Glass in Islamic culture
Encyclopedia
The influence of the Islamic world to the history of glass is reflected by its distribution around the world, from Europe to China, and from Russia to East Africa. Islamic glass developed a unique expression that was characterized by the introduction of new techniques and the innovation of old traditions (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 112).
Islamic glass did not begin to develop a recognizable expression until the late 8th or early 9th century AD, despite Islam spreading across the Middle East and North Africa during the mid-7th century AD (Israeli 2003, 319). Despite bringing enormous religious and socio-political changes to the region, this event appears to have not drastically effected the day-to-day workings of craft industries, nor did it cause “extensive destruction or long-lasting disruption” (Schick 1998, 75). The Roman (Levant
and Egypt
) and Sassanian (Persia and Mesopotamia
) glassmaking industries continued in much the same way they had for centuries earlier. Following the unification of the entire region, the interaction of ideas and techniques was facilitated, allowing for the fusion of these two separate traditions with new ideas, ultimately leading to the Islamic glass industry (Israeli 2003, 319). Roman glassmaking traditions that are important in the Islamic period include the application of glass trails as a surface embellishment, while stylistic techniques adopted from the Sassanian Empire include various styles of glass cutting. This may have developed out of the long-standing hardstone carving
traditions in Persia and Mesopotamia
(Carboni 2001, 15-17; Pinder-Wilson 1991, 115-122). In regards to glassmaking technology, tank furnaces used in the Levant
to produce slabs of raw glass for export during the Classical Period were used during the Early Islamic Period in the same region until the 10th or 11th centuries AD (Aldsworth et al. 2002, 65; Freestone 2006, 202).
(soda component) from the Wādi el-Natrūn in Egypt
, and examples of natron-based Islamic glass have been found in the Levant
up to the late 9th century AD (Whitehouse 2002, 193-195). Archaeological evidence has shown that the use of natron
ceased, and plant ash became the source of soda for all Islamic glass in the following centuries (Dussart et al. 2004; Freestone 2002; Freestone 2006; Whitehouse 2002). The reasons for this technological transition remain unclear, although it has been postulated that civil unrest in Egypt
during the early 9th century AD led to a cut-off in the natron supply, thus forcing Islamic glassmakers to look for alternate soda sources (Whitehouse 2002, 194). Evidence of experimentation with the basic glass recipe at Beth She'arim (modern Israel
) during the early 9th century AD further supports this argument. A glass slab made from a tank mold from the site contained an excess amount of lime, and may be the result of mixing sand with plant ash (Freestone and Gorin-Rosin 1999, 116). Whilst the raw glass would have been unusable due to its composition, it does suggest that at this time, Islamic glassmakers in the Levant
were combining aspects of Sassanian and Roman traditions in an effort to solve the problem created by the lack of access to mineral natron. The use of plant ash, specifically from halophytic (salt-loving) plants, which were plentiful in the Middle East
due to the climate (Barkoudah and Henderson 2006, 297-298), was well-known in Persia and Mesopotamia
. It undoubtedly would not take long for the glassmakers in the Near East
to correct their manufacturing errors and begin using the plant ash-based recipe used further east.
Caliphate, the first Islamic dynasty (Israeli 2003, 319). Following the rise of the Abbasid
Caliphate in 750 AD, the capital of the Islamic world was moved from Damascus
in the Levant
to Baghdad
in Mesopotamia
. This led to a cultural shift away from the influences of Classical traditions, and allowed for the development of an ‘Islamic’ expression (Israeli 2003, 320).
