Illyrian warfare
Encyclopedia
The history of Illyrian warfare spans from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC up to the 1st century AD in the region of Illyria
and in southern Italy
where the Iapygian civilization flourished.
It concerns the armed conflicts of the Illyrian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans
in Italy
as well as pirate activity in Mediterranean
. Apart from conflicts between Illyrians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Illyrian tribes too.
Illyrians in ancient sources were renowned warriors when it came to combat. They were known as crafty shipbuilders in ancient times and controlled much of the Adriatic and Ionian Sea
using their numerous warships. Illyrians had effective weapons such as the sica
, which was a curved-tip sword originating in Illyria but adopted all over the Balkans and later by the Romans
.
and specifically in the legend of Cadmus
and Harmonia
, where Cadmus led the Illyrian Encheleans in a victorious campaign against the Illyrians
after a divine advice from the Oracle
. If the legend is true this war would have occurred around 2000 BC, the time when Cadmus has been claimed to have lived.
and Greeks
: These conflicts happened because of land, pastures and areas of natural substances such iron and salt. The Romans before they conquered Illyria were involved in tribal conflicts and using them to their advantage. The most known incident is the involvement of the Romans in a war between the Dalmatians and the Liburnians over Promona, which in the end were encouraged to take peace. Commonly the Romans were ordered to act as referees in their bloody fights. The tribe of Autariatae
fought against the Ardiaei for control of valuable salt mines.The Ardiaei were notorious before being defeated by the Romans. The Daorsi had suffered attacks from the Delmatae to the extent that they requested Roman aid.
in the 8th century BC. The Enchele held dominance for two centuries until their state crumbled from the start of the 6th century BC. After the Enchelei the Taulanti formed their own state in 7th century BC
. The Autariatae under Pleurias
(337 BC) were a kingdom. The Kingdom of the Ardiaei began at 230 BC and ended at 167 BC. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those of Bardyllis
of the Dardani
and of Agron of the Ardiaei who created the last and best-known Illyrian kingdom. Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well. As for the Dardanians, they always had separate domains from the rest of the Illyrians
.
The Illyrian kingdoms were composed of small areas within region of Illyria. The exact extent of even the most prominent ones remains unknown. Only the Romans
ruled the entire region. The internal organization of the south Illyrian kingdoms points to imitation of their neighboring Greek kingdoms and influence from the Greek and Hellenistic world in the growth of their urban
centers. Polybius
gives as an image of society within an Illyrian kingdom as peasant infantry fought under aristocrats which he calls in Greek Polydynastae (Greek: Πολυδυνάστες) where each one controlled a town within the kingdom. The monarchy was established on hereditary lines and Illyrian rulers used marriages as a means of alliance with other powers. Pliny
(23–79 AD) writes that the people that formed the nucleus of the Illyrian kingdom were 'Illyrians proper' or Illyrii Proprie Dicti. They were the Taulantii
, the Pleraei, the Endirudini, Sasaei, Grabaei and the Labeatae. These later joined to form the Docleatae.
Navigable skills and mobility of the Liburnians on their swift ships, the Liburna
allowed them to be present, very early, not only along the Eastern Adriatic
coast, they reached also the opposite, western, Italic
coast. This process started during great Pannonia
n-Adriatic movements and migrations at the end of the Bronze Age
, from the 12th to 10th century BC. In the Iron Age
, they were already in the Italic coast, establishing colonies in Apulia
and especially in Picenum
, where specific Iron Age cultures developed.
From the 9th to the 6th century BC there was certain koine - cultural unity in the Adriatic, with the general Liburninan seal, whose naval supremacy meant both political and economical authority through a several centuries. Some similar toponyms attested not only Liburnian but also other Illyrian migrations to the central and south Italy, respectively Apulia
and Picenum
.
In the 9th century BC their ruled the inner Adriatic sea and in the first half of the 8th century BC they expanded southwards. According to Strabo
, the Liburnians became masters of island of Corcyra, making it their most southern outpost, by which they controlled the passage into the Adriatic Sea. In 735 BC, they abandoned it, under pressure of Corinth
ian ruler Hersikrates, during the period of Corinthian expansion to South Italy, Sicily
and the Ionian Sea. However their position in the Adriatic Sea was still strong in the next few centuries. Corinth
was the first that went up against the Liburnians. The Bacchiade
expelled the Liburni and the Eretria
ns from Corcyra. About 625 BC, the Taulantii
asked for the aid of Corinth and Corcyra against the Liburni. The Greeks were victorious.
Liburnian control of the Adriatic Sea coasts started to decrease in the 6th century BC.
According to Pliny the Elder
, the Liburnians lost supremacy in the Western Adriatic coast due to invasion of the Umbri
and the Gauls
, obviously caused by strengthening and expansion of the Etruscan
union in the 6th century BC, whose rich material presence in the basin of Po river, undoubtedly meant weakening of the Liburnian thalassocracy influence in the north-west of Adriatic. Celtic breaks to the Italian peninsula, after 400 BC, significantly changed ethnic and political picture there, it directly imperiled remaining Liburnian possessions on the western coast.
Unlike at the western Adriatic coast, Celt
ic raids to the narrow Liburnian region at the eastern Adriatic coast were peripheral in geographical meaning. Despite of recorded material exchange, Celtic archaeological forms are marginal and secondary in regions settled by Histri
, Iapodes, Dalmatae
and are especially rare in Liburnian Iron Age heritage.
became king of the Dardanians and creator of a new dynasty after down-throwing Sirras
the previous Illyrian king who had entered in a peace treaty over the control of Lyncestia. Bardyllis succeeded in bringing various tribes in a single organisation and soon became a formidable power in the Balkans resulting in a change of relations with Macedonia. Using new war tactics in 393 BC the Illyrians won a decisive battle against Amyntas III expelling him and ruling Macedonia through a puppet king. in 392 BC Amyntas III allied himself with the Thessalians and took Macedonia under his rule from the Dardanians. After continuous invasions Bardyllis forced the Macedon's to pay him an annual tribute in 372 BC.
In 385 BC Bardyllis extended his rule over the Greek state of Epirus after defeating the Molossians
. This time the Illyrian were allied with and aided by Dionysius
of Syracuse
to place Alcetas that was a refugee in his court to the throne. Dionysius
planned to control all the Ionian Sea
. Sparta
had intervened as soon as the events became known and expelled the Illyrians who were led by Bardyllis. Despite being aided by 2000 Greek hoplites and five hundred suits of Greek armour
, the Illyrians were defeated by the Sparta
ns led by Agesilaus
but not before ravaging the region and killing 15,000 Molossians. Their short rule over Epirus of northern Greece was over. In 360 BC, another Illyrian attack forced the Molossian king Arymbas
to evacuate his non-combatant population to Aetolia
and let the Illyrians loot freely. The stratagem
worked and the Molossians fell upon the Illyrians who were encumbered with booty and defeated them. In the same year Arymbas of the Mollosians defeats the Illyrians after they raided and looted Epirus.
In 360 BC the southern Paeonian tribes launch raids against Macedonia in support of an Illyrian invasion. In 359 BC Bardyllis won a decisive battle against the Macedonian king Perdiccas III in which the king himself was killed along with 4,000 of his soldiers and the Illyrians occupied the cities of upper Macedonia.
The Macedonians king to reconquer upper Macedonia had failed.
Following the disastrous defeat of Macedonians by Bardyllis, when king Philip took control of Macedonian throne in 358 BC, he reaffirmed the treaty with the Illyrians marrying the Illyrian princess Audata, probably the daughter or the niece of Bardyllis. This gave Philip valuable time to gather his forces and to defeat the Illyrians still under Bardyllis in the decisive Erigon Valley battle by killing about 7,000 of them and eliminating the Illyrian menace for some time. In this battle Bardyllis himself was killed at the age of 90 after Philip II refused a peace treaty offered by the Illyrians. In 335 BC the southern Illyrian states were all subjected by Alexander the Great and in only at the end of the 4th century BC won their independence.
In 358 BC Phillip of Macedon defeated Bardyllis
, Diodorus Siculus
(1st century BC) writes this of the event;
From the 4th century BC, Celtic groups pushed into the Carpathian region and the Danube basin, coinciding with their movement into Italy. According to legend, 300,000 Celts moved into Italy and Illyria. By the 3rd century, the native inhabitants of Pannonia were almost completely Celticized. The Illyrians had been waging war against the Greeks, leaving their western flank weak. Whilst Alexander ruled Greece, the Celts dared not to push south near Greece. Therefore, early Celtic expeditions were concentrated against Illyrian tribes
We have little information about the affairs in the Illyrian hinterland, but we do know that the first Balkan tribe to be defeated by the Celts was the Autariatae
, who during the 4th century had enjoyed a hegemony over much of the central Balkans, centred on the Morava valley. An interesting account of cunning Celtic tactics is revealed in their attacks on the Ardiaei. In 310 BC, Celtic general Molistomos attacked deep into Illyrian territory, subduing the Dardanians and the Paeonians.
In 280 BC they moved in three directions: toward Macedonia and Illyria, toward Greece, and toward Thrace. The main army according to Diodorus, of 150,000 foot soldiers equipped with great shields and 10,000 horsemen was followed by 2,000 wagons transporting food and equipment. All the states of the Balkans at this time looked at this movement with apprehension. Ptolemy, the king of Macedonia, took the news of the Gauls casually. He looked down with derision on the proposal of the king of the Dardanians possibly Monunius who sent delegates to say that they could offer 20,000 warriors to assist him. In an insulting manner, he said that the work was for the Macedonians to do. When the king of the Dardanians was told of this, he replied that the soon glorious Macedonian kingdom would fall because of the immaturity of a youth. And so it happened, for in the battle that took place a few days later in Macedonia, the Macedonian army was routed and Ptolemy was wounded and taken prisoner. After continuing south and raiding the Delphi
the Gallic army decided to return up north to their homeland but were all wiped out by the Dardanians, through which they had to pass.
In the First Illyrian War, which lasted from 229 BC to 228 BC, Rome's concern with the trade routes running across the Adriatic Sea increased after the First Punic War
, when many tribes of Illyria
became united under one queen, Teuta. The death of a Roman envoy named Coruncanius on the orders of Teuta and the attack on trading vessels owned by Italian merchants under Rome's protection, prompted the Roman senate to dispatch a Roman army under the command of the consul
s Lucius Postumius Albinus (consul 234 and 229 BC)
and Gnaeus Fulvius Centumalus. Rome expelled Illyrian garrisons at the Greek
cities Epidamnus, Apollonia
, Korkyra
, Pharos
and others and established a protectorate over these Greek towns.
The Romans
also set up Demetrius of Pharos
as a power in Illyria to counter-balance the power of Teuta.
The Second Illyrian War lasted from 220 BC to 219 BC. In 219 BC the Roman Republic
was at war with the Celts of Cisalpine Gaul
, and the Second Punic War
with Carthage was beginning. These distractions gave Demetrius the time he needed to build a new Illyrian war fleet. Leading this fleet of 90 ships, Demetrius sailed south of Lissus, violating his earlier treaty and starting the war.
Demetrius' fleet first attacked Pylos
where he captured 50 ships after several attempts. From Pylos the fleet sailed to the Cyclades
, quelling resistance they found on the way. Demetrius foolishly sent a fleet across the Adriatic, and, with the Illyrian forces divided, the fortified city of Dimale
was captured by the Roman fleet under Lucius Aemilius Paulus
. From Dimale
the navy went towards Pharos. The forces of Rome routed the Illyrians and Demetrius fled to Macedon
where he became a trusted councilor at the court of Philip V of Macedon
, and remained until his death at Messene
in 214 BC.
During the Third Illyrian War in 168 BC the Illyrian king Gentius
allied himself with the Macedonians. First in 171 BC, he was allied with the Romans against the Macedonians
, but in 169 he changed sides and allied himself with Perseus of Macedon
. He arrested two Roman legati and destroyed the cities of Apollonia
and Dyrrhachium
, which were allied with Rome. In 168 he was defeated at Scodra by a Roman force under L. Anicius Gallus, and in 167 brought to Rome as a captive to participate in Gallus' triumph
, after which he was interned in Iguvium.
In the Illyrian War of 229 BC, 219 BC and 168 BC, Rome
overran the Illyria
n settlements and suppressed piracy
, which had made Adriatic Sea
an unsafe region for Roman commerce. There were three Roman campaigns
: the first against Teuta the second against Demetrius of Pharos
and the third against Gentius
. The first Roman campaign of 229 BC marked the first time that the Roman Navy
crossed the Adriatic in order to launch the invasion.
forces that lasted for four years beginning in AD 6 and ending in AD 9. In AD 6, several regiments of Daesitiates, natives of area that now comprises central Bosnia and Herzegovina
, led by Bato the Daesitiate (Bato I
), were gathered in one place to prepare to join Augustus's stepson and senior military commander Tiberius
in a war against the Germans
. Instead, the Daesitiates mutinied and defeated a Roman force sent against them. The Daesitiates were soon joined by the Breuci led by Bato of the Breuci (Bato II
), another community inhabiting the region between the rivers Sava and Drava
in modern Croatia
. They gave battle to a second Roman force from Moesia
led by Caecina Severus (the governor of Moesia). Despite their defeat, they inflicted heavy casualties at the Battle of Sirmium
. The rebels were now joined by a large number of other communities. At risk was the strategic province of Illyricum
, recently expanded to include the territory of the Pannonii, an indigenous communities inhabiting the region between the rivers Drava
and Sava, who were subjugated by Rome in 12–9 BC. Illyricum was on Italy's eastern flank, exposing the Roman heartland to the fear of a rebel invasion.
Augustus ordered Tiberius to break off operations in Germany and move his main army to Illyricum. Tiberius sent Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus
(the governor of Dalmatia
and Pannonia
) ahead with troops. The panic broke out in Rome and Augustus raised a second task force under Tiberius's nephew Germanicus
. He resorted to the compulsory purchase and emancipation of thousands of slaves in order to amass enough troops. This happened for the first time since the aftermath of the Battle of Cannae
two centuries earlier. At one moment, in winter AD 6/7, 10 legions were deployed and an equivalent number of auxilia (70 cohors, 10 ala
and more than 10,000 veterans). In addition, they were assisted by a large number of Thracian
troops deployed by their King Rhoemetalces I
, a Roman amicus ("ally") a grand total of some 100,000 men.
They faced further reverses on the battlefield and a bitter guerrilla war in the Bosnian
mountains, but bitter fighting also occurred in southern Pannonia around Mons Almus (modern Fruška Gora
) near Sirmium
. It took them three years of hard fighting to quell the revolt, which was described by the Roman historian Suetonius
as the most difficult conflict faced by Rome since the Punic Wars
two centuries earlier. Tiberius finally quelled the revolt in AD 9. This was just in time: that same year Arminius
destroyed
Varus
's three legions in Germany. The Roman high command did not doubt that Arminius would have formed a grand alliance with the Illyrians.
The fighting of the Illyrian Revolt had lasting effects on Roman soldiers. Unhappy with their payment of swampy and mountainous Pannonian lands for such harsh military service, and with abuses relating to their pay and conditions, Roman soldiers staged a mutiny in AD 14 demanding recompense. Tiberius
dispatched his son, Drusus, to pacify the mutineers.
