Eurydice II of Macedon
Encyclopedia
Eurydice was an ancient Macedon
ian queen, wife of king Amyntas III of Macedon
.
She was the daughter of Sirras
, an Illyrian
noble based in Lyncestis, Upper Macedonia
. Eurydice had four children: Alexander II
, Perdiccas III
, Philip II
, all of whom would be crowned kings, a daughter Eurynoe, and through her son Philip, she was the paternal grandmother of Alexander the Great.
Literary, inscriptional and archaeological evidence indicates that she played an important public role in Macedonian life and acted aggressively in the political arena.
Eurydice’s political career marks a turning point in Macedonian history. She is the first known royal woman who actively took political action and successfully exerted political influence.
, and the Lyncestian Arrhabaeus was her maternal grandfather. King Amyntas III of Macedon
married the young princess Eurydice in about 390 BC, probably as part of the secured peace settlement with the Illyrians
, after he was defeated by them in 393 BC. Ten years later king Amyntas III was forced to entrust a portion of his kingdom to the Greek
Chalcidians, who refused to relinquish it, and by 382 BC
had extended their control westward, including Macedon
’s capital Pella
. Sparta
, the most powerful of the Greek states at that time, intervened and restored Amyntas to his capital in 379 BC, but Macedonia had to accept subservience to Sparta.
Amyntas had another wife, a fellow kinswoman named Gygaea, who had three children. At some point during her husband’s reign, Eurydice became the dominant wife. Still it cannot be determined whether this development was immediate or gradual, linked with her family and relations, her higher status, the ages of her sons or a combination of these factors. Nevertheless, for the first time events in the life of a royal woman were also central to the political arena of Macedonia in that period and Eurydice was, however, the most important factor in the change.
Eurydice was literate, although she learned to read rather late in life, probably due to being part of a culture that still was heavily oral in nature and where literacy was not fundamental to knowledge, even more in the case of those who had the wealth and leisure to be read to. Her life career is full of controversy. According to the Roman
historian Justin, Eurydice conspired with her son-in-law Ptolemy of Aloros
to kill Amyntas, then marry Ptolemy, and then give the throne to her lover. But the queen’s daughter, Eurynoe, foiled the plot by revealing it to her father, Amyntas, who, nevertheless, spared Eurydice from punishment because of their common children. Eventually in 370/369 BC, Amyntas III died, and his eldest son, Alexander II
succeeded him. In 368 BC
, Ptolemy of Aloros killed Alexander II
, despite an earlier settlement between them, worked out by Pelopidas
, a Theban
statesman and general. Then Ptolemy was forced by Pelopidas to agree merely to be regent for Alexander’s two younger brothers, Perdiccas III
and Philip II
.
Later on Eurydice married Ptolemy.
It is unlikely that Eurydice voluntarily married her eldest son’s murderer, most probably she acted to ensure the succession of her remaining sons. A new pretender of the throne, Pausanias was very popular and was attracting support in Macedonia. Queen Eurydice asked the Athenian general Iphicrates
(their father’s adoptive son) to protect the throne for her two sons. Iphicrates drove out Pausanias. There is no evidence that Ptolemy
had any role in this matter, or suggests that anyone other than Eurydice would have influenced Iphicrates. Even if she was prompted by Ptolemy, her successful intervention in political and military affairs remains remarkably bold and without any known precedent, an extraordinary act for a royal woman. Eurydice took the unprecedented step of seeking international help when she believed the succession of her remaining sons was in jeopardy and her attempt was successful. Her unusual assertiveness, much like her daughter-in-law, the Illyrian Audata
’s daughter and granddaughter, could be tied to the women’s role in Illyrian culture.
In 365 BC
Perdiccas III avenged his brother's murder by murdering Ptolemy and taking the throne. This caused a stir amongst the families of Macedon, which called in Pelopidas to reestablish peace. As part of the peace settlement, Philip II was taken as a hostage to Thebes
. Perdiccas reigned until 359 BC, and already weakened by struggles against Athens
, he confronted the Illyria
n ruler Bardylis and died along with 4000 of his men in a disastrous battle. Eventually his youngest brother Philip II took control of the kingdom.