The production of glass during this period is concentrated in three main regions of the Islamic world. Firstly, the Eastern Mediterranean remained a centre of glass production, as it had been for centuries. Excavations at Qal’at Sem’an in northern Syria
(Dussart et al. 2004), Tyre in Lebanon
(Aldsworth et al. 2002), Beth She'arim and Bet Eli'ezer in Israel
(Freestone 2006, 202), and at Fustat (Old Cairo
) in Egypt
(Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 2001) have all shown evidence for glass production, including numerous vessels, raw glass, and their associated furnaces. Also adding to our understanding of the glass industry in this region is the aforementioned shipwreck at Serçe Liman. In Persia, a formerly Sassanian region, archaeological activity has located a number of sites with large deposits of Early Islamic Glass, including Nishapur
, Siraf
, and Susa
(Kröger 1995, 1-6). Numerous kilns suggest Nishapur
was an important production centre, whilst the identification of a local type of glass at Siraf
suggests the same for that site (Kröger 1995, 5,20). In Mesopotamia
, excavations at Samarra, a temporary capital of the Abbasid
Caliphate during the mid-9th century AD, produced a wide range of glass vessels, while work at al-Madā'in (former Ctesiphon
) and Raqqa (on the Euphrates River in modern Syria
) provide evidence for glass production in the region (Freestone 2006, 203; Kröger 1995, 6-7).
The majority of the decorative traditions used in the Early Islamic Period concerned the manipulation of the glass itself, and included trail-application, carving, and mold-blowing (Israeli 2003, 320). As mentioned previously, glass-carving and trail application are a continuation of older techniques, the former associated with Sassanian glassmaking and the latter with Roman traditions. In relief cutting, a specialized form of glass-carving most often used on colourless and transparent glass, “the area surrounding the decorative elements was carved back to the ground, thus leaving the former in relief” (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 116). Mold-blowing, based on older traditions, is another specialized technique that spread widely throughout the Islamic world during this period. Two distinct types of molds are known archaeologically; a two-part mold made up of separate halves, and the ‘dip’ mold, whereby the viscous glass is placed entirely inside one mold (Carboni 2001, 198). The molds were often made of bronze (Carboni 2001, 197), although there are examples of some being ceramic (von Folsach and Whitehouse 1993, 149).
A final decorative technology that is a distinct marker of the Early Islamic Period is the use of lustre
painting. While some scholars see this as a purely Islamic invention originating in Fustat (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 124), others place the origins of lustre decoration in Roman and Coptic Egypt during the centuries preceding the rise of Islam
. Staining glass vessels with copper and silver pigments was known from around the 3rd century AD (Carboni 2001, 51), although true lustre technology probably began sometime between the 4th and 8th centuries AD (Caiger-Smith 1985, 24; Pradell et al. 2008, 1201). Lustre painting on glass involves the application of copper and silver pigments, followed by a specific firing that allows for the ionic exchange of Ag+ and Cu+ with the glass, resulting in a metallic sheen fully bound to the vessel (Pradell et al. 2008, 1204). Regardless of its specific origins, lustre decoration was a key technology in glass production that continued to develop throughout the Early Islamic Period, and spread not only geographically, but also to other material industries in the form of glazed ceramics (Carboni 2001, 51).
(along with parts of Syria
for some time) came under control of the Seljuq
Turks, and later the Mongols, while in the Eastern Mediterranean, the Ayyubid and Mamluk
Dynasties held sway. Furthermore, this period saw European interruptions into the Middle East due to the Crusades
(Israeli 2003, 321; Pinder-Wilson 1991, 126). Glass production seemingly ceased to exist in Persia and Mesopotamia
, and little is known about the reasons for this (Israeli 2003, 321). However, in the earlier part of this period, there is evidence for glass-making in Central Asia
, for example at Kuva in modern Uzbekistan
(Ivanov 2003, 211-212). This tradition presumably ended with the Mongol invasions of the mid-13th century that destroyed other sites in the region (Anarbaev and Rehren 2009).
The glass-producing regions of Syria
and Egypt
continued their industries. It is for the materials excavated and produced at sites such as Samsat in southern Turkey
(Redford 1994), Aleppo
and Damascus
in Syria
(Pinder-Wilson 1991, 131), Hebron
in the Levant
(Spaer 1992, 46), and Cairo
(Carboni 2001, 323; Israeli 2003, 231) that this period is referred to as the ‘Golden Age’ of Islamic glass. The Middle Islamic Period is characterized by the perfection of various polychrome decorative traditions, the most important of which are marvering, enamelling, and gilding
, while relief-carving and lustre
painting seemingly fell out of fashion (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 126-130). Marvering involves applying a continuous trail of opaque glass (in various colours such as white, red, yellow, or pale blue) around the body of a glass object. This trail may then be manipulated by pulling it, creating a characteristic ‘wavy’ pattern. The object was then rolled on a marver (a stone or iron slab) to work the trail into the glass vessel itself (Carboni 2001, 291). This technique, used on a variety of glass objects from bowls and bottles to chess pieces, was introduced around the late 12th century AD (Carboni 2001, 291), but is in fact a revival of a much older glass-working tradition that has its origins in the Late Bronze Age in Egypt
(Tatton-Brown and Andrews 1991, 26).
