune. Here bracken (Pteridium esculentum
Pteridium esculentum
Pteridium esculentum, commonly known as Austral bracken or simply bracken, is a species of the bracken genus native to a number of countries in the Southern Hemisphere....
) dominates the understory. Other tall shrubs associated include Persoonia cornifolia
Persoonia cornifolia
Persoonia cornifolia is a shrub native to Queensland in eastern Australia....
and Acacia concurrens
Acacia concurrens
Acacia concurrens, commonly known as Curracabah or black wattle, is a shrub native to Queensland in eastern Australia....
. Here individual wallum banksias were measured at 8.3–12.1 m (25–40 ft) high, with a maximum diameter at breast height of 44 cm (20 in).
Ecology
Most ProteaceaeProteaceae
Proteaceae is a family of flowering plants distributed in the Southern Hemisphere. The family comprises about 80 genera with about 1600 species. Together with the Platanaceae and Nelumbonaceae they make up the order Proteales. Well known genera include Protea, Banksia, Embothrium, Grevillea,...
and all Banksia species, including B. scabrella, have proteoid root
Proteoid root
Proteoid roots, also known as cluster roots, are plant roots that form clusters of closely spaced short lateral rootlets. They may form a two to five centimetre thick mat just beneath the leaf litter. They enhance nutrient uptake, possibly by chemically modifying the soil environment to improve...
s, roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These roots are particularly efficient at absorbing nutrients from nutrient-poor soils, such as the phosphorus
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the chemical element that has the symbol P and atomic number 15. A multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus as a mineral is almost always present in its maximally oxidized state, as inorganic phosphate rocks...
-deficient native soils of Australia. A study of six wallum species, including B. aemula, found they have adapted to very low levels of phosphorus and are highly sensitive to increased levels of the element, leading to phosphorus toxicity. Some evidence suggests they are efficient at using potassium, and sensitive to calcium toxicity as well. A field study on North Stradbroke Island noted increased root growth in autumn (around April), but that overall root growth was more constant than other species looked at, possibly because its deeper roots had more regular access to groundwater.
A 1998 study in Bundjalung National Park
Bundjalung National Park
Bundjalung National Park is on the north coast of New South Wales, Australia, 554 km north-east of Sydney. It protects an area of coastal plain, heathland and solitary beaches between the towns of Iluka and Evans Head....
in northern New South Wales found that B. aemula inflorescences are foraged by a variety of small mammals, including marsupial
Marsupial
Marsupials are an infraclass of mammals, characterized by giving birth to relatively undeveloped young. Close to 70% of the 334 extant species occur in Australia, New Guinea, and nearby islands, with the remaining 100 found in the Americas, primarily in South America, but with thirteen in Central...
s such as Yellow-footed Antechinus
Yellow-footed Antechinus
thumb|250pxThe Yellow-footed Antechinus , also known as the Mardo, is a shrew-like marsupial found in Australia. One notable feature of the species is its sexual behavior...
(Antechinus flavipes), and rodent
Rodent
Rodentia is an order of mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must be kept short by gnawing....
s such as Pale Field Rat
Pale Field Rat
The Pale Field Rat is a nocturnal herbivore endemic in Australia. It once occupied almost all areas of mainland Australia, but is now found only in tall grassland in northern Australia....
(Rattus tunneyi), Australian Swamp Rat
Australian Swamp Rat
The Australian Swamp Rat is a species of rat occurring around the coast of south and eastern Australia. It occurs in lowland country from Fraser Island down the coast of New South Wales and Victoria to the Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia...
(R. lutreolus) and Grassland Melomys (Melomys burtoni) and even the House Mouse
House mouse
The house mouse is a small rodent, a mouse, one of the most numerous species of the genus Mus.As a wild animal the house mouse mainly lives associated with humans, causing damage to crops and stored food....
(Mus musculus). These animals carry pollen loads comparable to those of nectarivorous birds, making them effective pollinators. Grey-headed Flying Fox
Grey-headed Flying Fox
The Grey-headed Flying-Fox, Pteropus poliocephalus, is a megabat native to Australia.Members of the genus Pteropus include the largest bats in the world. The Pteropus genus has currently about 57 recognised species....
es (Pteropus poliocephalus) were also observed visiting B. aemula and their heads and bellies were noted to contact stigmas while feeding. Bird species that have been observed feeding at the flowers of B. aemula include Rainbow Lorikeet
Rainbow Lorikeet
The Rainbow Lorikeet, is a species of Australasian parrot found in Australia, eastern Indonesia , Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. In Australia, it is common along the eastern seaboard, from Queensland to South Australia and northwest Tasmania...