Eurydice was also very active in the cult activities. She may have funded the construction of the temple of Eucleia
cult at Vergina
. She had made a dedication polietisi (to or for women citizen) and perhaps to the Muses, grateful for her acquired education.
, Philip II's wife, Olympias
, her grandson, Alexander the Great, and her husband, Amyntas III, were realized by the Athenian statuary and sculptor
Leochares
in ivory and gold. They were placed in the Philippeion
, a circular building in the Altis
at Olympia
, erected by Philip II of Macedon in celebration of his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)
.
Eurydice’s tomb was found and identified by the Greek archaeologist Manolis Andronikos
in 1987 in Vergina (ancient Aigai), a UNESCO World Heritage Site, along with other royal Macedonian tombs.
In the summer of 2001, between August 13 and September 9 the tomb of Eurydice was robbed and seven marble figurines had been taken. Eurydice’s tomb had faced robbery and was partially plundered since antiquity
, probably soon after queen’s burial, but the looters had probably failed in their mission, as evidenced by two skeletons found there.
An inscribed pot fragment, dating 344/3 BC was found inside the tomb, whereas two inscriptions, one of which dated in 340 BC
, have been found in Vergina of Eurydika daughter of Sirras to goddess Eukleia.
explicitly states that Eurydice was an Illyrian, so does Libanius
and thus is stated in the massive 10th century Byzantine
encyclopedia, Suda
.
From the modern scholars and historians, Eugene N. Borza
, A. B. Bosworth and Kate Mortensen acknowledge her Illyrian ancestry, whereas Robert Malcolm Errington and Charles F. Edson dispute her Illyrian origin and favour her Lyncestian ancestry. In an inductive analysis
of the historical information over Sirras
, through an a posteriori
argument, Elias Kapetanopoulos, a Greek historian, also says that Sirras must have been a Lyncestian, not an Illyrian, as Eurydice as well.
Stories of Eurydice's plots against her husband and her sons are at odds with other historical evidence and may be fabricated. Recent scholars have noted the many implausibilities in Justin’s narrative and have acknowledged Eurydice’s near-contemporary evidences of Aeschines towards her. Aeschines
described Eurydice I as the loyal defender of her sons, whereas a Plutarch
’s passage describes Eurydice as a good model in the education of children.
Macedon
Macedonia or Macedon was an ancient kingdom, centered in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, the region of Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south....
ian queen, wife of king Amyntas III of Macedon
Amyntas III of Macedon
Amyntas III son of Arrhidaeus and father of Philip II, was king of Macedon in 393 BC, and again from 392 to 370 BC. He was also a paternal grandfather of Alexander the Great....
.
She was the daughter of Sirras
Sirras
Sirras , of Lyncestian origins, was a member of the royalty, perhaps prince-regent, of Lyncestis in Upper Macedonia. Some suggest that he was an Illyrian because Plutarch mentions that his daughter, Eurydice was derisively called by her enemies "a thrice barbarian Illyrian",...
, an Illyrian
Illyrians
The Illyrians were a group of tribes who inhabited part of the western Balkans in antiquity and the south-eastern coasts of the Italian peninsula...
noble based in Lyncestis, Upper Macedonia
Upper Macedonia
Upper Macedonia is a geographical and tribal term to describe the regions that became part of the kingdom of Macedon in the early 4th century BC. From that date, its inhabitants were politically equal to Lower Macedonians...
. Eurydice had four children: Alexander II
Alexander II of Macedon
Alexander II was king of Macedon from 371 – 369 BC, following the death of his father Amyntas VI. He was the eldest of the three sons of Amyntas and Eurydice....