Gilding
during this period involved applying small amounts of gold in suspension onto a glass body, followed by a low firing to fuse the two materials, and was adopted from Byzantine
traditions (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 130). This technique was often combined with enamelling, the application of ground glass with a colourant, to traditional and new vessel forms, and represents the height of Islamic glassmaking (Carboni 2001, 323-325). Enamelling, a resurrection of older techniques, was first practiced in the Islamic world at Raqqa (Syria) during the late 12th century, but also spread to Cairo
during Mamluk
rule (Carboni 2001, 323; Gudenrath 2006, 42). A study of various enamelled vessels, including beakers and mosque lamp
s, suggests that there are two subtle yet distinct firing practices, possibly representing two distinct production centres or glass-working traditions (Gudenrath 2006, 47). Due to its high demand, enamelled glass was exported throughout the Islamic world, Europe, and China during this period (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 135). Enamelling eventually ended in Syria
and Egypt
following disruption by various Mongol invasions from the 13th through to the 15th centuries AD (Israeli 2003, 376).
A final note on glass from the Middle Islamic Period is the increased interaction between the Middle East and Europe. The Crusades
allowed for the European discovery of Islamic gilded and enamelled vessels. The ‘Goblet of the Eight Princes’ brought to France
from the Levant
is one of the earliest examples of this technique (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 135). Furthermore, large amounts of raw plant ash were exported solely to Venice
, fuelling that city’s glass industries (Jacoby 1993). It was also in Venice
that enamelling was resurrected following its decline in the Islamic world (Gudenrath 2006, 47).
(Pinder-Wilson 1991, 136). The most important over-riding characteristic of glass production in this period is the “direct influence of European glass” and, in particular, that of Venice
, Bohemia
(in the 18th century), and the Dutch (Carboni 2001, 371). The production of high-quality fine glass essentially ended in Egypt, Syria, and Persia, and it was only in India
during the 17th century that Islamic glass regained a high level of artistic expression following European influence (Carboni 2001, 371; Markel 1991, 82-83). The lack of court patronage for glassmaking and the high quality of European glass led contributed to a decline in the industry; however, utilitarian glass was still being made in the traditional centres (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 136).
Historical documents and accounts, such as the Surname-i Humayun, show the presence of glassmaking, and a glassmaker’s guild, in Istanbul
, as well as production at Beykoz
on the coast of the Bosphorus, in the Ottoman Empire
. The glass made at these centres was not of great quality and was highly influenced by Venetian and Bohemian styles and techniques (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 137). In Persia, evidence for glassmaking following the Mongol invasions of the 13th century does not reappear until the Safavid period (17th century). European travellers wrote accounts of glass factories in Shiraz
, and it is thought that transplanted Italian craftsmen brought about this revival (Carboni 2001, 374). No significant decorative treatments or technical characteristics of glass were introduced or revived during this period in Persia. Bottle and jug forms with simple applied or ribbed decoration, made from coloured transparent glass, were common, and are linked to the Shirazi wine industry (Carboni 2001, 374-375).