Illyrians in ancient sources were known as brave and skilled fighters. The Illyrians appeared in war as free warriors under their rulers or kings. Similar to other societies the status of a leader was determined by the number of warriors who followed him. Obedience to a higher authority such as a king was channeled through the collective loyalty of a tribe to the chief. In historical sources they are described as a peasant infantry fighting under aristocratic proprietors (polydynastae) each one controlling a town within the kingdom. The Dalmatians were known to use Partisan tactics against the Romans which were successful in inflicting serious defeats on the best of the Roman legions.
Much more is known on the tactics of warfare of the southern Illyrians. It is supposed that The Illyrian since the 4th century BC had warrior formations which did not differ from Macedonian phalanxes
. The best example of this organization was shown when Bardyllis
led his army under war against the Macedonians under Philip II
.
Diodorus Siculus
(1st century BC) writes of the Illyrian phalanxes in this battle that was an attempt for a coordinated stance by forming a square. His exact words are: "Ἰλλυριοὶ συντάξαντες ἑαυτούς εἰς πλινθίον ἐρρωμένος".
In the 2nd century BC the army of Agron and Teuta is no more represented in phalanxes but in smaller troops, armored well and fast moving. These tactics also used in Roman times were ready for independent operations and so were much affective than earlier phalanxes. These exact tactics were agile for quick and surprising actions and soon showed to be superior against Greek tactics and as a result the Illyrians received some wonderful victories against the Greeks.
On the sea the Illyrians used guerrilla-partisan tactics with their sophisticated navy. These sea tactics made the Illyrians masters of the Adriatic Sea
for many centuries. Their ships, which were relatively small were not capable of direct naval battle with the heavier war-ships of the Greeks and Romans and most of the time were defeated. An exception is the victory over the island of Paxoi when the Illyrians used a new form of tactic which involved connecting their ships in groups of four and attacking the Greek ships.
were used to harass and break up enemy formations, so that other warriors could then get in amongst their enemies. The members of the warband are lightly armed and equipped, relying more on speed as a protection from foes. Any archers caught in the open by cavalry
would be in trouble unless they could withdraw to more favorable ground or behind a shield wall of allied warriors. Their simple bow
s had a short range and were ineffective against even leather armor at a range of 50 to 100 meters. These archers are at their best in wooded country, where their superior stealth skills learned on the hunt can be put to use.
Illyrian light spearmen learned to fight in ordered formations and with short spears and javelins in order to break up the formations of their enemies. They were not particularly reliable soldiers. They could give a good account of themselves in battle if deployed properly. They wore no armor, and had only a light shield
for protection, so most other infantry would slaughter them in droves. They fended off light cavalry for a time, if need be. Few Illyrian heavy spearmen, mostly those belonging to the upper social class, afforded weapons imported from Greece and fought using long spears used overhand and large round shields. They also often preferred to wear a crested Illyrian helmet. The body protection of theirs was the heaviest that was to be found amongst most of the Illyrians. The heavy Illyrian spearmen fought well as personal glory was the way to status.
Illyrian footmen were drawn from the unruly tribes of Illyria in the western Balkans. Together with their javelins, they were armed with a short sword or an axe and shield which, coupled with their innate aggression and mobility in rough terrain, made them useful in close engagements with light troops, and for ambushes. However, the lack of any other armour means that once their javelins were spent, they were best kept away from heavier enemy troops, especially cavalry.
Illyrian heavy swordsmen had learned to fight in relatively ordered formations with swords, javelins and Illyrian shields in order to break up the formations of their enemies. This made them a dangerous and versatile enemy, due to the fact that they could carry an inordinate amount of light javelins and follow a literal shower of these javelins with a thunderous charge with swords. They were impetuous infantry wearing helmets and pieces of Hellenic influenced equipement but couldn't be considered a heavy unit since the lack of heavy armour. If they were used properly they could become a key unit in the army of any general with enough gold
to afford them.
Illyrian light cavalry were fast moving horsemen armed with axes and javelins. They were not armoured, relying instead in their speed and in trying to catch the enemy by surprise. They were excellent for breaking up skirmishers, attacking light and medium infantry as well as light cavalry and pursuing already broken enemies to prevent them rallying and rejoining a battle. Their axes were useful against armoured enemies. The Illyrian cavalry consisted of fast moving horsemen armed with spears and javelins.
(239 BC – 169 BC) who was of Messapian
origin. Weaponry was very important to the Illyrian in the time of war however sometimes only the rich and nobles could afford some types such as greaves and helmets. A lot of armor was imported to mainly from the Greek mainland proved by the findings of Greek weapons in the Glacinac graves dating from the 7th century BC.
Shields were used among the Illyrian as early as the Bronze Age
. In the Iron Age
two types of shiels were used, the Illyrian circular shield and the oval/rectangular type used by the northern Illyrians. The most common was the circular shield which was made of wood and leather with a bronze
boss and was like a mostly light pelte. The Illyrian circular shield resembled the Macedonian version but differed from the number of circular decortication. Their shapes with either round (peltes), rectangular or oval. A type of wooden oblong
shield with an iron boss was introduced to Illyria from the Celts. This type of shield resembled the Illyrian oval sheld used in northern Illyria.
Breast-armor and greaves were a specialty for the rich only in Illyrian society. Bronze breast-armor was used very rarely by the northern Illyrians and only three examples have been discovered do far in Slovenia
. However another form of body armor was a bronze pectoral that may have protected part of the back as well. It was more like a disc "breastplate" of 10 cm in diameter. Greaves to protect the legs were used from the 7th century BC and probably even earlier. They first appeared in Illyria from its southern borders and are found only in princely graves.
In northern Illyria the Bronze helmet was employed. The Bronze helmet developed into the common Conical helmet which sometimes contained a plume. The most intriguing of all Illyrian helmets was developed, the Shmarjet helmet, was made by the Japodes in the Lika valley. It was mades from wicker and chain-mail while metal plates around the sides were optional. Under influence from Illyrias northern neighbours, the Italic peoples, the Negau helmet
helmet was used from the 5th century BC to the 4th century BC. The most widespread helmet was the Illyrian helmet with its use beginning from the 7th century BC. The Illyrian helmet was made from bronze and consisited of a great, crested plume on the top. The origin and the time period this helmet used has been a subject of much debate. Some experts allocate its origins in Corinth
and clain ot went out of use in Illyrian in the 4 th century BC. Others claim that the helmet has its origins in Illyria and that it was used up to the 2nd century BC proven by depictions on Illyrian city coins of the time.
The principal sword of the Illyrians was the sica
, a single edged curved sword similar to the Greek machaira. The sica was developed during the Bronze Age. The sica's blade was about 16-18 inches long (40 – 45 cm). It became widely used an adopted by other peoples such as the Thracians
, Dacians and the Romans. The Illyrian also used the fighting sword short curved swords, long swords in addition to various knives. According to historian John Wilkes:
The Illyrian's also used a variety of other weapons, like javelins, long metallic spears called Sibyna (Ancient Greek
Σιβύνη) that resembled boar spear
s, short thrusting spears, battle axes, single-handed axes that could be hurled and also bows and arrows which were used from the start of the 2nd millennium BC.
Illyrians acted as mercenaries on several occasions whether on the side of the Greeks or the Romans. Perdiccas II of Macedon
had hired Illyrian mercenaries in 5th century BC but they betrayed him, allying with his enemy, Arrhabaeus of Lyncus. In another incident, Lysimachus
killed all of his 5,000 Illyrian mercenaries (of the Autariatae
tribe) to the last man, because he was convinced that they would join the enemy. Previously in 302 BC 2,000 of his Illyrian mercenaries had defected to Antigonus
. Illyrians were not considered as reliable mercenaries, in the ancient world but were at the same time acknowledged as a skilled fighting force
The nobility had access to breastplates and greaves whilst the bulk of the army did not.The kings did not resemble the rest of the army and were the only ones with full body protection which was a rarity. Illyrian kings and rulers wore bronze torques around their necks and were heavily armored in antithesis to the bulk of their armies. A number of weapons and armaments were imported from Greece
including helmets. Armaments were mostly made of bronze
. Another form of body armor was a bronze pectoral
(that may have protected part of the back as well). It was more like a disc "breastplate" of 10 cm in diameter.Local greaves made of bronze were strapped on the legs. Metal riveted belts were used as well.
The Illyrian rulers were accompanied by fast moving horsemen armed with spears and javelins.
Like all general's guards, this unit was best committed to the fight at the point of crisis, when the leaders inspirational leadership and the combat power of his men could tip the balance. They were also well trained enough to fight effectively in continued hand-to-hand combat if needed.
in the 3rd century BC. The Illyrian tactics consisted of lashing their galleys together in groups of four and inviting a broadside attack from a ram. The Illyrians would then board the enemy craft in overwhelming numbers. Illyrian war ships were adopted by many peoples especially the Greeks and Romans. Illyrian craftsmen were even hired by the King of Macedon to build 100 ships in the First Macedonian War
because to him they bore a special gift of ship building. The earliest evidence of Illyrian ships is from the design of a ship incised on bronze greaves from Glasinac dating from the 8th century BC to the 7th century BC. The front of this ship is constructed in the form of an animal probably an horse.
Illyrian ships were a favourite depiction on Illyrian coins especially on the coinage of the Labatae. The type of war ships presented on the coins is hard to determine. However all the depictions show a similarity in which the bows of the ships were shaped in the form of a serpents head. The Byzantine author from the 6th century wrote that the Adriatic was a sea in which serpents swam.
The Liburnians were renowned seafarers dominating the Adriatic and Ionian Sea
from the start of the 1st millennium to the 5th century BC. The Romans knew them principally as a people addicted to piracy
. The major harbour of Liburnian navy since 5th century BC was Corynthia at eastern cape of Krk
island, including 7 unearthed docks, marine arsenal, and stony fortifications; this early harbour persisted in ancient and medieval function to 16th century.
Liburnians constructed different ship types; their galaia was an early prototype of transport galleys, lembus was a fishing ship continued by the actual Croatian levut, and a drakoforos was apparently mounted with a dragonhead at the prow.
Remains of a 10 meters long ship from the 1st century BC, were found in Zaton
near Nin
(Aenona in Classical Liburnia), a ship keel with bottom planking made of 6 rows of the wooden boards on each side, specifically joined together, sewn with resin cords and wooden wedges, testifying the Liburnian shipbuilding tradition style, therefore named "Serilia Liburnica". Deciduous trees (oak and beech) were used, while some climber was used for the cords.
The Illyrians were often referred to a pirates, raiding Greek and Roman vessels. Illyrian's indulgence in piracy was one that brought them infamy and invited their downfall. Their rugged broken coast with its screen of islands formed a perfect base from which their light and speedy little to attack unwary shipss. The Illyrians piratical career reached its zenith under Queen Teuta. The Illyrians practiced boarding tactics against enemy vessels. Although this view was widely accepted at first this connection is not completely true. Ancient Greek and Roman authors often attacked Illyrians in their works merely because they saw them as enemies and so many sources may be heavily exaggerated.
The three main types of Illyrian warships were the Lembus
, the Liburna
and the Pristis.
as lembus), was an ancient Illyrian warship
, with a single bank of oars and no sails. It was small and light, with a low freeboard. It was a fast and maneuverable warship capable of carrying 50 men in addition to the rowers. It was most commonly associated with the vessels used by the Illyrian tribes, chiefly for piracy, in the area of Dalmatia
. This type of craft was also adopted by Philip V of Macedon
, and soon after by the Seleucids, Rome, and even the Sparta
n king Nabis
in his attempt to rebuild the Spartan navy.
In contemporary authors, the name was associated with a class rather than a specific type of vessels, as considerable variation is evident in the sources: the number of oars ranged from 16 to 50, they could be one- or double-banked, and some types did not have a ram, presumably being used as couriers and fast cargo vessels.
The most known Liburnian ship was their warship, known as a libyrnis to the Greeks and a liburna to the Romans, propelled by oars.
According to some thoughts, liburna was shown in the scene of naval battle, curved on a stone tablet (Stele di Novilara) found near Antique Pisaurum (Pesaro
), outlined to 5th or 6th century BC, the most possibly showing imaginary battle between Liburnian and Picenian
fleets. Liburna was presented as light type of the ship with one row or the oars, one mast, one sail and prow twisted outwards. Under the prow there was a rostrum made for striking the enemy ships under the sea.
By its original form, the liburna was the most similar to the Greek penteconter
. It had one bench with 25 oars on each side, while in the late ages of the Roman Republic, it became a smaller version of a trireme
, but with two banks of oars (a bireme
), faster, lighter, and more agile than biremes and triremes. The liburnian design was adopted by the Romans and became a key part of Ancient Rome
's navy
, most possibly by mediation of Macedonian
navy in the 2nd half of the 1st century BC. Liburna ships played a key role in naval battle of Actium
in Greece, which lasted from August 31 to September 2 of 31 BC. Because of the its naval and maneuver features and bravery of its Liburnian crews, these ships completely defeated much bigger and heavier eastern ships, quadriremes and penterames.
Liburna was different to the battle triremes, quadriremes and quinquereme
s not because of rowing but rather because of its specific constructional features.
It was 109 ft (33 m) long and 16 ft (5 m) wide with a 3 ft (0.9144 m) draft. Two rows of oarsmen pulled 18 oars per side. The ship could make up to 14 knots under sail and more than 7 under oars.
Such a vessel, used as a merchantman, might take on a passenger, as Lycinus relates in the 2nd-century dialogue, traditionally attributed to Lucian of Samosata: "I had a speedy vessel readied, the kind of bireme used above all by the Liburnians of the Ionian Gulf."
Once the Romans had adopted the Liburnian, they proceeded to make a few adaptations to improve the ships’ use within the navy. The benefits gained from the addition of rams and protection from missiles more than made-up for the slight loss of speed. Besides the construction, the ships required that the regular Roman military unit be simplified in order to function more smoothly. Each ship operated as an individual entity, so the more complicated organization normally used was not necessary. Within the navy, there were probably liburnian of several varying sizes, all put to specific tasks such as scouting and patrolling Roman waters against piracy. The Romans made use of the liburnian particularly within the provinces of the empire, where the ships formed the bulk of the fleets, while it was included by small numbers in fleets of Ravenna and Micenum, where a large number of the Illyrians were serving, especially Dalmatae, Liburnians and Pannonians.
Gradually liburna became general name for the different types of the Roman ships, attached also to the cargo ships in the Late Antique. Tacitus
and Suetonius
were using it as a synonym for the battle ship. In inscriptions it was mentioned as the last in class of the battle ships: hexeres, penteres, quadrieres, trieres, liburna.
In the Medieval sources the "liburna" ships were often recorded in use by the Medieval Croatian
and Dalmatia
n pirates and sailors, but probably not always referring to the ships of the same form.
Πρίστις) was a beaked long and narrow war ship(it was also the name of a specific ship in the Aeneid.)
Illyrians built hill-forts as places of refuge (and perhaps as dwellings) such as Tilurium
and Setovia
of the Delmatae. Most enclosures were round or oval with very few exceptions for other shapes and the largest two were 200 meters across while most are not anything more than fortified blockhouses.