, Perdiccas III
Perdiccas III of Macedon
Perdiccas III was king of Macedonia from 368 to 359 BC, succeeding his brother Alexander II.Son of Amyntas III and Eurydice, he was underage when Alexander II was killed by Ptolemy of Aloros, who then ruled as regent. In 365, Perdiccas killed Ptolemy and assumed government.Of the reign of...
, Philip II
Philip II of Macedon
Philip II of Macedon "friend" + ἵππος "horse" — transliterated ; 382 – 336 BC), was a king of Macedon from 359 BC until his assassination in 336 BC. He was the father of Alexander the Great and Philip III.-Biography:...
, all of whom would be crowned kings, a daughter Eurynoe, and through her son Philip, she was the paternal grandmother of Alexander the Great.
Literary, inscriptional and archaeological evidence indicates that she played an important public role in Macedonian life and acted aggressively in the political arena.
Eurydice’s political career marks a turning point in Macedonian history. She is the first known royal woman who actively took political action and successfully exerted political influence.
Queen of Macedon
Eurydice was born between 410-404 BC, most probably in 407 BC. She was the daughter of the Illyrian noble SirrasSirras
Sirras , of Lyncestian origins, was a member of the royalty, perhaps prince-regent, of Lyncestis in Upper Macedonia. Some suggest that he was an Illyrian because Plutarch mentions that his daughter, Eurydice was derisively called by her enemies "a thrice barbarian Illyrian",...
, and the Lyncestian Arrhabaeus was her maternal grandfather. King Amyntas III of Macedon
Amyntas III of Macedon
Amyntas III son of Arrhidaeus and father of Philip II, was king of Macedon in 393 BC, and again from 392 to 370 BC. He was also a paternal grandfather of Alexander the Great....
married the young princess Eurydice in about 390 BC, probably as part of the secured peace settlement with the Illyrians
Illyrians
The Illyrians were a group of tribes who inhabited part of the western Balkans in antiquity and the south-eastern coasts of the Italian peninsula...
, after he was defeated by them in 393 BC. Ten years later king Amyntas III was forced to entrust a portion of his kingdom to the Greek
Greeks
The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes , are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighboring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world....
Chalcidians, who refused to relinquish it, and by 382 BC
382 BC
Year 382 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Tribunate of Crassus, Mugillanus, Cornelius, Fidenas, Camerinus and Mamercinus...
had extended their control westward, including Macedon
Macedon
Macedonia or Macedon was an ancient kingdom, centered in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, the region of Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south....
’s capital Pella
Pella
Pella , an ancient Greek city located in Pella Prefecture of Macedonia in Greece, was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia.-Etymology:...
. Sparta
Sparta
Sparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
, the most powerful of the Greek states at that time, intervened and restored Amyntas to his capital in 379 BC, but Macedonia had to accept subservience to Sparta.
Amyntas had another wife, a fellow kinswoman named Gygaea, who had three children. At some point during her husband’s reign, Eurydice became the dominant wife. Still it cannot be determined whether this development was immediate or gradual, linked with her family and relations, her higher status, the ages of her sons or a combination of these factors. Nevertheless, for the first time events in the life of a royal woman were also central to the political arena of Macedonia in that period and Eurydice was, however, the most important factor in the change.
Eurydice was literate, although she learned to read rather late in life, probably due to being part of a culture that still was heavily oral in nature and where literacy was not fundamental to knowledge, even more in the case of those who had the wealth and leisure to be read to. Her life career is full of controversy. According to the Roman
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
historian Justin, Eurydice conspired with her son-in-law Ptolemy of Aloros
Ptolemy of Aloros
Ptolemy of Aloros , was sent by King Amyntas III of Macedon as an envoy to Athens c. 375-373 BC. After Amyntas' death, he began a liaison with his widow, Eurydice. In 368, he assassinated her son, his predecessor Alexander II in order to gain control of the throne. This caused a stir in the...
to kill Amyntas, then marry Ptolemy, and then give the throne to her lover. But the queen’s daughter, Eurynoe, foiled the plot by revealing it to her father, Amyntas, who, nevertheless, spared Eurydice from punishment because of their common children. Eventually in 370/369 BC, Amyntas III died, and his eldest son, Alexander II
Alexander II of Macedon
Alexander II was king of Macedon from 371 – 369 BC, following the death of his father Amyntas VI. He was the eldest of the three sons of Amyntas and Eurydice....
succeeded him. In 368 BC
368 BC
Year 368 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Tribunate of Cornelius, Praetextatus, Structus, Capitolinus, Crassus and Cicurinus...