Mughal
glassmaking in India, on the other hand, saw a return to the enamelling and gilding traditions from the Middle Islamic Period, as well as the glass-carving techniques used in Persia during the earliest centuries of the Islamic world (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 138). Glass workshops and factories were initially found near the Mughal capital of Agra
, Patna (eastern India), and in Gujarat province (western India), and by the 18th century had spread to other regions in western India (Markel 1991, 83). New forms were introduced using these older Islamic glass-working techniques, and of these, nargileh (water pipe) bases became the most dominant (Markel 1991, 84). Square bottles based on Dutch forms, decorated with enamelling and gilding in Indian motifs, are another important expression in Mughal glassmaking, and were produced at Bhuj
, Kutch, and in Gujarat (Carboni 2001, 389; Markel 1991, 87). Ethnographic study of current glass production in Jalesar
shows fundamental similarities between this site and the Early Islamic tank furnaces found in the Levant
, despite differences in the shape of the structures (round in India, rectangular at Bet She’arim), highlighting the technological continuity of the glass industry throughout the Islamic period (Sode and Kock 2001).
in Iran (Lamm 1931), and at Samarra
in Iraq (Lamm 1928). One of the most important discoveries in the field of Islamic glass was a shipwreck dated to around 1036 AD on the Turkey coast at Serçe Liman. The recovered cargo included vessel fragments and glass cullet exported from Syria (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 114). The significance of these finds lies in the information they can tell us about the production and distribution of Islamic glass. Despite this, the majority of studies have concentrated on stylistic and decorative classification (Carboni 2001; Kröger 1995; Lamm 1928; Lamm 1931; Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 2001), and as such technological aspects of the industry, as well as undecorated vessels and objects, have often been overlooked within the field. This, in particular, is frustrating because the majority of glass finds during the Islamic period are undecorated and used for utilitarian purposes (Carboni 2001, 139).
Roman and Sassanian Influences
Islamic glass did not begin to develop a recognizable expression until the late 8th or early 9th century AD, despite Islam spreading across the Middle East and North Africa during the mid-7th century AD (Israeli 2003, 319). Despite bringing enormous religious and socio-political changes to the region, this event appears to have not drastically effected the day-to-day workings of craft industries, nor did it cause “extensive destruction or long-lasting disruption” (Schick 1998, 75). The Roman (Levant
Levant
The Levant or ) is the geographic region and culture zone of the "eastern Mediterranean littoral between Anatolia and Egypt" . The Levant includes most of modern Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian territories, and sometimes parts of Turkey and Iraq, and corresponds roughly to the...
and Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
) and Sassanian (Persia and Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
) glassmaking industries continued in much the same way they had for centuries earlier. Following the unification of the entire region, the interaction of ideas and techniques was facilitated, allowing for the fusion of these two separate traditions with new ideas, ultimately leading to the Islamic glass industry (Israeli 2003, 319). Roman glassmaking traditions that are important in the Islamic period include the application of glass trails as a surface embellishment, while stylistic techniques adopted from the Sassanian Empire include various styles of glass cutting. This may have developed out of the long-standing hardstone carving
Hardstone carving
Hardstone carving is a general term in art history and archaeology for the carving for artistic purposes of semi-precious stones, also known as gemstones, such as jade, rock crystal , agate, onyx, jasper, serpentine or carnelian, and for an object made in this way. Normally the objects are small,...
traditions in Persia and Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
(Carboni 2001, 15-17; Pinder-Wilson 1991, 115-122). In regards to glassmaking technology, tank furnaces used in the Levant
Levant
The Levant or ) is the geographic region and culture zone of the "eastern Mediterranean littoral between Anatolia and Egypt" . The Levant includes most of modern Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian territories, and sometimes parts of Turkey and Iraq, and corresponds roughly to the...
to produce slabs of raw glass for export during the Classical Period were used during the Early Islamic Period in the same region until the 10th or 11th centuries AD (Aldsworth et al. 2002, 65; Freestone 2006, 202).
Technological Change
During the first centuries of Islamic rule, glassmakers in the Eastern Mediterranean continued to use the Roman recipe consisting of calcium-rich sand (providing the silica and lime) and mineral natronNatron
Natron is a naturally occurring mixture of sodium carbonate decahydrate and about 17% sodium bicarbonate along with small quantities of household salt and sodium sulfate. Natron is white to colourless when pure, varying to gray or yellow with impurities...