, Scarlet
Scarlet Honeyeater
The Scarlet Honeyeater , also known as Crimson Honeyeater, Scarlet Myzomela, Sanguineous Honeyeater or, colloquially, Bloodbird, is a small passerine bird of the Honeyeater family Meliphagidae native to the east coast of Australia, Indonesia and New Caledonia...
, and Lewin's Honeyeater
Lewin's Honeyeater
The Lewin's Honeyeater, Meliphaga lewinii, is a bird that inhabits the ranges along the east coast of Australia. It has a semicircular ear patch, pale yellow in colour.The name of this bird commemorates the Australian artist John Lewin....
s. Several other honeyeaters were recorded on B. aemula inflorescences for The Banksia Atlas
The Banksia Atlas
The Banksia Atlas is an atlas that documents the ranges, habitats and growth forms of various species and other subgeneric taxa of Banksia, an iconic Australian wildflower genus...
, including the New Holland
New Holland Honeyeater
The New Holland Honeyeater is a honeyeater species found throughout southern Australia. It was among the first birds to be scientifically described in Australia, and was initially named Certhia novaehollandiae...
, Brown
Brown Honeyeater
The Brown Honeyeater is a honeyeater, a group of birds found mainly in Australia and New Guinea which have highly developed brush-tipped tongues adapted for nectar feeding...
, White-cheeked
White-cheeked Honeyeater
The White-cheeked Honeyeater inhabits the east coast and the south-west corner of Australia. It has a large white patch on its cheek, a brown eye, and a yellow panel on its wing.- Description :...
, and Tawny-crowned Honeyeater
Tawny-crowned Honeyeater
The Tawny-crowned Honeyeater is a passerine bird native to eastern Australia.The Tawny-crowned Honeyeater was originally described by ornithologist John Latham in 1802 as Certhia melanops...
s, Noisy Miner
Noisy Miner
The Noisy Miner is a bird common to the eastern and southern states of Australia. It ranges from northern Queensland along the eastern coast to South Australia and Tasmania. Its typical diet consists of nectar, fruit and insects, and occasionally it feeds on small reptiles or amphibians...
, Little Wattlebird
Little Wattlebird
The Little Wattlebird , also known as the Brush Wattlebird, is a honeyeater, a passerine bird in the family Meliphagidae. It is found in coastal and sub-coastal south-eastern Australia.-Taxonomy:...
and Noisy Friarbird
Noisy Friarbird
The Noisy Friarbird is a passerine bird of the honeyeater family Meliphagidae native to southern New Guinea and eastern Australia. It is one of several species known as friarbirds whose heads are bare of feathers. It is brown-grey in colour, with a prominent knob on its bare black-skinned head...
. The Bundjalung field study found the Brown Honeyeater carried much higher loads of B. aemula pollen than other species measured, which included White-cheeked and Yellow-faced Honeyeater
Yellow-faced Honeyeater
The Yellow-faced Honeyeater is a medium-small bird in the honeyeater family Meliphagidae. It takes both its common name and scientific name from the distinctive yellow stripes on the sides of its head. It has a loud clear call, and is one the first birds heard in the morning...
s and Silvereye
Silvereye
The Silvereye or Wax-eye is a very small passerine bird native to Australia, New Zealand and the south-west Pacific islands of Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji...
s. Insects such as ants and bees (including the introduced honeybee) have also been recorded.
Banksia aemula resprouts from a lignotuber or shoots from epicormic buds after fire. Fire management of Banksia aemula heath in Southeast Queensland recommends 7- to 20-year fire intervals. Intervals of 10–15 years are recommended for the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub, as longer leads to overgrowth by Leptospermum laevigatum
Leptospermum laevigatum
Leptospermum laevigatum, commonly known as the Coastal Tea Tree is a woody shrub or small tree of the myrtaceae family native to eastern Australia. Salt-resistant and very hardy, it is commonly used in amenities plantings and coastal plantings. it has also been used in Western Australia where it...
. Experimenting with seed germination and early growth of B. aemula showed that phosphorus was toxic to seedlings, inhibiting growth at double normal soil concentrations and causing seedling death at quadruple normal soil concentrations. The addition of potassium or magnesium ameliorated these effects a little although potassium in high concentrations impacted on growth as well. Overall, seedlings grow slowly over the first 21 weeks of life compared with other plant species, the reasons for which are unclear, although it may be that it offers a increased chance of survival in a nutrient- or water-poor environment. Seed was killed by exposure to 150 C, but survived seven minute exposure to 100 C.