, Ptolemy of Aloros killed Alexander II
Alexander II of Macedon
Alexander II was king of Macedon from 371 – 369 BC, following the death of his father Amyntas VI. He was the eldest of the three sons of Amyntas and Eurydice....
, despite an earlier settlement between them, worked out by Pelopidas
Pelopidas
Pelopidas was an important Theban statesman and general in Greece.-Athlete and warrior:He was a member of a distinguished family, and possessed great wealth which he expended on his friends, while content to lead the life of an athlete...
, a Theban
Thebes, Greece
Thebes is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range, which divides Boeotia from Attica, and on the southern edge of the Boeotian plain. It played an important role in Greek myth, as the site of the stories of Cadmus, Oedipus, Dionysus and others...
statesman and general. Then Ptolemy was forced by Pelopidas to agree merely to be regent for Alexander’s two younger brothers, Perdiccas III
Perdiccas III of Macedon
Perdiccas III was king of Macedonia from 368 to 359 BC, succeeding his brother Alexander II.Son of Amyntas III and Eurydice, he was underage when Alexander II was killed by Ptolemy of Aloros, who then ruled as regent. In 365, Perdiccas killed Ptolemy and assumed government.Of the reign of...
and Philip II
Philip II of Macedon
Philip II of Macedon "friend" + ἵππος "horse" — transliterated ; 382 – 336 BC), was a king of Macedon from 359 BC until his assassination in 336 BC. He was the father of Alexander the Great and Philip III.-Biography:...
.
Later on Eurydice married Ptolemy.
It is unlikely that Eurydice voluntarily married her eldest son’s murderer, most probably she acted to ensure the succession of her remaining sons. A new pretender of the throne, Pausanias was very popular and was attracting support in Macedonia. Queen Eurydice asked the Athenian general Iphicrates
Iphicrates
Iphicrates was an Athenian general, the son of a shoemaker, who flourished in the earlier half of the 4th century BC....
(their father’s adoptive son) to protect the throne for her two sons. Iphicrates drove out Pausanias. There is no evidence that Ptolemy
Ptolemy of Aloros
Ptolemy of Aloros , was sent by King Amyntas III of Macedon as an envoy to Athens c. 375-373 BC. After Amyntas' death, he began a liaison with his widow, Eurydice. In 368, he assassinated her son, his predecessor Alexander II in order to gain control of the throne. This caused a stir in the...
had any role in this matter, or suggests that anyone other than Eurydice would have influenced Iphicrates. Even if she was prompted by Ptolemy, her successful intervention in political and military affairs remains remarkably bold and without any known precedent, an extraordinary act for a royal woman. Eurydice took the unprecedented step of seeking international help when she believed the succession of her remaining sons was in jeopardy and her attempt was successful. Her unusual assertiveness, much like her daughter-in-law, the Illyrian Audata
Audata
Audata was an Illyrian princess and later a Macedonian queen when she married Philip II of Macedon in 359 BC. She was the daughter or niece daughter of Bardyllis, the Illyrian king of the Dardanian State...
’s daughter and granddaughter, could be tied to the women’s role in Illyrian culture.
In 365 BC
365 BC
Year 365 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Aventinensis and Ahala...
Perdiccas III avenged his brother's murder by murdering Ptolemy and taking the throne. This caused a stir amongst the families of Macedon, which called in Pelopidas to reestablish peace. As part of the peace settlement, Philip II was taken as a hostage to Thebes
Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)
See Thebes, Greece for the modern city built on the ancient ruins.Ancient Thebes was a Boeotian city-state , situated to the north of the Cithaeron range, which divides Boeotia from Attica, and on the southern edge of the Boeotian plain...