The Castellieri were fortified boroughs, usually located on hills or mountains or, more rarely (such as in Friuli), in plains. They were constituted by one or more concentric series of walls, of rounded or elliptical shape in Istria and Venezia Giulia, or quadrangular in Friuli, within which was the inhabited area. Some a hundred of castellieri have been discovered in Istria, Friuli and Venezia Giulia, such as that of Leme
, in the central-western Istria, of the Elleri, near Muggia
, of Monte Giove near Prosecco (Trieste
) and San Polo, not far from Monfalcone
. However, the largest castelliere was perhaps that of Nesactium
, in the southern Istria, not far from Pula
.
, 7th century BC – 5th century BC) contained a great number of Greek imports including weaponry. This includes finds at Glasinac Plateau (Bosnia and Herzegovina
), Lake Ohrid
in the Republic of Macedonia
, Dolensko (Slovenia
) and various sites in Albania
. The Glasinac-Mati cultural complex encompasses eastern Bosnia,south-western Serbia Montenegro and northern Albania
. Ancient Greek Illyrian type helmet
s either as imports or later copies had spread throughout Illyria and one was found as far as Slovenia
(though again in the grave of a king) not only in the Glasinac-Mati cultural complex like the helmet found in the grave at Klicevo, Montenegro
. The Greek helmets found in some of these sites were of type I
and very few of type II
.
Illyrians on the coast of the Adriatic were under the effects and influence of Hellenisation due to their proximity to the Greek colonies in Illyria.
Apart from other cultural influences and imported weapons and armor from the Ancient Greeks the Illyrians had adopted the ornamentation of Ancient Macedon
on their shields and their war belts (a single one has been found, dated 3rd century BC at modern Selce e Poshtme
part of Macedon
at the time under Philip V of Macedon
and before that border between Chaonia
and Illyria
). The Illyrians used four concentric half circles whilst the Macedon
ians five. This ancient Greek
symbol was prominent in Thessaly
and Macedon
appearing in the 10th century BC and had spread throughout southern Greece. A typical adoption of the symbol in the Hellenistic period
from Illyrians is seen on an iron round pelte with similar decorations and a diameter of 35 cm. This is evident during the Greek rule of south Illyria the Antipatrid dynasty
& the Antigonid dynasty
retained until the Roman conquest. Tactics had been influenced as well, evident in an incident involving Dardanians. The hellenised city of Daorson
located in Dalmatia
included "cyclopean walls".
Illyria
In classical antiquity, Illyria was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by the Illyrians....
and in southern Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
where the Iapygian civilization flourished.
It concerns the armed conflicts of the Illyrian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
in Italy
Italian Peninsula
The Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula is one of the three large peninsulas of Southern Europe , spanning from the Po Valley in the north to the central Mediterranean Sea in the south. The peninsula's shape gives it the nickname Lo Stivale...
as well as pirate activity in Mediterranean
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant...
. Apart from conflicts between Illyrians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Illyrian tribes too.
Illyrians in ancient sources were renowned warriors when it came to combat. They were known as crafty shipbuilders in ancient times and controlled much of the Adriatic and Ionian Sea
Ionian Sea
The Ionian Sea , is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea, south of the Adriatic Sea. It is bounded by southern Italy including Calabria, Sicily and the Salento peninsula to the west, southern Albania to the north, and a large number of Greek islands, including Corfu, Zante, Kephalonia, Ithaka, and...
using their numerous warships. Illyrians had effective weapons such as the sica
Sica
The sica was a short sword or large dagger of ancient Thracians/Dacians peoples, used in Ancient Rome too. It was originally depicted as a curved sword, with a blade about 16-18 inches long and many examples have been found in what are today Romania, Bosnia, Bulgaria and Serbia, as well as...
, which was a curved-tip sword originating in Illyria but adopted all over the Balkans and later by the Romans
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
.
Mythological
Instances of Illyrians engaged in armed conflict occurred in Greek mythologyGreek mythology
Greek mythology is the body of myths and legends belonging to the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. They were a part of religion in ancient Greece...
and specifically in the legend of Cadmus
Cadmus
Cadmus or Kadmos , in Greek mythology was a Phoenician prince, the son of king Agenor and queen Telephassa of Tyre and the brother of Phoenix, Cilix and Europa. He was originally sent by his royal parents to seek out and escort his sister Europa back to Tyre after she was abducted from the shores...
and Harmonia
Harmonia (mythology)
In Greek mythology, Harmonia is the immortal goddess of harmony and concord. Her Roman counterpart is Concordia, and her Greek opposite is Eris, whose Roman counterpart is Discordia.-Origins:...
, where Cadmus led the Illyrian Encheleans in a victorious campaign against the Illyrians
Illyrians
The Illyrians were a group of tribes who inhabited part of the western Balkans in antiquity and the south-eastern coasts of the Italian peninsula...
after a divine advice from the Oracle
Oracle
In Classical Antiquity, an oracle was a person or agency considered to be a source of wise counsel or prophetic predictions or precognition of the future, inspired by the gods. As such it is a form of divination....
. If the legend is true this war would have occurred around 2000 BC, the time when Cadmus has been claimed to have lived.
Tribal conflicts
Illyrian tribes were reluctant to help each other in times of war and even fought amongst each other and they sometimes allied with the neighboring RomansAncient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
and Greeks
Greeks
The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes , are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighboring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world....
: These conflicts happened because of land, pastures and areas of natural substances such iron and salt. The Romans before they conquered Illyria were involved in tribal conflicts and using them to their advantage. The most known incident is the involvement of the Romans in a war between the Dalmatians and the Liburnians over Promona, which in the end were encouraged to take peace. Commonly the Romans were ordered to act as referees in their bloody fights. The tribe of Autariatae
Autariatae
The Autariatae or Autariates were an ancient people that eventually became the most powerful Illyrian tribe. Their territory was called...
fought against the Ardiaei for control of valuable salt mines.The Ardiaei were notorious before being defeated by the Romans. The Daorsi had suffered attacks from the Delmatae to the extent that they requested Roman aid.
States
The earliest recorded Illyrian Kingdom was that of the EncheleEnchele
The Enchelei , were an Illyrian tribe, in the 8th and 7th centuries BC, living around the region of Lake Ohrid in Albania and the Republic of Macedonia. They were often at war for domination of the region with the ancient Macedonians who settled in the east...
in the 8th century BC. The Enchele held dominance for two centuries until their state crumbled from the start of the 6th century BC. After the Enchelei the Taulanti formed their own state in 7th century BC
7th century BC
The 7th century BC started the first day of 700 BC and ended the last day of 601 BC.The Assyrian Empire continued to dominate the Near East during this century, exercising formidable power over neighbors like Babylon and Egypt. In the last two decades of the century, however, the empire began to...
. The Autariatae under Pleurias
Pleurias
Pleurias was an Illyrian king of the Autariatae State. In 337 BC Pleurias almost succeeded in killing Philip when he was on his Balkan campaigns...
(337 BC) were a kingdom. The Kingdom of the Ardiaei began at 230 BC and ended at 167 BC. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those of Bardyllis
Bardyllis
Bardyllis was a king of the Dardanian Kingdom and probably its founder.Bardyllis created one of the most powerful Illyrian states, that of the Dardanians...
of the Dardani
Dardani
Dardania was the region of the Dardani .Located at the Thraco-Illyrian contact zone, their identification as either an Illyrian or Thracian tribe is uncertain. Their territory itself was not considered part of Illyria by Strabo. The term used for their territory was , while for other tribes had...
and of Agron of the Ardiaei who created the last and best-known Illyrian kingdom. Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well. As for the Dardanians, they always had separate domains from the rest of the Illyrians
Illyrians
The Illyrians were a group of tribes who inhabited part of the western Balkans in antiquity and the south-eastern coasts of the Italian peninsula...
.
The Illyrian kingdoms were composed of small areas within region of Illyria. The exact extent of even the most prominent ones remains unknown. Only the Romans
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
ruled the entire region. The internal organization of the south Illyrian kingdoms points to imitation of their neighboring Greek kingdoms and influence from the Greek and Hellenistic world in the growth of their urban
Urban area
An urban area is characterized by higher population density and vast human features in comparison to areas surrounding it. Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural settlements such as villages and hamlets.Urban areas are created and further...
centers. Polybius
Polybius
Polybius , Greek ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 220–146 BC in detail. The work describes in part the rise of the Roman Republic and its gradual domination over Greece...
gives as an image of society within an Illyrian kingdom as peasant infantry fought under aristocrats which he calls in Greek Polydynastae (Greek: Πολυδυνάστες) where each one controlled a town within the kingdom. The monarchy was established on hereditary lines and Illyrian rulers used marriages as a means of alliance with other powers. Pliny
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
(23–79 AD) writes that the people that formed the nucleus of the Illyrian kingdom were 'Illyrians proper' or Illyrii Proprie Dicti. They were the Taulantii
Taulantii
Taulantii was the name of a cluster of Illyrian tribes. According to Greek mythology Taulas , one of the six sons of Illyrius, was the eponymous ancestor of the Taulanti. They lived on the Adriatic coast of Illyria , between to the vicinity of the city of Epidamnus...
, the Pleraei, the Endirudini, Sasaei, Grabaei and the Labeatae. These later joined to form the Docleatae.
Liburnian Thalassocracy
Liburna
A liburnian or liburna was a type of small galley used for raiding and patrols, particularly by the Roman navy.According to some thoughts, liburnian was shown in the scene of naval battle, curved on a stone tablet found near Antique Pisaurum , outlined to 5th or 6th century BC, the most possibly...
allowed them to be present, very early, not only along the Eastern Adriatic
Adriatic Sea
The Adriatic Sea is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan peninsula, and the system of the Apennine Mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges...
coast, they reached also the opposite, western, Italic
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
coast. This process started during great Pannonia
Pannonia
Pannonia was an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia....
n-Adriatic movements and migrations at the end of the Bronze Age
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacture of some implements and weapons. Chronologically, it stands between the Stone Age and Iron Age...
, from the 12th to 10th century BC. In the Iron Age
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
, they were already in the Italic coast, establishing colonies in Apulia
Apulia
Apulia is a region in Southern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Ionian Sea to the southeast, and the Strait of Òtranto and Gulf of Taranto in the south. Its most southern portion, known as Salento peninsula, forms a high heel on the "boot" of Italy. The region comprises , and...
and especially in Picenum
Picenum
Picenum was a region of ancient Italy. The name is an exonym assigned by the Romans, who conquered and incorporated it into the Roman Republic. Picenum was the birthplace of such notables as Pompey the Great and his father Pompeius Strabo. It was situated in what is now Marche...
, where specific Iron Age cultures developed.
From the 9th to the 6th century BC there was certain koine - cultural unity in the Adriatic, with the general Liburninan seal, whose naval supremacy meant both political and economical authority through a several centuries. Some similar toponyms attested not only Liburnian but also other Illyrian migrations to the central and south Italy, respectively Apulia
Apulia
Apulia is a region in Southern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Ionian Sea to the southeast, and the Strait of Òtranto and Gulf of Taranto in the south. Its most southern portion, known as Salento peninsula, forms a high heel on the "boot" of Italy. The region comprises , and...
and Picenum
Picenum
Picenum was a region of ancient Italy. The name is an exonym assigned by the Romans, who conquered and incorporated it into the Roman Republic. Picenum was the birthplace of such notables as Pompey the Great and his father Pompeius Strabo. It was situated in what is now Marche...
.
In the 9th century BC their ruled the inner Adriatic sea and in the first half of the 8th century BC they expanded southwards. According to Strabo
Strabo
Strabo, also written Strabon was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.-Life:Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus , a city which he said was situated the approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea...
, the Liburnians became masters of island of Corcyra, making it their most southern outpost, by which they controlled the passage into the Adriatic Sea. In 735 BC, they abandoned it, under pressure of Corinth
Corinth
Corinth is a city and former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Corinth, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit...
ian ruler Hersikrates, during the period of Corinthian expansion to South Italy, Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
and the Ionian Sea. However their position in the Adriatic Sea was still strong in the next few centuries. Corinth
Corinth
Corinth is a city and former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Corinth, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit...
was the first that went up against the Liburnians. The Bacchiade
Bacchiadae
The Bacchiadae , a tightly-knit Doric clan, were the ruling family of archaic Corinth in the eighth and seventh centuries BCE, a period of Corinthian cultural power. Corinth had been a backwater in eighth-century Greece...
expelled the Liburni and the Eretria
Eretria
Erétria was a polis in Ancient Greece, located on the western coast of the island of Euboea, south of Chalcis, facing the coast of Attica across the narrow Euboean Gulf. Eretria was an important Greek polis in the 6th/5th century BC. However, it lost its importance already in antiquity...
ns from Corcyra. About 625 BC, the Taulantii
Taulantii
Taulantii was the name of a cluster of Illyrian tribes. According to Greek mythology Taulas , one of the six sons of Illyrius, was the eponymous ancestor of the Taulanti. They lived on the Adriatic coast of Illyria , between to the vicinity of the city of Epidamnus...
asked for the aid of Corinth and Corcyra against the Liburni. The Greeks were victorious.
Liburnian control of the Adriatic Sea coasts started to decrease in the 6th century BC.
According to Pliny the Elder
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
, the Liburnians lost supremacy in the Western Adriatic coast due to invasion of the Umbri
Umbri
The Umbri were an Italic people of ancient Italy. A region called Umbria still exists and is currently occupied by Italian speakers. It is somewhat smaller than the ancient Umbria....
and the Gauls
Gauls
The Gauls were a Celtic people living in Gaul, the region roughly corresponding to what is now France, Belgium, Switzerland and Northern Italy, from the Iron Age through the Roman period. They mostly spoke the Continental Celtic language called Gaulish....
, obviously caused by strengthening and expansion of the Etruscan
Etruscan civilization
Etruscan civilization is the modern English name given to a civilization of ancient Italy in the area corresponding roughly to Tuscany. The ancient Romans called its creators the Tusci or Etrusci...
union in the 6th century BC, whose rich material presence in the basin of Po river, undoubtedly meant weakening of the Liburnian thalassocracy influence in the north-west of Adriatic. Celtic breaks to the Italian peninsula, after 400 BC, significantly changed ethnic and political picture there, it directly imperiled remaining Liburnian possessions on the western coast.
Unlike at the western Adriatic coast, Celt
Celt
The Celts were a diverse group of tribal societies in Iron Age and Roman-era Europe who spoke Celtic languages.The earliest archaeological culture commonly accepted as Celtic, or rather Proto-Celtic, was the central European Hallstatt culture , named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt, Austria....
ic raids to the narrow Liburnian region at the eastern Adriatic coast were peripheral in geographical meaning. Despite of recorded material exchange, Celtic archaeological forms are marginal and secondary in regions settled by Histri
Histri
Histri were an ancient tribe, which Strabo refers to as living in Istria, to which they gave the name.The Histri are classified in some sources as a "Venetic" Illyrian tribe, with certain linguistic differences from other Illyrians. The Romans described the Histri as a fierce tribe of pirates,...
, Iapodes, Dalmatae
Dalmatae
The Dalmatae or Delmatae were an ancient people who inhabited the core of what would then become known as Dalmatia after the Roman conquest - now the eastern Adriatic coast in Croatia, between the rivers Krka and Neretva...
and are especially rare in Liburnian Iron Age heritage.