(soda component) from the Wādi el-Natrūn in Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
, and examples of natron-based Islamic glass have been found in the Levant
Levant
The Levant or ) is the geographic region and culture zone of the "eastern Mediterranean littoral between Anatolia and Egypt" . The Levant includes most of modern Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian territories, and sometimes parts of Turkey and Iraq, and corresponds roughly to the...
up to the late 9th century AD (Whitehouse 2002, 193-195). Archaeological evidence has shown that the use of natron
Natron
Natron is a naturally occurring mixture of sodium carbonate decahydrate and about 17% sodium bicarbonate along with small quantities of household salt and sodium sulfate. Natron is white to colourless when pure, varying to gray or yellow with impurities...
ceased, and plant ash became the source of soda for all Islamic glass in the following centuries (Dussart et al. 2004; Freestone 2002; Freestone 2006; Whitehouse 2002). The reasons for this technological transition remain unclear, although it has been postulated that civil unrest in Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
during the early 9th century AD led to a cut-off in the natron supply, thus forcing Islamic glassmakers to look for alternate soda sources (Whitehouse 2002, 194). Evidence of experimentation with the basic glass recipe at Beth She'arim (modern Israel
Israel
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
) during the early 9th century AD further supports this argument. A glass slab made from a tank mold from the site contained an excess amount of lime, and may be the result of mixing sand with plant ash (Freestone and Gorin-Rosin 1999, 116). Whilst the raw glass would have been unusable due to its composition, it does suggest that at this time, Islamic glassmakers in the Levant
Levant
The Levant or ) is the geographic region and culture zone of the "eastern Mediterranean littoral between Anatolia and Egypt" . The Levant includes most of modern Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian territories, and sometimes parts of Turkey and Iraq, and corresponds roughly to the...
were combining aspects of Sassanian and Roman traditions in an effort to solve the problem created by the lack of access to mineral natron. The use of plant ash, specifically from halophytic (salt-loving) plants, which were plentiful in the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
due to the climate (Barkoudah and Henderson 2006, 297-298), was well-known in Persia and Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
. It undoubtedly would not take long for the glassmakers in the Near East
Near East
The Near East is a geographical term that covers different countries for geographers, archeologists, and historians, on the one hand, and for political scientists, economists, and journalists, on the other...
to correct their manufacturing errors and begin using the plant ash-based recipe used further east.
Early Islamic Glass: Mid 7th to Late 12th Century AD
The glass industry in the Early Islamic Period can initially be characterized as a continuation of older traditions, coinciding with the UmayyadUmayyad
The Umayyad Caliphate was the second of the four major Arab caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. It was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph. Although the Umayyad family originally came from the...
Caliphate, the first Islamic dynasty (Israeli 2003, 319). Following the rise of the Abbasid
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate or, more simply, the Abbasids , was the third of the Islamic caliphates. It was ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphate from all but the al-Andalus region....
Caliphate in 750 AD, the capital of the Islamic world was moved from Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
in the Levant
Levant
The Levant or ) is the geographic region and culture zone of the "eastern Mediterranean littoral between Anatolia and Egypt" . The Levant includes most of modern Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian territories, and sometimes parts of Turkey and Iraq, and corresponds roughly to the...
to Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
. This led to a cultural shift away from the influences of Classical traditions, and allowed for the development of an ‘Islamic’ expression (Israeli 2003, 320).
The production of glass during this period is concentrated in three main regions of the Islamic world. Firstly, the Eastern Mediterranean remained a centre of glass production, as it had been for centuries. Excavations at Qal’at Sem’an in northern Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
(Dussart et al. 2004), Tyre in Lebanon
Lebanon
Lebanon , officially the Republic of LebanonRepublic of Lebanon is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies. The term Lebanese Republic, a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names that is not used in today's world. Arabic is the most common language spoken among...
(Aldsworth et al. 2002), Beth She'arim and Bet Eli'ezer in Israel
Israel
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
(Freestone 2006, 202), and at Fustat (Old Cairo
Cairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
) in Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
(Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 2001) have all shown evidence for glass production, including numerous vessels, raw glass, and their associated furnaces. Also adding to our understanding of the glass industry in this region is the aforementioned shipwreck at Serçe Liman. In Persia, a formerly Sassanian region, archaeological activity has located a number of sites with large deposits of Early Islamic Glass, including Nishapur
Nishapur
Nishapur or Nishabur , is a city in the Razavi Khorasan province in northeastern Iran, situated in a fertile plain at the foot of the Binalud Mountains, near the regional capital of Mashhad...