. Perdiccas reigned until 359 BC, and already weakened by struggles against Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
, he confronted the Illyria
Illyria
In classical antiquity, Illyria was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by the Illyrians....
n ruler Bardylis and died along with 4000 of his men in a disastrous battle. Eventually his youngest brother Philip II took control of the kingdom.
Eurydice was also very active in the cult activities. She may have funded the construction of the temple of Eucleia
Eucleia
Eucleia was the ancient Greek female spirit of glory and good repute. She was the sister of Eupheme, Philophrosyne and Euthenia. Along with her sisters, she was regarded as a member of the younger Charites...
cult at Vergina
Vergina
Vergina is a small town in northern Greece, located in the peripheral unit of Imathia, Central Macedonia. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Veroia, of which it is a municipal unit...
. She had made a dedication polietisi (to or for women citizen) and perhaps to the Muses, grateful for her acquired education.
Archaeological findings
Eurydice’s portrait-statue, together with those of her most celebrated son Philip IIPhilip II of Macedon
Philip II of Macedon "friend" + ἵππος "horse" — transliterated ; 382 – 336 BC), was a king of Macedon from 359 BC until his assassination in 336 BC. He was the father of Alexander the Great and Philip III.-Biography:...
, Philip II's wife, Olympias
Olympias
Olympias was a Greek princess of Epirus, daughter of king Neoptolemus I of Epirus, the fourth wife of the king of Macedonia, Philip II, and mother of Alexander the Great...
, her grandson, Alexander the Great, and her husband, Amyntas III, were realized by the Athenian statuary and sculptor
Sculpture
Sculpture is three-dimensional artwork created by shaping or combining hard materials—typically stone such as marble—or metal, glass, or wood. Softer materials can also be used, such as clay, textiles, plastics, polymers and softer metals...
Leochares
Leochares
Leochares was a Greek sculptor from Athens, who lived in the 4th century BC.-Works:Leochares worked at the construction of the Mausoleum of Maussollos at Halicarnassus, one of the "Seven Wonders of the Ancient World". The Diana of Versailles is a Roman copy of his original...
in ivory and gold. They were placed in the Philippeion
Philippeion
The Philippeion in the Altis of Olympia was an Ionic circular memorial of ivory and gold, which contained statues of Philip's family, Alexander the Great, Olympias, Amyntas III and Eurydice I. It was made by the Athenian sculptor Leochares in celebration of Philip's victory at the battle of Chaeronea...
, a circular building in the Altis
Altis
Altis was a location in what is today Peloponnese, Greece, on a little plain in the Elis Prefecture, on the right shore of the Alfeios River near the city of Pyrgos, around 18 kilometers away from the Ionian Sea and at the foot of Mount Cronion....
at Olympia
Olympia, Greece
Olympia , a sanctuary of ancient Greece in Elis, is known for having been the site of the Olympic Games in classical times, comparable in importance to the Pythian Games held in Delphi. Both games were held every Olympiad , the Olympic Games dating back possibly further than 776 BC...
, erected by Philip II of Macedon in celebration of his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)
Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)
The Battle of Chaeronea was fought in 338 BC, near the city of Chaeronea in Boeotia, between the forces of Philip II of Macedon and an alliance of Greek city-states...
.
Eurydice’s tomb was found and identified by the Greek archaeologist Manolis Andronikos
Manolis Andronikos
Manolis Andronikos was a Greek archaeologist and a professor at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. He was born on October 23, 1919 at Bursa . Later, his family moved to Thessaloniki....
in 1987 in Vergina (ancient Aigai), a UNESCO World Heritage Site, along with other royal Macedonian tombs.
In the summer of 2001, between August 13 and September 9 the tomb of Eurydice was robbed and seven marble figurines had been taken. Eurydice’s tomb had faced robbery and was partially plundered since antiquity
Classical antiquity
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world...