Illyrian expansion
In the 4th century BC BardyllisBardyllis
Bardyllis was a king of the Dardanian Kingdom and probably its founder.Bardyllis created one of the most powerful Illyrian states, that of the Dardanians...
became king of the Dardanians and creator of a new dynasty after down-throwing Sirras
Sirras
Sirras , of Lyncestian origins, was a member of the royalty, perhaps prince-regent, of Lyncestis in Upper Macedonia. Some suggest that he was an Illyrian because Plutarch mentions that his daughter, Eurydice was derisively called by her enemies "a thrice barbarian Illyrian",...
the previous Illyrian king who had entered in a peace treaty over the control of Lyncestia. Bardyllis succeeded in bringing various tribes in a single organisation and soon became a formidable power in the Balkans resulting in a change of relations with Macedonia. Using new war tactics in 393 BC the Illyrians won a decisive battle against Amyntas III expelling him and ruling Macedonia through a puppet king. in 392 BC Amyntas III allied himself with the Thessalians and took Macedonia under his rule from the Dardanians. After continuous invasions Bardyllis forced the Macedon's to pay him an annual tribute in 372 BC.
Molossians
The Molossians were an ancient Greek tribe that inhabited the region of Epirus since the Mycenaean era. On their northeast frontier they had the Chaonians and to their southern frontier the kingdom of the Thesprotians, to their north were the Illyrians. The Molossians were part of the League of...
. This time the Illyrian were allied with and aided by Dionysius
Dionysius I of Syracuse
Dionysius I or Dionysius the Elder was a Greek tyrant of Syracuse, in what is now Sicily, southern Italy. He conquered several cities in Sicily and southern Italy, opposed Carthage's influence in Sicily and made Syracuse the most powerful of the Western Greek colonies...
of Syracuse
Syracuse, Italy
Syracuse is a historic city in Sicily, the capital of the province of Syracuse. The city is notable for its rich Greek history, culture, amphitheatres, architecture, and as the birthplace of the preeminent mathematician and engineer Archimedes. This 2,700-year-old city played a key role in...
to place Alcetas that was a refugee in his court to the throne. Dionysius
Dionysius I of Syracuse
Dionysius I or Dionysius the Elder was a Greek tyrant of Syracuse, in what is now Sicily, southern Italy. He conquered several cities in Sicily and southern Italy, opposed Carthage's influence in Sicily and made Syracuse the most powerful of the Western Greek colonies...
planned to control all the Ionian Sea
Ionian Sea
The Ionian Sea , is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea, south of the Adriatic Sea. It is bounded by southern Italy including Calabria, Sicily and the Salento peninsula to the west, southern Albania to the north, and a large number of Greek islands, including Corfu, Zante, Kephalonia, Ithaka, and...
. Sparta
Sparta
Sparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
had intervened as soon as the events became known and expelled the Illyrians who were led by Bardyllis. Despite being aided by 2000 Greek hoplites and five hundred suits of Greek armour
Armour
Armour or armor is protective covering used to prevent damage from being inflicted to an object, individual or a vehicle through use of direct contact weapons or projectiles, usually during combat, or from damage caused by a potentially dangerous environment or action...
, the Illyrians were defeated by the Sparta
Sparta
Sparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
ns led by Agesilaus
Agesilaus II
Agesilaus II, or Agesilaos II was a king of Sparta, of the Eurypontid dynasty, ruling from approximately 400 BC to 360 BC, during most of which time he was, in Plutarch's words, "as good as thought commander and king of all Greece," and was for the whole of it greatly identified with his...
but not before ravaging the region and killing 15,000 Molossians. Their short rule over Epirus of northern Greece was over. In 360 BC, another Illyrian attack forced the Molossian king Arymbas
Arymbas
Arybbas was king of the Molossians. He was son of Alcetas and brother of Neoptolemus and grandfather of Pyrrhus. He married Troas . In ca. 360 BC, against an Illyrian attack, Arybbas evacuated his non-combatant population to Aetolia and let the Illyrians loot freely...
to evacuate his non-combatant population to Aetolia
Aetolia
Aetolia is a mountainous region of Greece on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, forming the eastern part of the modern prefecture of Aetolia-Acarnania.-Geography:...
and let the Illyrians loot freely. The stratagem
Stratagem
Stratagem may refer to:* Confidence trick, an attempt to swindle a person which involves gaining his or her confidence* Ruse of war, an action taken to fool the enemy.* HMS Stratagem , an S class submarine...
worked and the Molossians fell upon the Illyrians who were encumbered with booty and defeated them. In the same year Arymbas of the Mollosians defeats the Illyrians after they raided and looted Epirus.
In 360 BC the southern Paeonian tribes launch raids against Macedonia in support of an Illyrian invasion. In 359 BC Bardyllis won a decisive battle against the Macedonian king Perdiccas III in which the king himself was killed along with 4,000 of his soldiers and the Illyrians occupied the cities of upper Macedonia.
The Macedonians king to reconquer upper Macedonia had failed.
Following the disastrous defeat of Macedonians by Bardyllis, when king Philip took control of Macedonian throne in 358 BC, he reaffirmed the treaty with the Illyrians marrying the Illyrian princess Audata, probably the daughter or the niece of Bardyllis. This gave Philip valuable time to gather his forces and to defeat the Illyrians still under Bardyllis in the decisive Erigon Valley battle by killing about 7,000 of them and eliminating the Illyrian menace for some time. In this battle Bardyllis himself was killed at the age of 90 after Philip II refused a peace treaty offered by the Illyrians. In 335 BC the southern Illyrian states were all subjected by Alexander the Great and in only at the end of the 4th century BC won their independence.
In 358 BC Phillip of Macedon defeated Bardyllis
Bardyllis
Bardyllis was a king of the Dardanian Kingdom and probably its founder.Bardyllis created one of the most powerful Illyrian states, that of the Dardanians...
, Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus Siculus was a Greek historian who flourished between 60 and 30 BC. According to Diodorus' own work, he was born at Agyrium in Sicily . With one exception, antiquity affords no further information about Diodorus' life and doings beyond what is to be found in his own work, Bibliotheca...
(1st century BC) writes this of the event;
And at first for a long while the battle was evenly poised because of the exceeding gallantry displayed on both sides, and as many were slain and still more wounded, the fortune of battle vacillated first one way then the other, being constantly swayed by the valorous deeds of the combatants; but later as the horsemen pressed on from the flank and rear and Philip with the flower of his troops fought with true heroism, the mass of the Illyrians was compelled to take hastily to flight.When the pursuit had been kept up for a considerable distance and many had been slain in their flight, Philip recalled the Macedonians with the trumpet and erecting a trophy of victory buried his own dead, while the Illyrians, having sent ambassadors and withdrawn from all the Macedonian cities, obtained peace. But more than seven thousand Illyrians were slain in this battle.
Gallic Invasions
We have little information about the affairs in the Illyrian hinterland, but we do know that the first Balkan tribe to be defeated by the Celts was the Autariatae
Autariatae
The Autariatae or Autariates were an ancient people that eventually became the most powerful Illyrian tribe. Their territory was called...
, who during the 4th century had enjoyed a hegemony over much of the central Balkans, centred on the Morava valley. An interesting account of cunning Celtic tactics is revealed in their attacks on the Ardiaei. In 310 BC, Celtic general Molistomos attacked deep into Illyrian territory, subduing the Dardanians and the Paeonians.
In 280 BC they moved in three directions: toward Macedonia and Illyria, toward Greece, and toward Thrace. The main army according to Diodorus, of 150,000 foot soldiers equipped with great shields and 10,000 horsemen was followed by 2,000 wagons transporting food and equipment. All the states of the Balkans at this time looked at this movement with apprehension. Ptolemy, the king of Macedonia, took the news of the Gauls casually. He looked down with derision on the proposal of the king of the Dardanians possibly Monunius who sent delegates to say that they could offer 20,000 warriors to assist him. In an insulting manner, he said that the work was for the Macedonians to do. When the king of the Dardanians was told of this, he replied that the soon glorious Macedonian kingdom would fall because of the immaturity of a youth. And so it happened, for in the battle that took place a few days later in Macedonia, the Macedonian army was routed and Ptolemy was wounded and taken prisoner. After continuing south and raiding the Delphi
Delphi
Delphi is both an archaeological site and a modern town in Greece on the south-western spur of Mount Parnassus in the valley of Phocis.In Greek mythology, Delphi was the site of the Delphic oracle, the most important oracle in the classical Greek world, and a major site for the worship of the god...
the Gallic army decided to return up north to their homeland but were all wiped out by the Dardanians, through which they had to pass.
Illyrian wars
First Punic War
The First Punic War was the first of three wars fought between Ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. For 23 years, the two powers struggled for supremacy in the western Mediterranean Sea, primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters but also to a lesser extent in...
, when many tribes of Illyria
Illyria
In classical antiquity, Illyria was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by the Illyrians....
became united under one queen, Teuta. The death of a Roman envoy named Coruncanius on the orders of Teuta and the attack on trading vessels owned by Italian merchants under Rome's protection, prompted the Roman senate to dispatch a Roman army under the command of the consul
Consul
Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic...
s Lucius Postumius Albinus (consul 234 and 229 BC)
Lucius Postumius Albinus (consul 234 and 229 BC)
Lucius Postumius A. f. A. n. Albinus was a Roman consul of the third century BC. Most of our knowledge about his career and his demise comes from Livy's Ab Urbe Condita. From his filiation, "A. f. A. n.", we know that he was probably the son of Aulus Postumius Albinus, consul in 242 BC.He was...
and Gnaeus Fulvius Centumalus. Rome expelled Illyrian garrisons at the Greek
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
cities Epidamnus, Apollonia
Apollonia, Illyria
Apollonia was an ancient Greek city in Illyria, located on the right bank of the Aous river . Its ruins are situated in the Fier region, near the village of Pojani, in modern-day Albania...
, Korkyra
Korkyra (polis)
Korkyra was an ancient Greek city of the island of Corfu in the Ionian sea, adjacent to Epirus....
, Pharos
Hvar
- Climate :The climate of Hvar is characterized by mild winters and warm summers. The yearly average air temperature is , 686 mm of precipitation fall on the town of Hvar on average every year and the town has a total of 2800 sunshine hours per year. For comparison Hvar has an average of 7.7...
and others and established a protectorate over these Greek towns.
The Romans
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
also set up Demetrius of Pharos
Demetrius of Pharos
Demetrius of Pharos was a ruler of Pharos involved in the First Illyrian War, after which he ruled a portion of the Illyrian Adriatic coast on behalf of the Romans, as a Client king....
as a power in Illyria to counter-balance the power of Teuta.
The Second Illyrian War lasted from 220 BC to 219 BC. In 219 BC the Roman Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
was at war with the Celts of Cisalpine Gaul
Cisalpine Gaul
Cisalpine Gaul, in Latin: Gallia Cisalpina or Citerior, also called Gallia Togata, was a Roman province until 41 BC when it was merged into Roman Italy.It bore the name Gallia, because the great body of its inhabitants, after the expulsion of the Etruscans, consisted of Gauls or Celts...
, and the Second Punic War
Second Punic War
The Second Punic War, also referred to as The Hannibalic War and The War Against Hannibal, lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean. This was the second major war between Carthage and the Roman Republic, with the participation of the Berbers on...
with Carthage was beginning. These distractions gave Demetrius the time he needed to build a new Illyrian war fleet. Leading this fleet of 90 ships, Demetrius sailed south of Lissus, violating his earlier treaty and starting the war.
Demetrius' fleet first attacked Pylos
Pylos
Pylos , historically known under its Italian name Navarino, is a town and a former municipality in Messenia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Pylos-Nestoras, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. It was the capital of the former...
where he captured 50 ships after several attempts. From Pylos the fleet sailed to the Cyclades
Cyclades
The Cyclades is a Greek island group in the Aegean Sea, south-east of the mainland of Greece; and a former administrative prefecture of Greece. They are one of the island groups which constitute the Aegean archipelago. The name refers to the islands around the sacred island of Delos...
, quelling resistance they found on the way. Demetrius foolishly sent a fleet across the Adriatic, and, with the Illyrian forces divided, the fortified city of Dimale
Dimale
Dimale was an ancient town in Illyria, possibly situated in the territory of the Illyrian Parthini, northeast of the ancient Greek colony of Apollonia near modern Krotinë, Berat District, Albania. The city was of uncertain foundation, Greek or Illyrian.- History :According to N.G.L...
was captured by the Roman fleet under Lucius Aemilius Paulus
Lucius Aemilius Paullus (General)
Lucius Aemilius Paullus was a Roman consul twice, in 219 and 216 BC.He served his first consulship with Marcus Livius Salinator. During this year, he defeated Demetrius of Pharos, in the Second Illyrian War and forced him to flee to the court of Philip V of Macedon. Upon his return to Rome, he was...
. From Dimale
Dimale
Dimale was an ancient town in Illyria, possibly situated in the territory of the Illyrian Parthini, northeast of the ancient Greek colony of Apollonia near modern Krotinë, Berat District, Albania. The city was of uncertain foundation, Greek or Illyrian.- History :According to N.G.L...
the navy went towards Pharos. The forces of Rome routed the Illyrians and Demetrius fled to Macedon
Macedon
Macedonia or Macedon was an ancient kingdom, centered in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, the region of Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south....
where he became a trusted councilor at the court of Philip V of Macedon
Philip V of Macedon
Philip V was King of Macedon from 221 BC to 179 BC. Philip's reign was principally marked by an unsuccessful struggle with the emerging power of Rome. Philip was attractive and charismatic as a young man...
, and remained until his death at Messene
Messene
Messene , officially Ancient Messene, is a Local Community of the Municipal Unit , Ithomi, of the municipality of Messini within the Regional Unit of Messenia in the Region of Peloponnēsos, one of 7 Regions into which the Hellenic Republic has been divided by the Kallikratis...
in 214 BC.
During the Third Illyrian War in 168 BC the Illyrian king Gentius
Gentius
Gentius was the last Illyrian king of the Ardiaean State. The name appears to derive from PIE *g'en- "to beget", cognate to Latin gens, gentis "kin, clan, race". He was the son of Pleuratus III, a king who kept relations with Rome very strong...
allied himself with the Macedonians. First in 171 BC, he was allied with the Romans against the Macedonians
Ancient Macedonians
The Macedonians originated from inhabitants of the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, in the alluvial plain around the rivers Haliacmon and lower Axios...
, but in 169 he changed sides and allied himself with Perseus of Macedon
Perseus of Macedon
Perseus was the last king of the Antigonid dynasty, who ruled the successor state in Macedon created upon the death of Alexander the Great...
. He arrested two Roman legati and destroyed the cities of Apollonia
Apollonia, Illyria
Apollonia was an ancient Greek city in Illyria, located on the right bank of the Aous river . Its ruins are situated in the Fier region, near the village of Pojani, in modern-day Albania...
and Dyrrhachium
Durrës
Durrës is the second largest city of Albania located on the central Albanian coast, about west of the capital Tirana. It is one of the most ancient and economically important cities of Albania. Durres is situated at one of the narrower points of the Adriatic Sea, opposite the Italian ports of Bari...
, which were allied with Rome. In 168 he was defeated at Scodra by a Roman force under L. Anicius Gallus, and in 167 brought to Rome as a captive to participate in Gallus' triumph
Roman triumph
The Roman triumph was a civil ceremony and religious rite of ancient Rome, held to publicly celebrate and sanctify the military achievement of an army commander who had won great military successes, or originally and traditionally, one who had successfully completed a foreign war. In Republican...