A study of coastal heaths on Pleistocene sand dunes around the Myall Lakes found B. aemula grew on ridges (dry heath) and B. oblongifolia on slopes (wet heath), and the two species did not overlap. Manipulation of seedlings in the same study area showed that B. aemula grows longer roots seeking water and that seedlings do grow in wet heath, but it is as yet unclear why the species does not grow in wet heath as well as dry heath. Unlike similar situations with banksia species in Western Australia, the two species did not appear to impact negatively on each other. A field study on seedling recruitment conducted at Broadwater National Park
Broadwater National Park
Broadwater is a national park in New South Wales, Australia, 577 km northeast of Sydney....
and Dirrawong Reserve on the New South Wales North Coast showed that generally Banksia aemula produced seedlings in low numbers but the attrition rate was low, and that seedlings had a greater survival rate on dry rather than wet heaths. Field work including the experimental planting out of seedlings at Crowdy Bay National Park
Crowdy Bay National Park
Crowdy Bay is a national park in New South Wales, Australia, 271 km northeast of Sydney....
showed that Banksia aemula seedling roots reach the water table within six months of germination, and that they can germinate in the presence or absence of recent bushfire. The reasons for bradyspory (that is fewer seeds with greater percentage of survival) is unclear, but may be a defence against seed-eating animals. Similarly in field work on North Stradbroke Island, B aemula was noted to shed its winged seeds over time between (as well as after) fire, and germinate and grow readily with little predation by herbivores.
Cultivation
In 1788, Banksia aemula was one of the first banksias to be cultivated in England, where it was illustrated in Curtis's Botanical MagazineCurtis's Botanical Magazine
The Botanical Magazine; or Flower-Garden Displayed, is an illustrated publication which began in 1787. The longest running botanical magazine, it is widely referred to by the subsequent name Curtis's Botanical Magazine....
and the rival The Botanical Register
The Botanical Register
The Botanical Register, subsequently known as Edwards's Botanical Register, was an illustrated horticultural magazine that ran from 1815 to 1847. It was started by the botanical illustrator Sydenham Edwards, who had previously illustrated The Botanical Magazine, but left after a dispute with the...
. Its shiny green leaves, showy flower spikes, huge follicles and wrinkled bark are attractive horticultural features. It is also a bird- and insect-attracting plant.
Trials in Western Australia and Hawaii have shown Banksia aemula to be resistant to Phytophthora cinnamomi
Phytophthora cinnamomi
Phytophthora cinnamomi is a soil-borne water mould that produces an infection which causes a condition in plants called root rot or dieback. The plant pathogen is one of the world's most invasive species and is present in over 70 countries from around the world.- Life cycle and effects on plants :P...
dieback. It requires a well drained slightly acid (pH
PH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
5.5–6.5) soil, preferably fairly sandy and a sunny aspect. Summer watering is also prudent, as it does not suffer water stress well. Slow-growing, the plant takes four to six years to flower from seed. It is less commonly grown than Banksia serrata. An investigation into optimum temperatures for germination found a nighttime temperature of 20–28 °C, and a daytime of 24–33 °C gave best results, and recommended summer planting times.
It has also been used as a rootstock for grafting Banksia speciosa
Banksia speciosa
The Showy Banksia is a species of large shrub or small tree in the plant genus Banksia. It reaches up to 8 m in height...
, and has potential in bonsai
Bonsai
is a Japanese art form using miniature trees grown in containers. Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Chinese tradition of penjing from which the art originated, and the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ...
. The red textured timber has been used in cabinet-making.
Cultural references
Although Banksia attenuataBanksia attenuata
Banksia attenuata, commonly known as the candlestick banksia or slender banksia, is a species of plant in the proteaceae family. Commonly a tree, it reaches 10 m high, but is often a shrub in dryer areas 0.4 to 2 m high...
was the common banksia in Australian children's author May Gibbs
May Gibbs
Cecilia May Gibbs MBE was an Australian children's author, illustrator, and cartoonist. She is best-known for her gumnut babies , and the book Snugglepot and Cuddlepie....
' own childhood in Western Australia, the old flower spikes of Banksia aemula with their large follicles are thought to have been the inspiration for the villains of her Snugglepot and Cuddlepie
Snugglepot and Cuddlepie
Snugglepot and Cuddlepie is a series of books written by Australian author May Gibbs. The books chronicle the adventures of the eponymous Snugglepot and Cuddlepie. The central story arc concerns Snugglepot and Cuddlepie and their adventures along with troubles with the villains of the story, the ...
books, the "Big Bad Banksia Men".