, probably soon after queen’s burial, but the looters had probably failed in their mission, as evidenced by two skeletons found there.
An inscribed pot fragment, dating 344/3 BC was found inside the tomb, whereas two inscriptions, one of which dated in 340 BC
340 BC
Year 340 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Torquatus and Mus...
, have been found in Vergina of Eurydika daughter of Sirras to goddess Eukleia.
Ancestry and plot disputes
PlutarchPlutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
explicitly states that Eurydice was an Illyrian, so does Libanius
Libanius
Libanius was a Greek-speaking teacher of rhetoric of the Sophist school. During the rise of Christian hegemony in the later Roman Empire, he remained unconverted and regarded himself as a Hellene in religious matters.-Life:...
and thus is stated in the massive 10th century Byzantine
Byzantine
Byzantine usually refers to the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages.Byzantine may also refer to:* A citizen of the Byzantine Empire, or native Greek during the Middle Ages...
encyclopedia, Suda
Suda
The Suda or Souda is a massive 10th century Byzantine encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean world, formerly attributed to an author called Suidas. It is an encyclopedic lexicon, written in Greek, with 30,000 entries, many drawing from ancient sources that have since been lost, and often...
.
From the modern scholars and historians, Eugene N. Borza
Eugene N. Borza
Eugene N. Borza was a professor emeritus of ancient history at Pennsylvania State University. He has written many works on the ancient kingdom of Macedonia.-Published works:...
, A. B. Bosworth and Kate Mortensen acknowledge her Illyrian ancestry, whereas Robert Malcolm Errington and Charles F. Edson dispute her Illyrian origin and favour her Lyncestian ancestry. In an inductive analysis
Inductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning, also known as induction or inductive logic, is a kind of reasoning that constructs or evaluates propositions that are abstractions of observations. It is commonly construed as a form of reasoning that makes generalizations based on individual instances...
of the historical information over Sirras
Sirras
Sirras , of Lyncestian origins, was a member of the royalty, perhaps prince-regent, of Lyncestis in Upper Macedonia. Some suggest that he was an Illyrian because Plutarch mentions that his daughter, Eurydice was derisively called by her enemies "a thrice barbarian Illyrian",...
, through an a posteriori
A Posteriori
Apart from the album, some additional remixes were released exclusively through the iTunes Store. They are:*"Eppur si muove" – 6:39*"Dreaming of Andromeda" Apart from the album, some additional remixes were released exclusively through the iTunes Store. They are:*"Eppur si muove" (Tocadisco...
argument, Elias Kapetanopoulos, a Greek historian, also says that Sirras must have been a Lyncestian, not an Illyrian, as Eurydice as well.
Stories of Eurydice's plots against her husband and her sons are at odds with other historical evidence and may be fabricated. Recent scholars have noted the many implausibilities in Justin’s narrative and have acknowledged Eurydice’s near-contemporary evidences of Aeschines towards her. Aeschines
Aeschines
Aeschines was a Greek statesman and one of the ten Attic orators.-Life:Although it is known he was born in Athens, the records regarding his parentage and early life are conflicting; but it seems probable that his parents, though poor, were respectable. Aeschines' father was Atrometus, an...
described Eurydice I as the loyal defender of her sons, whereas a Plutarch
Plutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
’s passage describes Eurydice as a good model in the education of children.
See also
- Ancient Macedonia
- List of kings of Macedon
- IllyriaIllyriaIn classical antiquity, Illyria was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by the Illyrians....
- LynkestisLynkestisLynkestis or Lynchestia was a region of Upper Macedonia on the southern borders of Illyria which was ruled by kings, lords and independent or semi-independent chieftains till the later Argead rulers of Macedon neutralized their independence with dynastic alliances and the practice of bringing up...
- Illyrian warfareIllyrian warfareThe history of Illyrian warfare spans from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC up to the 1st century AD in the region of Illyria and in southern Italy where the Iapygian civilization flourished....