, after which he was interned in Iguvium.
In the Illyrian War of 229 BC, 219 BC and 168 BC, Rome
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
overran the Illyria
Illyria
In classical antiquity, Illyria was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by the Illyrians....
n settlements and suppressed piracy
Piracy
Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence at sea. The term can include acts committed on land, in the air, or in other major bodies of water or on a shore. It does not normally include crimes committed against persons traveling on the same vessel as the perpetrator...
, which had made Adriatic Sea
Adriatic Sea
The Adriatic Sea is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan peninsula, and the system of the Apennine Mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges...
an unsafe region for Roman commerce. There were three Roman campaigns
Military campaign
In the military sciences, the term military campaign applies to large scale, long duration, significant military strategy plan incorporating a series of inter-related military operations or battles forming a distinct part of a larger conflict often called a war...
: the first against Teuta the second against Demetrius of Pharos
Demetrius of Pharos
Demetrius of Pharos was a ruler of Pharos involved in the First Illyrian War, after which he ruled a portion of the Illyrian Adriatic coast on behalf of the Romans, as a Client king....
and the third against Gentius
Gentius
Gentius was the last Illyrian king of the Ardiaean State. The name appears to derive from PIE *g'en- "to beget", cognate to Latin gens, gentis "kin, clan, race". He was the son of Pleuratus III, a king who kept relations with Rome very strong...
. The first Roman campaign of 229 BC marked the first time that the Roman Navy
Roman Navy
The Roman Navy comprised the naval forces of the Ancient Roman state. Although the navy was instrumental in the Roman conquest of the Mediterranean basin, it never enjoyed the prestige of the Roman legions...
crossed the Adriatic in order to launch the invasion.
Great Illyrian revolt
The Great Illyrian Revolt, (Bellum Batonianum or Pannonian Revolt) was a major conflict between an alliance of Illyrian communities and the RomanRoman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
forces that lasted for four years beginning in AD 6 and ending in AD 9. In AD 6, several regiments of Daesitiates, natives of area that now comprises central Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina , sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina or simply Bosnia, is a country in Southern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. Bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina is almost landlocked, except for the...
, led by Bato the Daesitiate (Bato I
Bato I
Also known as Bato the Daesitiate. Bato was an Illyrian warlord who led the Daesitiates in the Great Illyrian revolt against the Roman Empire from 6-9 CE.-Background:He was probably born between 35 and 30 BCE in what is today Upper Bosnia...
), were gathered in one place to prepare to join Augustus's stepson and senior military commander Tiberius
Tiberius
Tiberius , was Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His mother divorced Nero and married Augustus in 39 BC, making him a step-son of Octavian...
in a war against the Germans
Germans
The Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe. The English term Germans has referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages....
. Instead, the Daesitiates mutinied and defeated a Roman force sent against them. The Daesitiates were soon joined by the Breuci led by Bato of the Breuci (Bato II
Bato II
Bato II was an Illyrian warlord who led the Breuci in the Great Illyrian revolt against the Roman Empire. Bato II joined his rebel forces with those led by Bato I. After facing defeat, he surrendered to Tiberius in 8 CE on the bank of the Bosnian river...
), another community inhabiting the region between the rivers Sava and Drava
Drava
Drava or Drave is a river in southern Central Europe, a tributary of the Danube. It sources in Toblach/Dobbiaco, Italy, and flows east through East Tirol and Carinthia in Austria, into Slovenia , and then southeast, passing through Croatia and forming most of the border between Croatia and...
in modern Croatia
Croatia
Croatia , officially the Republic of Croatia , is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers ...
. They gave battle to a second Roman force from Moesia
Moesia
Moesia was an ancient region and later Roman province situated in the Balkans, along the south bank of the Danube River. It included territories of modern-day Southern Serbia , Northern Republic of Macedonia, Northern Bulgaria, Romanian Dobrudja, Southern Moldova, and Budjak .-History:In ancient...
led by Caecina Severus (the governor of Moesia). Despite their defeat, they inflicted heavy casualties at the Battle of Sirmium
Sirmium
Sirmium was a city in ancient Roman Pannonia. Firstly mentioned in the 4th century BC and originally inhabited by the Illyrians and Celts, it was conquered by the Romans in the 1st century BC and subsequently became the capital of the Roman province of Lower Pannonia. In 294 AD, Sirmium was...
. The rebels were now joined by a large number of other communities. At risk was the strategic province of Illyricum
Illyricum (Roman province)
The Roman province of Illyricum or Illyris Romana or Illyris Barbara or Illyria Barbara replaced most of the region of Illyria. It stretched from the Drilon river in modern north Albania to Istria in the west and to the Sava river in the north. Salona functioned as its capital...
, recently expanded to include the territory of the Pannonii, an indigenous communities inhabiting the region between the rivers Drava
Drava
Drava or Drave is a river in southern Central Europe, a tributary of the Danube. It sources in Toblach/Dobbiaco, Italy, and flows east through East Tirol and Carinthia in Austria, into Slovenia , and then southeast, passing through Croatia and forming most of the border between Croatia and...
and Sava, who were subjugated by Rome in 12–9 BC. Illyricum was on Italy's eastern flank, exposing the Roman heartland to the fear of a rebel invasion.
Augustus ordered Tiberius to break off operations in Germany and move his main army to Illyricum. Tiberius sent Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus
Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus
Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus was the son of the Roman famous orator Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, whom he resembled in character, and wife Calpurnia.He was a senator and consul in 3 BC and AD 3...
(the governor of Dalmatia
Dalmatia
Dalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south....
and Pannonia
Pannonia
Pannonia was an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia....
) ahead with troops. The panic broke out in Rome and Augustus raised a second task force under Tiberius's nephew Germanicus
Germanicus
Germanicus Julius Caesar , commonly known as Germanicus, was a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and a prominent general of the early Roman Empire. He was born in Rome, Italia, and was named either Nero Claudius Drusus after his father or Tiberius Claudius Nero after his uncle...
. He resorted to the compulsory purchase and emancipation of thousands of slaves in order to amass enough troops. This happened for the first time since the aftermath of the Battle of Cannae
Battle of Cannae
The Battle of Cannae was a major battle of the Second Punic War, which took place on August 2, 216 BC near the town of Cannae in Apulia in southeast Italy. The army of Carthage under Hannibal decisively defeated a numerically superior army of the Roman Republic under command of the consuls Lucius...
two centuries earlier. At one moment, in winter AD 6/7, 10 legions were deployed and an equivalent number of auxilia (70 cohors, 10 ala
Ala
Ala may refer to:* Ala , a female demon in the Serbian and Bulgarian mythology* Ala , an Alusi in Odinani* Ala , a Republican-period, largely infantry, formation of 5,400 men...
and more than 10,000 veterans). In addition, they were assisted by a large number of Thracian
Thracians
The ancient Thracians were a group of Indo-European tribes inhabiting areas including Thrace in Southeastern Europe. They spoke the Thracian language – a scarcely attested branch of the Indo-European language family...
troops deployed by their King Rhoemetalces I
Rhoemetalces I
Rhoemetalces I was king of the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace from 12 BC to 12, in succession to his nephew Rhescuporis I.Rhoemetalces I was a loyal ally to the first Roman Emperor Augustus. He was a direct descendant of the Thracian King Cotys I, and the middle son of the earlier Thracian king Cotys VI...
, a Roman amicus ("ally") a grand total of some 100,000 men.
They faced further reverses on the battlefield and a bitter guerrilla war in the Bosnian
Bosnia (region)
Bosnia is a eponomous region of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It lies mainly in the Dinaric Alps, ranging to the southern borders of the Pannonian plain, with the rivers Sava and Drina marking its northern and eastern borders. The other eponomous region, the southern, other half of the country is...
mountains, but bitter fighting also occurred in southern Pannonia around Mons Almus (modern Fruška Gora
Fruška Gora
Fruška Gora is a mountain in north Syrmia. Most part of the territory is located within Vojvodina, Serbia, but a smaller part on its western side overlaps the territory of Croatia...
) near Sirmium
Sirmium
Sirmium was a city in ancient Roman Pannonia. Firstly mentioned in the 4th century BC and originally inhabited by the Illyrians and Celts, it was conquered by the Romans in the 1st century BC and subsequently became the capital of the Roman province of Lower Pannonia. In 294 AD, Sirmium was...
. It took them three years of hard fighting to quell the revolt, which was described by the Roman historian Suetonius
Suetonius
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was a Roman historian belonging to the equestrian order in the early Imperial era....
as the most difficult conflict faced by Rome since the Punic Wars
Punic Wars
The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage from 264 B.C.E. to 146 B.C.E. At the time, they were probably the largest wars that had ever taken place...
two centuries earlier. Tiberius finally quelled the revolt in AD 9. This was just in time: that same year Arminius
Arminius
Arminius , also known as Armin or Hermann was a chieftain of the Germanic Cherusci who defeated a Roman army in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest...
destroyed
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest
The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest took place in 9 CE, when an alliance of Germanic tribes led by Arminius of the Cherusci ambushed and decisively destroyed three Roman legions, along with their auxiliaries, led by Publius Quinctilius Varus.Despite numerous successful campaigns and raids by the...
Varus
Publius Quinctilius Varus
Publius Quinctilius Varus was a Roman politician and general under Emperor Augustus, mainly remembered for having lost three Roman legions and his own life when attacked by Germanic leader Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.-Life:His paternal grandfather was senator Sextus Quinctilius...
's three legions in Germany. The Roman high command did not doubt that Arminius would have formed a grand alliance with the Illyrians.
The fighting of the Illyrian Revolt had lasting effects on Roman soldiers. Unhappy with their payment of swampy and mountainous Pannonian lands for such harsh military service, and with abuses relating to their pay and conditions, Roman soldiers staged a mutiny in AD 14 demanding recompense. Tiberius
Tiberius
Tiberius , was Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His mother divorced Nero and married Augustus in 39 BC, making him a step-son of Octavian...
dispatched his son, Drusus, to pacify the mutineers.
Tactics and troop organization
Much more is known on the tactics of warfare of the southern Illyrians. It is supposed that The Illyrian since the 4th century BC had warrior formations which did not differ from Macedonian phalanxes
Phalanx formation
The phalanx is a rectangular mass military formation, usually composed entirely of heavy infantry armed with spears, pikes, sarissas, or similar weapons...
. The best example of this organization was shown when Bardyllis
Bardyllis
Bardyllis was a king of the Dardanian Kingdom and probably its founder.Bardyllis created one of the most powerful Illyrian states, that of the Dardanians...
led his army under war against the Macedonians under Philip II
Philip II of Macedon
Philip II of Macedon "friend" + ἵππος "horse" — transliterated ; 382 – 336 BC), was a king of Macedon from 359 BC until his assassination in 336 BC. He was the father of Alexander the Great and Philip III.-Biography:...
.
Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus Siculus was a Greek historian who flourished between 60 and 30 BC. According to Diodorus' own work, he was born at Agyrium in Sicily . With one exception, antiquity affords no further information about Diodorus' life and doings beyond what is to be found in his own work, Bibliotheca...
(1st century BC) writes of the Illyrian phalanxes in this battle that was an attempt for a coordinated stance by forming a square. His exact words are: "Ἰλλυριοὶ συντάξαντες ἑαυτούς εἰς πλινθίον ἐρρωμένος".
"But the Illyrians, forming themselves into a square, courageously entered the fray. And at first for a long while the battle was evenly poised because of the exceeding gallantry displayed on both sides, and as many were slain and still more wounded, the fortune of battle vacillated first one way then the other"
In the 2nd century BC the army of Agron and Teuta is no more represented in phalanxes but in smaller troops, armored well and fast moving. These tactics also used in Roman times were ready for independent operations and so were much affective than earlier phalanxes. These exact tactics were agile for quick and surprising actions and soon showed to be superior against Greek tactics and as a result the Illyrians received some wonderful victories against the Greeks.
On the sea the Illyrians used guerrilla-partisan tactics with their sophisticated navy. These sea tactics made the Illyrians masters of the Adriatic Sea
Adriatic Sea
The Adriatic Sea is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan peninsula, and the system of the Apennine Mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges...
for many centuries. Their ships, which were relatively small were not capable of direct naval battle with the heavier war-ships of the Greeks and Romans and most of the time were defeated. An exception is the victory over the island of Paxoi when the Illyrians used a new form of tactic which involved connecting their ships in groups of four and attacking the Greek ships.
Army units
Illyrian archersArchery
Archery is the art, practice, or skill of propelling arrows with the use of a bow, from Latin arcus. Archery has historically been used for hunting and combat; in modern times, however, its main use is that of a recreational activity...
were used to harass and break up enemy formations, so that other warriors could then get in amongst their enemies. The members of the warband are lightly armed and equipped, relying more on speed as a protection from foes. Any archers caught in the open by cavalry
Cavalry
Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
would be in trouble unless they could withdraw to more favorable ground or behind a shield wall of allied warriors. Their simple bow
Bow (weapon)
The bow and arrow is a projectile weapon system that predates recorded history and is common to most cultures.-Description:A bow is a flexible arc that shoots aerodynamic projectiles by means of elastic energy. Essentially, the bow is a form of spring powered by a string or cord...
s had a short range and were ineffective against even leather armor at a range of 50 to 100 meters. These archers are at their best in wooded country, where their superior stealth skills learned on the hunt can be put to use.
Illyrian light spearmen learned to fight in ordered formations and with short spears and javelins in order to break up the formations of their enemies. They were not particularly reliable soldiers. They could give a good account of themselves in battle if deployed properly. They wore no armor, and had only a light shield
Shield
A shield is a type of personal armor, meant to intercept attacks, either by stopping projectiles such as arrows or redirecting a hit from a sword, mace or battle axe to the side of the shield-bearer....
for protection, so most other infantry would slaughter them in droves. They fended off light cavalry for a time, if need be. Few Illyrian heavy spearmen, mostly those belonging to the upper social class, afforded weapons imported from Greece and fought using long spears used overhand and large round shields. They also often preferred to wear a crested Illyrian helmet. The body protection of theirs was the heaviest that was to be found amongst most of the Illyrians. The heavy Illyrian spearmen fought well as personal glory was the way to status.
Illyrian footmen were drawn from the unruly tribes of Illyria in the western Balkans. Together with their javelins, they were armed with a short sword or an axe and shield which, coupled with their innate aggression and mobility in rough terrain, made them useful in close engagements with light troops, and for ambushes. However, the lack of any other armour means that once their javelins were spent, they were best kept away from heavier enemy troops, especially cavalry.
Illyrian heavy swordsmen had learned to fight in relatively ordered formations with swords, javelins and Illyrian shields in order to break up the formations of their enemies. This made them a dangerous and versatile enemy, due to the fact that they could carry an inordinate amount of light javelins and follow a literal shower of these javelins with a thunderous charge with swords. They were impetuous infantry wearing helmets and pieces of Hellenic influenced equipement but couldn't be considered a heavy unit since the lack of heavy armour. If they were used properly they could become a key unit in the army of any general with enough gold
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...
to afford them.
Illyrian light cavalry were fast moving horsemen armed with axes and javelins. They were not armoured, relying instead in their speed and in trying to catch the enemy by surprise. They were excellent for breaking up skirmishers, attacking light and medium infantry as well as light cavalry and pursuing already broken enemies to prevent them rallying and rejoining a battle. Their axes were useful against armoured enemies. The Illyrian cavalry consisted of fast moving horsemen armed with spears and javelins.
Weaponry
The fact that Illyrian warriors were buried with their weapons has resulted in an abundant amount of surviving intact. The works of ancient authors fail to provide a clear picture on Illyrian weapons and the only true contributor to this matter was the Roman poet EnniusEnnius
Quintus Ennius was a writer during the period of the Roman Republic, and is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was of Calabrian descent...
(239 BC – 169 BC) who was of Messapian
Messapii
thumb|220px|Messapic ceramic, Archaeological Museum of [[Oria, Italy|Oria]], Apulia.The Messapii were an ancient tribe that inhabited, in historical times, the south-eastern peninsula or "heel" of Italy , known variously in ancient times as Calabria, Messapia and Iapygia...
origin. Weaponry was very important to the Illyrian in the time of war however sometimes only the rich and nobles could afford some types such as greaves and helmets. A lot of armor was imported to mainly from the Greek mainland proved by the findings of Greek weapons in the Glacinac graves dating from the 7th century BC.
Shields were used among the Illyrian as early as the Bronze Age
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacture of some implements and weapons. Chronologically, it stands between the Stone Age and Iron Age...
. In the Iron Age
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
two types of shiels were used, the Illyrian circular shield and the oval/rectangular type used by the northern Illyrians. The most common was the circular shield which was made of wood and leather with a bronze
Bronze
Bronze is a metal alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin as the main additive. It is hard and brittle, and it was particularly significant in antiquity, so much so that the Bronze Age was named after the metal...
boss and was like a mostly light pelte. The Illyrian circular shield resembled the Macedonian version but differed from the number of circular decortication. Their shapes with either round (peltes), rectangular or oval. A type of wooden oblong
Rectangle
In Euclidean plane geometry, a rectangle is any quadrilateral with four right angles. The term "oblong" is occasionally used to refer to a non-square rectangle...
shield with an iron boss was introduced to Illyria from the Celts. This type of shield resembled the Illyrian oval sheld used in northern Illyria.
Breast-armor and greaves were a specialty for the rich only in Illyrian society. Bronze breast-armor was used very rarely by the northern Illyrians and only three examples have been discovered do far in Slovenia
Slovenia
Slovenia , officially the Republic of Slovenia , is a country in Central and Southeastern Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. Slovenia borders Italy to the west, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north, and also has a small portion of...
. However another form of body armor was a bronze pectoral that may have protected part of the back as well. It was more like a disc "breastplate" of 10 cm in diameter. Greaves to protect the legs were used from the 7th century BC and probably even earlier. They first appeared in Illyria from its southern borders and are found only in princely graves.
In northern Illyria the Bronze helmet was employed. The Bronze helmet developed into the common Conical helmet which sometimes contained a plume. The most intriguing of all Illyrian helmets was developed, the Shmarjet helmet, was made by the Japodes in the Lika valley. It was mades from wicker and chain-mail while metal plates around the sides were optional. Under influence from Illyrias northern neighbours, the Italic peoples, the Negau helmet
Negau helmet
Negau helmet refers to one of 26 bronze helmets dating to ca. 450 till 350 BC, found in 1811 in a cache in Ženjak, near Negau, Duchy of Styria . The helmets are of typical Etruscan 'vetulonic' shape, sometimes described as of the Negau type. They were buried in ca...
helmet was used from the 5th century BC to the 4th century BC. The most widespread helmet was the Illyrian helmet with its use beginning from the 7th century BC. The Illyrian helmet was made from bronze and consisited of a great, crested plume on the top. The origin and the time period this helmet used has been a subject of much debate. Some experts allocate its origins in Corinth
Corinth
Corinth is a city and former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Corinth, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit...
and clain ot went out of use in Illyrian in the 4 th century BC. Others claim that the helmet has its origins in Illyria and that it was used up to the 2nd century BC proven by depictions on Illyrian city coins of the time.
The principal sword of the Illyrians was the sica
Sica
The sica was a short sword or large dagger of ancient Thracians/Dacians peoples, used in Ancient Rome too. It was originally depicted as a curved sword, with a blade about 16-18 inches long and many examples have been found in what are today Romania, Bosnia, Bulgaria and Serbia, as well as...
, a single edged curved sword similar to the Greek machaira. The sica was developed during the Bronze Age. The sica's blade was about 16-18 inches long (40 – 45 cm). It became widely used an adopted by other peoples such as the Thracians
Thracians
The ancient Thracians were a group of Indo-European tribes inhabiting areas including Thrace in Southeastern Europe. They spoke the Thracian language – a scarcely attested branch of the Indo-European language family...
, Dacians and the Romans. The Illyrian also used the fighting sword short curved swords, long swords in addition to various knives. According to historian John Wilkes:
Although a short curved sword was used by several peoples around the Mediterranean the Romans regarded the sicaSicaThe sica was a short sword or large dagger of ancient Thracians/Dacians peoples, used in Ancient Rome too. It was originally depicted as a curved sword, with a blade about 16-18 inches long and many examples have been found in what are today Romania, Bosnia, Bulgaria and Serbia, as well as...
as a distinct Illyrian weapon used by the stealthy 'assassin' (sicarius)
The Illyrian's also used a variety of other weapons, like javelins, long metallic spears called Sibyna (Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek is the stage of the Greek language in the periods spanning the times c. 9th–6th centuries BC, , c. 5th–4th centuries BC , and the c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD of ancient Greece and the ancient world; being predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek...
Σιβύνη) that resembled boar spear
Boar spear
A boar spear is a spear used for boar hunting. It is relatively short and heavy and has two "lugs" or "wings" on the spearsocket behind the blade, which act as a barrier to prevent an injured and furious boar from working its way up the shaft of the spear to attack the hunter.The boar spear also...
s, short thrusting spears, battle axes, single-handed axes that could be hurled and also bows and arrows which were used from the start of the 2nd millennium BC.
Illyrian mercenaries and Nobility
Perdiccas II of Macedon
Perdiccas II was a king of Macedonia from about 454 BC to about 413 BC. He was the son of Alexander I and had two brothers.-Background:After the death of Alexander in 452, Macedon began to fall apart. Macedonian tribes became almost completely autonomous, and were only loosely allied to the king...
had hired Illyrian mercenaries in 5th century BC but they betrayed him, allying with his enemy, Arrhabaeus of Lyncus. In another incident, Lysimachus
Lysimachus
Lysimachus was a Macedonian officer and diadochus of Alexander the Great, who became a basileus in 306 BC, ruling Thrace, Asia Minor and Macedon.-Early Life & Career:...
killed all of his 5,000 Illyrian mercenaries (of the Autariatae
Autariatae
The Autariatae or Autariates were an ancient people that eventually became the most powerful Illyrian tribe. Their territory was called...
tribe) to the last man, because he was convinced that they would join the enemy. Previously in 302 BC 2,000 of his Illyrian mercenaries had defected to Antigonus
Antigonus
Antigonus, a Greek name meaning "comparable to his father" or "worthy of his father", may refer to:* Three Macedonian kings of the Antigonid dynasty that succeeded Alexander the Great in Asia:** Antigonus I Monophthalmus...
. Illyrians were not considered as reliable mercenaries, in the ancient world but were at the same time acknowledged as a skilled fighting force
The nobility had access to breastplates and greaves whilst the bulk of the army did not.The kings did not resemble the rest of the army and were the only ones with full body protection which was a rarity. Illyrian kings and rulers wore bronze torques around their necks and were heavily armored in antithesis to the bulk of their armies. A number of weapons and armaments were imported from Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
including helmets. Armaments were mostly made of bronze
Bronze
Bronze is a metal alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin as the main additive. It is hard and brittle, and it was particularly significant in antiquity, so much so that the Bronze Age was named after the metal...
. Another form of body armor was a bronze pectoral
Pectoral
Pectoral may refer to:* Pectoral cross, a cross worn on the chest* a decorative, usually jeweled version of a gorget* Pectoral , often iconographic with hieroglyphs* Pectoralis major muscle, commonly referred to as "pectorals" or "pecs"...
(that may have protected part of the back as well). It was more like a disc "breastplate" of 10 cm in diameter.Local greaves made of bronze were strapped on the legs. Metal riveted belts were used as well.
The Illyrian rulers were accompanied by fast moving horsemen armed with spears and javelins.
Like all general's guards, this unit was best committed to the fight at the point of crisis, when the leaders inspirational leadership and the combat power of his men could tip the balance. They were also well trained enough to fight effectively in continued hand-to-hand combat if needed.
Illyrian navy
The Illyrians were notorious sailors in the ancient world. They were great ship builders and seafarers. The most skillful Illyrian sailors were the Liburnians, Japodes, Delmatae and Ardiaei. The greatest navy was built by AgronAgron (king)
Agron was the greatest king of the Ardiaean Kingdom. The son of Pleuratus, Agron brought about a great revival among the Illyrians; during his reign, the Ardiaean State was not only the most powerful Illyrian state of the time, but also one of the greatest in the Balkans. He succeeded in extending...
in the 3rd century BC. The Illyrian tactics consisted of lashing their galleys together in groups of four and inviting a broadside attack from a ram. The Illyrians would then board the enemy craft in overwhelming numbers. Illyrian war ships were adopted by many peoples especially the Greeks and Romans. Illyrian craftsmen were even hired by the King of Macedon to build 100 ships in the First Macedonian War
First Macedonian War
The First Macedonian War was fought by Rome, allied with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against Philip V of Macedon, contemporaneously with the Second Punic War against Carthage...
because to him they bore a special gift of ship building. The earliest evidence of Illyrian ships is from the design of a ship incised on bronze greaves from Glasinac dating from the 8th century BC to the 7th century BC. The front of this ship is constructed in the form of an animal probably an horse.
Illyrian ships were a favourite depiction on Illyrian coins especially on the coinage of the Labatae. The type of war ships presented on the coins is hard to determine. However all the depictions show a similarity in which the bows of the ships were shaped in the form of a serpents head. The Byzantine author from the 6th century wrote that the Adriatic was a sea in which serpents swam.
The Liburnians were renowned seafarers dominating the Adriatic and Ionian Sea
Ionian Sea
The Ionian Sea , is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea, south of the Adriatic Sea. It is bounded by southern Italy including Calabria, Sicily and the Salento peninsula to the west, southern Albania to the north, and a large number of Greek islands, including Corfu, Zante, Kephalonia, Ithaka, and...
from the start of the 1st millennium to the 5th century BC. The Romans knew them principally as a people addicted to piracy
Piracy
Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence at sea. The term can include acts committed on land, in the air, or in other major bodies of water or on a shore. It does not normally include crimes committed against persons traveling on the same vessel as the perpetrator...
. The major harbour of Liburnian navy since 5th century BC was Corynthia at eastern cape of Krk
Krk
Krk is a Croatian island in the northern Adriatic Sea, located near Rijeka in the Bay of Kvarner and part of the Primorje-Gorski Kotar county....
island, including 7 unearthed docks, marine arsenal, and stony fortifications; this early harbour persisted in ancient and medieval function to 16th century.
Liburnians constructed different ship types; their galaia was an early prototype of transport galleys, lembus was a fishing ship continued by the actual Croatian levut, and a drakoforos was apparently mounted with a dragonhead at the prow.
Remains of a 10 meters long ship from the 1st century BC, were found in Zaton
Zaton
Zaton can refer to:* Zaton, Dubrovnik-Neretva County, a village located northwest of Dubrovnik, Croatia* Zaton, Šibenik-Knin County, a village located northeast of Vodice, Croatia* Zaton, Zadar County, a village located south of Nin, Croatia...
near Nin
Nin, Croatia
Nin is a town in the Zadar county of Croatia, population 1,256 , total municipality population 4,603 .Nin was historically important as a centre of a Christian Bishopric in the Middle Ages. Up to the abolition and Latinization imposed by King Tomislav in the first half of the 10th century, Nin was...
(Aenona in Classical Liburnia), a ship keel with bottom planking made of 6 rows of the wooden boards on each side, specifically joined together, sewn with resin cords and wooden wedges, testifying the Liburnian shipbuilding tradition style, therefore named "Serilia Liburnica". Deciduous trees (oak and beech) were used, while some climber was used for the cords.
The Illyrians were often referred to a pirates, raiding Greek and Roman vessels. Illyrian's indulgence in piracy was one that brought them infamy and invited their downfall. Their rugged broken coast with its screen of islands formed a perfect base from which their light and speedy little to attack unwary shipss. The Illyrians piratical career reached its zenith under Queen Teuta. The Illyrians practiced boarding tactics against enemy vessels. Although this view was widely accepted at first this connection is not completely true. Ancient Greek and Roman authors often attacked Illyrians in their works merely because they saw them as enemies and so many sources may be heavily exaggerated.
The three main types of Illyrian warships were the Lembus
Lembus
A lembus was an ancient Illyrian galley, with a single bank of oars and no sails. It was small and light, with a low freeboard. It was a fast and maneuverable warship, capable of carrying 50 men in addition to the rowers...
, the Liburna
Liburna
A liburnian or liburna was a type of small galley used for raiding and patrols, particularly by the Roman navy.According to some thoughts, liburnian was shown in the scene of naval battle, curved on a stone tablet found near Antique Pisaurum , outlined to 5th or 6th century BC, the most possibly...
and the Pristis.
Lembus
The lembos (from , "boat", romanizedRomanization
In linguistics, romanization or latinization is the representation of a written word or spoken speech with the Roman script, or a system for doing so, where the original word or language uses a different writing system . Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written...
as lembus), was an ancient Illyrian warship
Warship
A warship is a ship that is built and primarily intended for combat. Warships are usually built in a completely different way from merchant ships. As well as being armed, warships are designed to withstand damage and are usually faster and more maneuvrable than merchant ships...
, with a single bank of oars and no sails. It was small and light, with a low freeboard. It was a fast and maneuverable warship capable of carrying 50 men in addition to the rowers. It was most commonly associated with the vessels used by the Illyrian tribes, chiefly for piracy, in the area of Dalmatia
Dalmatia
Dalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south....
. This type of craft was also adopted by Philip V of Macedon
Philip V of Macedon
Philip V was King of Macedon from 221 BC to 179 BC. Philip's reign was principally marked by an unsuccessful struggle with the emerging power of Rome. Philip was attractive and charismatic as a young man...
, and soon after by the Seleucids, Rome, and even the Sparta
Sparta
Sparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
n king Nabis
Nabis
Nabis was ruler of Sparta from 207 BC to 192 BC, during the years of the First and Second Macedonian Wars and the War against Nabis. After taking the throne by executing two claimants, he began rebuilding Sparta's power. During the Second Macedonian War, he sided with King Philip V of Macedon and...
in his attempt to rebuild the Spartan navy.
In contemporary authors, the name was associated with a class rather than a specific type of vessels, as considerable variation is evident in the sources: the number of oars ranged from 16 to 50, they could be one- or double-banked, and some types did not have a ram, presumably being used as couriers and fast cargo vessels.
Liburna
According to some thoughts, liburna was shown in the scene of naval battle, curved on a stone tablet (Stele di Novilara) found near Antique Pisaurum (Pesaro
Pesaro
Pesaro is a town and comune in the Italian region of the Marche, capital of the Pesaro e Urbino province, on the Adriatic. According to the 2007 census, its population was 92,206....
), outlined to 5th or 6th century BC, the most possibly showing imaginary battle between Liburnian and Picenian
Picenum
Picenum was a region of ancient Italy. The name is an exonym assigned by the Romans, who conquered and incorporated it into the Roman Republic. Picenum was the birthplace of such notables as Pompey the Great and his father Pompeius Strabo. It was situated in what is now Marche...
fleets. Liburna was presented as light type of the ship with one row or the oars, one mast, one sail and prow twisted outwards. Under the prow there was a rostrum made for striking the enemy ships under the sea.
By its original form, the liburna was the most similar to the Greek penteconter
Penteconter (ship)
The penteconter, alt. spelling pentekonter, also transliterated as pentecontor or pentekontor was an ancient Greek galley in use since the archaic period....
. It had one bench with 25 oars on each side, while in the late ages of the Roman Republic, it became a smaller version of a trireme
Trireme
A trireme was a type of galley, a Hellenistic-era warship that was used by the ancient maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean, especially the Phoenicians, ancient Greeks and Romans.The trireme derives its name from its three rows of oars on each side, manned with one man per oar...
, but with two banks of oars (a bireme
Bireme
A bireme is an ancient Hellenistic-era warship with two decks of oars, probably invented by the Phoenicians. It typically was about long with a maximum beam width of around . It was modified from the penteconter, a ship that had only one set of oars on each side, the bireme having two sets of oars...
), faster, lighter, and more agile than biremes and triremes. The liburnian design was adopted by the Romans and became a key part of Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
's navy
Roman Navy
The Roman Navy comprised the naval forces of the Ancient Roman state. Although the navy was instrumental in the Roman conquest of the Mediterranean basin, it never enjoyed the prestige of the Roman legions...
, most possibly by mediation of Macedonian
Ancient Macedonians
The Macedonians originated from inhabitants of the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, in the alluvial plain around the rivers Haliacmon and lower Axios...
navy in the 2nd half of the 1st century BC. Liburna ships played a key role in naval battle of Actium
Battle of Actium
The Battle of Actium was the decisive confrontation of the Final War of the Roman Republic. It was fought between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII. The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea near the city of Actium, at the Roman...
in Greece, which lasted from August 31 to September 2 of 31 BC. Because of the its naval and maneuver features and bravery of its Liburnian crews, these ships completely defeated much bigger and heavier eastern ships, quadriremes and penterames.
Liburna was different to the battle triremes, quadriremes and quinquereme
Quinquereme
From the 4th century BC on, new types of oared warships appeared in the Mediterranean Sea, superseding the trireme and transforming naval warfare. Ships became increasingly bigger and heavier, including some of the largest wooden ships ever constructed...
s not because of rowing but rather because of its specific constructional features.
It was 109 ft (33 m) long and 16 ft (5 m) wide with a 3 ft (0.9144 m) draft. Two rows of oarsmen pulled 18 oars per side. The ship could make up to 14 knots under sail and more than 7 under oars.
Such a vessel, used as a merchantman, might take on a passenger, as Lycinus relates in the 2nd-century dialogue, traditionally attributed to Lucian of Samosata: "I had a speedy vessel readied, the kind of bireme used above all by the Liburnians of the Ionian Gulf."
Once the Romans had adopted the Liburnian, they proceeded to make a few adaptations to improve the ships’ use within the navy. The benefits gained from the addition of rams and protection from missiles more than made-up for the slight loss of speed. Besides the construction, the ships required that the regular Roman military unit be simplified in order to function more smoothly. Each ship operated as an individual entity, so the more complicated organization normally used was not necessary. Within the navy, there were probably liburnian of several varying sizes, all put to specific tasks such as scouting and patrolling Roman waters against piracy. The Romans made use of the liburnian particularly within the provinces of the empire, where the ships formed the bulk of the fleets, while it was included by small numbers in fleets of Ravenna and Micenum, where a large number of the Illyrians were serving, especially Dalmatae, Liburnians and Pannonians.
Gradually liburna became general name for the different types of the Roman ships, attached also to the cargo ships in the Late Antique. Tacitus
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
and Suetonius
Suetonius
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was a Roman historian belonging to the equestrian order in the early Imperial era....
were using it as a synonym for the battle ship. In inscriptions it was mentioned as the last in class of the battle ships: hexeres, penteres, quadrieres, trieres, liburna.
In the Medieval sources the "liburna" ships were often recorded in use by the Medieval Croatian
Croats
Croats are a South Slavic ethnic group mostly living in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and nearby countries. There are around 4 million Croats living inside Croatia and up to 4.5 million throughout the rest of the world. Responding to political, social and economic pressure, many Croats have...
and Dalmatia
Dalmatia
Dalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south....
n pirates and sailors, but probably not always referring to the ships of the same form.
Pristis
The Pristis (Ancient GreekAncient Greek
Ancient Greek is the stage of the Greek language in the periods spanning the times c. 9th–6th centuries BC, , c. 5th–4th centuries BC , and the c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD of ancient Greece and the ancient world; being predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek...
Πρίστις) was a beaked long and narrow war ship(it was also the name of a specific ship in the Aeneid.)
Fortifications
Tilurium
Tilurium was an Illyrian fortified settlement of the Delmatae.Tilurium was the location a Roman cohort in the territory of the Delmatae. The site is now located on the hill of Gardun near Trilj.-External links:*...
and Setovia
Setovia
Setovia was an Illyrian fortified settlement of the Delmatae.It was located at an unknown location in the modern-day Sinjsko polje , and was besieged by Octavian's Roman troops in 34/33 BC. Some Roman stone inscriptions were found near Vrlika and Kijevo that indicate Setovia was nearby.-External...
of the Delmatae. Most enclosures were round or oval with very few exceptions for other shapes and the largest two were 200 meters across while most are not anything more than fortified blockhouses.
The Castellieri were fortified boroughs, usually located on hills or mountains or, more rarely (such as in Friuli), in plains. They were constituted by one or more concentric series of walls, of rounded or elliptical shape in Istria and Venezia Giulia, or quadrangular in Friuli, within which was the inhabited area. Some a hundred of castellieri have been discovered in Istria, Friuli and Venezia Giulia, such as that of Leme
Leme
Leme is a municipality in the state of São Paulo in Brazil. The area is 403.1 km². According to the 2000 census, it has 80,757 residents, 40,830 of whom are men and 39,927 women. 65,885 residents are 10 years old or older, and of these, 59,991, or 91.1%, are literate. The estimated population...
, in the central-western Istria, of the Elleri, near Muggia
Muggia
Muggia is a small Italian comune in the extreme south-east of Trieste lying on the border with Slovenia.Muggia is the last and only flap of Istria still in Italian territory, after the dissolution of the Free Territory of Trieste in 1954....
, of Monte Giove near Prosecco (Trieste
Trieste
Trieste is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is situated towards the end of a narrow strip of land lying between the Adriatic Sea and Italy's border with Slovenia, which lies almost immediately south and east of the city...
) and San Polo, not far from Monfalcone
Monfalcone
Monfalcone is a town and comune of the province of Gorizia , located on the coast of the Gulf of Trieste. Monfalcone means "Mount of Falcon" in Italian....
. However, the largest castelliere was perhaps that of Nesactium
Nesactium
Nesactium was an ancient fortified town of the Histrii tribe. Its ruins are located in southern Istria, Croatia, between the village of Muntić and Valtura.-History:...
, in the southern Istria, not far from Pula
Pula
Pula is the largest city in Istria County, Croatia, situated at the southern tip of the Istria peninsula, with a population of 62,080 .Like the rest of the region, it is known for its mild climate, smooth sea, and unspoiled nature. The city has a long tradition of winemaking, fishing,...
.
Hellenistic influence
The graves of Illyrian nobles (early Iron ageIron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
, 7th century BC – 5th century BC) contained a great number of Greek imports including weaponry. This includes finds at Glasinac Plateau (Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina , sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina or simply Bosnia, is a country in Southern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. Bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina is almost landlocked, except for the...
), Lake Ohrid
Lake Ohrid
Lake Ohrid straddles the mountainous border between the southwestern Macedonia and eastern Albania. It is one of Europe's deepest and oldest lakes, preserving a unique aquatic ecosystem with more than 200 endemic species that is of worldwide importance...
in the Republic of Macedonia
Republic of Macedonia
Macedonia , officially the Republic of Macedonia , is a country located in the central Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. It is one of the successor states of the former Yugoslavia, from which it declared independence in 1991...
, Dolensko (Slovenia
Slovenia
Slovenia , officially the Republic of Slovenia , is a country in Central and Southeastern Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. Slovenia borders Italy to the west, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north, and also has a small portion of...
) and various sites in Albania
Albania
Albania , officially known as the Republic of Albania , is a country in Southeastern Europe, in the Balkans region. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea...
. The Glasinac-Mati cultural complex encompasses eastern Bosnia,south-western Serbia Montenegro and northern Albania
Albania
Albania , officially known as the Republic of Albania , is a country in Southeastern Europe, in the Balkans region. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea...
. Ancient Greek Illyrian type helmet
Illyrian type helmet
The "Illyrian" or "Greco-Illyrian" type helmet is an archaeological term that describes a style of bronze helmet, which in its later variations covered the entire head and neck, and was open-faced in all of its subsequent forms. Its earliest styles were first developed in Ancient Greece,...
s either as imports or later copies had spread throughout Illyria and one was found as far as Slovenia
Slovenia
Slovenia , officially the Republic of Slovenia , is a country in Central and Southeastern Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. Slovenia borders Italy to the west, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north, and also has a small portion of...
(though again in the grave of a king) not only in the Glasinac-Mati cultural complex like the helmet found in the grave at Klicevo, Montenegro
Montenegro
Montenegro Montenegrin: Crna Gora Црна Гора , meaning "Black Mountain") is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and is bordered by Croatia to the west, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the northwest, Serbia to the northeast and Albania to the...
. The Greek helmets found in some of these sites were of type I
Illyrian type helmet
The "Illyrian" or "Greco-Illyrian" type helmet is an archaeological term that describes a style of bronze helmet, which in its later variations covered the entire head and neck, and was open-faced in all of its subsequent forms. Its earliest styles were first developed in Ancient Greece,...
and very few of type II
Illyrian type helmet
The "Illyrian" or "Greco-Illyrian" type helmet is an archaeological term that describes a style of bronze helmet, which in its later variations covered the entire head and neck, and was open-faced in all of its subsequent forms. Its earliest styles were first developed in Ancient Greece,...
.
Illyrians on the coast of the Adriatic were under the effects and influence of Hellenisation due to their proximity to the Greek colonies in Illyria.
Apart from other cultural influences and imported weapons and armor from the Ancient Greeks the Illyrians had adopted the ornamentation of Ancient Macedon
Macedon
Macedonia or Macedon was an ancient kingdom, centered in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, the region of Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south....
on their shields and their war belts (a single one has been found, dated 3rd century BC at modern Selce e Poshtme
Selce e Poshtme
Selcë e Poshtme is a village located in the Mokra area, Pogradec District, Korçë County, Albania. Near the village, on the right bank of Shkumbin river at an elevation of above sea level, 5 Royal Tombs of Selca e Poshtme are found...
part of Macedon
Macedon
Macedonia or Macedon was an ancient kingdom, centered in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, the region of Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south....
at the time under Philip V of Macedon
Philip V of Macedon
Philip V was King of Macedon from 221 BC to 179 BC. Philip's reign was principally marked by an unsuccessful struggle with the emerging power of Rome. Philip was attractive and charismatic as a young man...
and before that border between Chaonia
Chaonia
Chaonia or Chaon was the name of the northwestern part of Epirus, the homeland of the Greek tribe of the Chaonians. Its main town was called Phoenice. According to Virgil, Chaon was the eponymous ancestor of the Chaonians....
and Illyria
Illyria
In classical antiquity, Illyria was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by the Illyrians....
). The Illyrians used four concentric half circles whilst the Macedon
Macedon
Macedonia or Macedon was an ancient kingdom, centered in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, the region of Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south....
ians five. This ancient Greek
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek is the stage of the Greek language in the periods spanning the times c. 9th–6th centuries BC, , c. 5th–4th centuries BC , and the c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD of ancient Greece and the ancient world; being predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek...
symbol was prominent in Thessaly
Thessaly
Thessaly is a traditional geographical region and an administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey....
and Macedon
Macedon
Macedonia or Macedon was an ancient kingdom, centered in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, the region of Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south....
appearing in the 10th century BC and had spread throughout southern Greece. A typical adoption of the symbol in the Hellenistic period
Hellenistic period
The Hellenistic period or Hellenistic era describes the time which followed the conquests of Alexander the Great. It was so named by the historian J. G. Droysen. During this time, Greek cultural influence and power was at its zenith in Europe and Asia...
from Illyrians is seen on an iron round pelte with similar decorations and a diameter of 35 cm. This is evident during the Greek rule of south Illyria the Antipatrid dynasty
Antipatrid dynasty
The Antipatrid dynasty was a Macedonian dynasty founded by Cassander, the son of Antipater, who declared himself King of Macedon in 302 BC. This dynasty did not last long; in 294 BC it was overthrown by the Antigonid dynasty, whose members proved to be more effective rulers.Members of the...
& the Antigonid dynasty
Antigonid dynasty
The Antigonid dynasty was a dynasty of Hellenistic kings descended from Alexander the Great's general Antigonus I Monophthalmus .-History:...
retained until the Roman conquest. Tactics had been influenced as well, evident in an incident involving Dardanians. The hellenised city of Daorson
Daorson
Daorson was the capital of a Hellenised Illyrian tribe called the Daorsi . The Daorsi lived in the valley of the Neretva River between 300 BC and 50 BC...
located in Dalmatia
Dalmatia
Dalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south....
included "cyclopean walls".
Roman
Illyria became a Roman province at 168 BC. The Illyrians, that were eventually Romanized rebelled in AD 6. Nearly two hundred years of Roman rule changed the weapons of the Illyrians by the time of the rebellion and they resembled those of Roman legionaries. The tribes that rebelled had been Celticized by the time Romans conquered Illyria in 168 BC and their equipment reflected this. Inhabitants of Roman Dalmatia applied a poison on their arrows called ninum. This was not a Roman influence but was mentioned during that time.Timeline of Illyrian Military
- Myth Encheleans under CadmusCadmusCadmus or Kadmos , in Greek mythology was a Phoenician prince, the son of king Agenor and queen Telephassa of Tyre and the brother of Phoenix, Cilix and Europa. He was originally sent by his royal parents to seek out and escort his sister Europa back to Tyre after she was abducted from the shores...
against IllyriansIllyriansThe Illyrians were a group of tribes who inhabited part of the western Balkans in antiquity and the south-eastern coasts of the Italian peninsula...
in Illyria, Illyrian defeat
8th century BC
- 735 BC. LiburniansLiburniansThe Liburnians were an ancient Illyrian tribe inhabiting the district called Liburnia, a coastal region of the northeastern Adriatic between the rivers Arsia and Titius in what is now Croatia....
abandon CorfuCorfuCorfu is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea. It is the second largest of the Ionian Islands, and, including its small satellite islands, forms the edge of the northwestern frontier of Greece. The island is part of the Corfu regional unit, and is administered as a single municipality. The...
under pressure from Corinthian ruler Hersikrates. First recorded battle between Illyrians and Greeks.
7th century BC
- 691 BC. First Illyrian invasion of Macedonia after bad relations develop.
- ? BC. Gaularos, ruler of the Taulanti state wages war on the Macedonians.
- 628 BC. Liburnians expelled from Durrës by Corinthians which were invited as aid by the neighbouring Taulantii
- 602 BC. Philip I of MacedonPhilip I of MacedonPhilip I of Macedon was one of the early kings of Macedon, a kingdom to the north of ancient Greece. He was a member of the Argead dynasty and son of Argaeus I, becoming king in 640 BC upon his father's death.As king, Philip was noted to be both wise and courageous...
is killed in battle by the Illyrians
6th century BC
- 524 BC. Etruscans defeat the Liburnians in order to open trade routes to the AegeanAegeanAegean may refer to:*Aegean Sea*Aegean Islands*Aegean Region, Turkey*Aegean civilization*Tyrsenian languages, aka Aegean languages*Aegean Sea , a naval theme of the Byzantine Empire*Aegean Airlines...
. - 524 BC. Aristodemus of Cumae defeats the allied Daunian and Etruscan armies
- 511 BC. Persians under MegabazusMegabazusMegabazus was a highly regarded Persian general under Darius. Most information about him comes from The Histories by Herodotus. Troops left behind in Europe after a failed attempt to conquer the Scythians were put under the command of Megabazus. He was given a mission to conquer Thrace, in...
defeat the Paeonians and depart two of their tribes to Darius in Asia. - 509 BC. Peucetii siege and attack Rome
- 500 BC. Start of the Tarentine-Iapygian wars results in a Iapygian defeat
5th century BC
- 499 BC. Paeonians take part in the Ionian Revolt against the Persians
- 490 BC. Tarentines defeat the Messapians
- 480 BC. Paeonians join the Greeks against the Persians in the Battle of SalamisBattle of SalamisThe Battle of Salamis was fought between an Alliance of Greek city-states and the Persian Empire in September 480 BCE, in the straits between the mainland and Salamis, an island in the Saronic Gulf near Athens...
- 473 BC. Iapygians repulse the Tarentines inflicting a serious defeat on them
- 466 BC. Taranto again defeated by the Iapygians
- 460 BC. Competitive trading leads to the destruction of Thronion by Apollonia
- 460 BC. Opis of the Iapyges falls in battle against Taranto
- 440 BC. Brindidi and Thurrii enter into an alliance against Taranto
- 436 BC. Taulantii attack the city of Durrës contributing to the start of the Peloponnesian War
- 433 BC. Messapian-Thurian victory over the Lucanians in the Sybaris lain
- 432 BC. Messapian-Thurian forces successfully throw off another Lucanian invasion in the Crati gorge
- 430 BC. Grabus of the royal house of the Grabaei enters an alliance with Athens
- 429 BC. Agrianes become subject to the Odrysian kingdom
- 424 BC. Illyrians defeat a combined army of Spartans and Macedonians at Lyncestis during the Peloponnesian War
- 424 BC. Autariatae expand their territory, pushing the Thracian Triballi eastwards into western Serbia and Bulgaria
- 418 BC. Artas made a proxenos of Athens as operations in Sicily begin
- 413 BC. Artas supplies the Athens with one hundred and fifty javelin-throwers for the war against SyracuseSyracuseSyracuse, as a place name, may refer to:In Italy:* Syracuse, Sicily* the Province of SyracuseIn the United States:* Syracuse, New York* Syracuse, Indiana* Syracuse, Kansas* Syracuse, Missouri* Syracuse, Nebraska* Syracuse, Ohio* Syracuse, Utah...
.
4th century BC
- 399 BC. New conflict develops between Sirras and Archelaus I of Macedonian over the Lyncestian case
- 393 BC. Dardanians rule Macedonia through a puppet king after defeating Amyntas III of Macedon under Argaeus II
- 392 BC. Amyntas III allied with the Thessalians takes Macedonia under his rule from the Dardanians
- 385 BC. BardyllisBardyllisBardyllis was a king of the Dardanian Kingdom and probably its founder.Bardyllis created one of the most powerful Illyrian states, that of the Dardanians...
extends his rule over Epirus after defeating the Mollosians - 385 BC. Agesilaus of Sparta drives off the Dardanians under BardyllisBardyllisBardyllis was a king of the Dardanian Kingdom and probably its founder.Bardyllis created one of the most powerful Illyrian states, that of the Dardanians...
, ending their short rule over Epirus - 360 BC. Arymbas of the Mollosians defeats the Illyrians after they raided and looted Epirus
- 360 BC. Southern Paeonian tribes launch raids against Macedonia in support of an Illyrian invasion
- 359 BC. The death of Agis leads to the subjection of the Paeonian State by Macedonia
- 359 BC. Perdiccas III of Macedon killed in an attempt to reconquer upper Macedonia
- 356 BC. Lycceius joins the anti-Macedonian coaltion led by Athens which includes Grabos
- 358 BC. Phillip II of Macedon defeats the Illyrians and kills the 90 year old Bardyllis after refusing a peace-treaty
- 356 BC. Parmenio surprises Grabos with a defeat before he is able to converge with his allies in Athens and Thrace and Paeonia
- 352 BC. Agrianes become allies of Philip II
- 344 BC. The Taulantii State is limited to the lands along the Adriatic after the defeat of Pleuratus I against Philip II
- 344 BC. Caeria loses her life in a battle against Cynane and her army is defeated
- 337 BC. Pleurias almost succeeds in killing Philip II during his Balkan campaigns
- 335 BC. First part of the Illyrian Revolt ends in failure with the defeat of Pleurias
- 335 BC. Alexander the Great subjects the Illyrian states defeating CleitusCleitus the IllyrianCleitus was an Illyrian king of the Dardanian State attested in 335 BC. Cleitus was the son of Bardyllis and the father of Bardyllis II.....
and Glaukias in the battle of Pelium - 323 BC. Cynane, an Illyrian herself leads a Macedonian army to victory over the Illyrians
- 317 BC. Glaucias enters in league with the Greek colonieswhile Cassander is at a low ebb
- 312 BC. Acrotatus of Sparta aids Glaucias in abolishing the Macedonian garrison in Apollonia
- 312 BC. Glaucias obtains control of Epidamnus with the help of Corcyra
- 310 BC. The Autariatae State seizes to exist after continuous Celtic migrations and conflicts
- 307 BC. Glaucias invades Epirus and establishes Pyrrhus as king
3rd century B.C.
- 280 BC. Gallic army defeated by the Dardanians during the Gallic Invasion of the Balkans
- 231 BC. Agron, king of the Ardiaei builds the largest Illyrian fleet and leads his army into a famous victory over the Aeotolians in the Acarnanian capital MedeonMedeonMedeon is a former municipality in Aetolia-Acarnania, West Greece, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Aktio-Vonitsa, of which it is a municipal unit. Population 5,050...
- 230 BC. Longarus, king of the Dardanians captures BylazoraBylazoraBylazora or Vilazora is a Paeonian city that was located on the Axius River at Veles in the Republic of Macedonia. Polybius tells us that "King Philip V captured Bylazora, the largest town of Paeonia, and very favourably situated for commanding the pass from Dardania to Macedonia: so that by this...
from the Paeonians - 230 BC. Queen Teuta starts her pirate campaign by capturing the cities of Phoenice and Durrës
- 229 BC. Queen Teuta and Acarnanians raid the Aetolian and Achaean League in the island of Paxoi
- 229 BC. Start of the First Illyrian War, Romans cross the Adriatic for the first time in reaction to Teuta's threats of Roman trade routes
- 228 BC. Illyrians suffer multiple defeats by the Romans. End of First Illyrian War
- 220 BC. Start of the Second Illyrian War when Demetrius of Pharos builds up a new Illyrian navy and violates the Roman-Illyrian treaty by attacking Aegean cities
- 219 BC. Aemilius Paulus commands the Roman armies against the Illyrians under Demetrius of Pharos inflicting multiple Illyrian defeats. This causes Demetrius to flee to Macedonia thus ending the Second Illyrian War
2nd century BC
Collapse ofsouthern Illyria and the start of Roman campaigns against northern Illyria- 197 BC. Romans inflict defeat on the Illyrians in the city of Delminium of central Illyria
- 197 BC. Delmatians suffer defeat at Neretva
- 183 BC. Philip V of Macedon makes an alliance with the Bastarnae to settle in Dardanian territory and wipe out the Dardanians. Philips plan fails as the Dardanians emerge victorious
- 180 BC. Dalmatians declares themselves independent from the rule of Gentius, king of the Ardiaei
- ? BC. Epulon succeeds in defeating the Romans. Romans unable to take Nesactium and do not make any success in their lengthy siege of the city
- 177 BC. Istrian Peninsula captured by Romans by diverting a river which protected Epulons stronghold and provided it with water
- 170 BC. Gentius leads his army to a victory over the Romans in Uscana, western Macedonia
- 168 BC. Romans defeat Gentius at the Ardiaean capital Shkodër bringing an end to the Illyrian kingdom. King Gentius brought to Rome as a prisoner
- 155 BC. Romans destroy the Dalmatian capital DelminiumDelminiumDelminium was an Illyrian settlement which was located near today's Tomislavgrad, Bosnia and Herzegovina.- Etymology :The toponym Delminium has the same origin with the name of the tribe of the Dalmatae, which is connected with the Illyrian word delmë, dele in modern Albanian, which means sheep in...
- 119 BC. Pannonians defeated by Romans in Siscia
1st century BC
- 76 BC. Final defeat of the Dalmatians with the capture of the city port of SalonaSalonaSalona was an ancient Illyrian Delmati city in the first millennium BC. The Greeks had set up an emporion there. After the conquest by the Romans, Salona became the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia...
- 51 BC. RomansAncient RomeAncient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
against Illyrians in DalmatiaDalmatiaDalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south....
, Illyrian victory - 49 BC. Liburnian communities take different sides in the civil war against Caesar and Pompey near the island of Krk
- 48 BC. CornificiusCornificiusQuintus Cornificius was a Roman author of a work on rhetorical figures, and perhaps of a general treatise on the art of rhetoric.-Auctor ad Herennium:...
and Gabinus against Illyrians in DalmatiaDalmatiaDalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south....
, Illyrian victory - 39 BC. Gaius Asinius PollioGaius Asinius Pollio (consul 40 BC)Gaius Asinius Pollio was a Roman soldier, politician, orator, poet, playwright, literary critic and historian, whose lost contemporary history, provided much of the material for the historians Appian and Plutarch...
against Partheni, Illyrian defeat - 35 BC. OctaviusOctaviusOctavius or Eudaf Hen is a figure of Welsh tradition. He is remembered as a King of the Britons and the father of Elen Luyddog and Conan Meriadoc in sources such as the Welsh prose tale The Dream of Macsen and Geoffrey of Monmouth's Latin chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae...
against Pannonians in Siscia, Illyrian defeat - 34 BC. IapydesIapydesThe Iapydes were an ancient people who dwelt north of and inland from the Liburnians, off the Adriatic coast and eastwards of the Istrian peninsula...
finally conquered by the Romans under Octavius Augustus. - 9 BC. TiberiusTiberiusTiberius , was Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His mother divorced Nero and married Augustus in 39 BC, making him a step-son of Octavian...
(since 12 BC) and ScordisciScordisciThe Scordisci were an Iron Age tribe centered in the territory of present-day Serbia, at the confluence of the Savus , Dravus and Danube rivers. They were historically notable from the beginning of the third century BC until the turn of the common era...
against Illyrians in DalmatiaDalmatiaDalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south....
, Illyrian defeat
1st century AD
- 6 AD. The Daesitiates under their ruler Bato IBato IAlso known as Bato the Daesitiate. Bato was an Illyrian warlord who led the Daesitiates in the Great Illyrian revolt against the Roman Empire from 6-9 CE.-Background:He was probably born between 35 and 30 BCE in what is today Upper Bosnia...
mutilate defeating a Roman force sent against them - 7 AD. Caecina SeverusAulus Caecina Severus (suffect consul 1 BC)Aulus Caecina Severus was a Roman politician and general who was suffect consul in 1 BC.-Biography:Descended from a distinguished Volaterran family, Severus made his name as a military man and was awarded the post of suffect consul in 1 BC....
defeats Daesitiates and Breuci. Despite their defeat the Illyrians late inflicte heavy casualties at the Battle of Sirmium and are later strengthened when more Illyrian tribes join in the rebellion - 7 AD. Three Roman generals and legionaries sent to defeat the massive Illyrian army
- 8 AD. Bato IIBato IIBato II was an Illyrian warlord who led the Breuci in the Great Illyrian revolt against the Roman Empire. Bato II joined his rebel forces with those led by Bato I. After facing defeat, he surrendered to Tiberius in 8 CE on the bank of the Bosnian river...
surrenders his forces to Tiberius - 9 AD. After fierce fighting Bato I surrenders to the Romans marking the last Illyrian attempt for independence
See also
- Thracian warfareThracian warfareThe history of Thracian warfare spans from ca. 10th century BC up to the 1st century AD in the region defined by Ancient Greek and Latin historians as Thrace. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Thracian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans...
- Dacian warfareDacian warfareThe history of Dacian warfare spans from c. 10th century BC up to the 2nd century AD in the region defined by Ancient Greek and Latin historians as Dacia. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Dacian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans...
- Celtic warfareCeltic warfareThe history of Celtic warfare spans from c. 10th century BC up to the first few centuries AD and it concerns the distinct styles of warfare of the peoples known as Celts. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Celtic tribes and their kingdoms...
- Prehistoric BalkansPrehistoric BalkansThe prehistory of Southeastern Europe , defined roughly as the territory of the wider Balkans peninsula covers the period from the Upper Paleolithic, beginning with the presence of Homo sapiens in the area some 44,000 years ago, until the...
- Great Illyrian RevoltGreat Illyrian revoltThe Great Illyrian Revolt, was a major conflict between an alliance of indigenous communities from Illyricum and Roman forces that lasted for four years beginning in AD 6 and ending in AD 9.-The war:...
- Illyrian WarsIllyrian WarsIllyrian Wars were a set of conflicts of 229 BC, 219 BC and 168 BC when Rome overran the Illyrian settlements and suppressed the piracy that had made the Adriatic unsafe for Italian commerce. There were three campaigns, the first against Teuta, the second against Demetrius of Pharos and the third...
- List of ancient tribes in Illyria
- List of rulers of Illyria
- SicaSicaThe sica was a short sword or large dagger of ancient Thracians/Dacians peoples, used in Ancient Rome too. It was originally depicted as a curved sword, with a blade about 16-18 inches long and many examples have been found in what are today Romania, Bosnia, Bulgaria and Serbia, as well as...
- SibynaSibynaA sibyna was a type of spear used for hunting or warfare in ancient times.A long heavy spear the Illyrians used described by the poet Ennius according to Festius. Hesychius of Alexandria, calls it similar to a spear. Suda lexicon calls it a Roman javelin.The word may be Illyrian or...