, Siraf
Siraf
Siraf is a city in the Central District of Kangan County, Bushehr Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 3,500, in 722 families....
, and Susa
Susa
Susa was an ancient city of the Elamite, Persian and Parthian empires of Iran. It is located in the lower Zagros Mountains about east of the Tigris River, between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers....
(Kröger 1995, 1-6). Numerous kilns suggest Nishapur
Nishapur
Nishapur or Nishabur , is a city in the Razavi Khorasan province in northeastern Iran, situated in a fertile plain at the foot of the Binalud Mountains, near the regional capital of Mashhad...
was an important production centre, whilst the identification of a local type of glass at Siraf
Siraf
Siraf is a city in the Central District of Kangan County, Bushehr Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 3,500, in 722 families....
suggests the same for that site (Kröger 1995, 5,20). In Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
, excavations at Samarra, a temporary capital of the Abbasid
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate or, more simply, the Abbasids , was the third of the Islamic caliphates. It was ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphate from all but the al-Andalus region....
Caliphate during the mid-9th century AD, produced a wide range of glass vessels, while work at al-Madā'in (former Ctesiphon
Ctesiphon
Ctesiphon, the imperial capital of the Parthian Arsacids and of the Persian Sassanids, was one of the great cities of ancient Mesopotamia.The ruins of the city are located on the east bank of the Tigris, across the river from the Hellenistic city of Seleucia...
) and Raqqa (on the Euphrates River in modern Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
) provide evidence for glass production in the region (Freestone 2006, 203; Kröger 1995, 6-7).
The majority of the decorative traditions used in the Early Islamic Period concerned the manipulation of the glass itself, and included trail-application, carving, and mold-blowing (Israeli 2003, 320). As mentioned previously, glass-carving and trail application are a continuation of older techniques, the former associated with Sassanian glassmaking and the latter with Roman traditions. In relief cutting, a specialized form of glass-carving most often used on colourless and transparent glass, “the area surrounding the decorative elements was carved back to the ground, thus leaving the former in relief” (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 116). Mold-blowing, based on older traditions, is another specialized technique that spread widely throughout the Islamic world during this period. Two distinct types of molds are known archaeologically; a two-part mold made up of separate halves, and the ‘dip’ mold, whereby the viscous glass is placed entirely inside one mold (Carboni 2001, 198). The molds were often made of bronze (Carboni 2001, 197), although there are examples of some being ceramic (von Folsach and Whitehouse 1993, 149).
A final decorative technology that is a distinct marker of the Early Islamic Period is the use of lustre
Lustre
Lustre or Luster may refer to:* Lustre , a description of the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal, rock or mineral* Lusterware, ceramics with lustre glazes* Lustre , a Free Software distributed file system...
painting. While some scholars see this as a purely Islamic invention originating in Fustat (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 124), others place the origins of lustre decoration in Roman and Coptic Egypt during the centuries preceding the rise of Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
. Staining glass vessels with copper and silver pigments was known from around the 3rd century AD (Carboni 2001, 51), although true lustre technology probably began sometime between the 4th and 8th centuries AD (Caiger-Smith 1985, 24; Pradell et al. 2008, 1201). Lustre painting on glass involves the application of copper and silver pigments, followed by a specific firing that allows for the ionic exchange of Ag+ and Cu+ with the glass, resulting in a metallic sheen fully bound to the vessel (Pradell et al. 2008, 1204). Regardless of its specific origins, lustre decoration was a key technology in glass production that continued to develop throughout the Early Islamic Period, and spread not only geographically, but also to other material industries in the form of glazed ceramics (Carboni 2001, 51).
Middle Islamic Glass: Late 12th to Late 14th Century AD
This is the ‘Golden Age’ of Islamic glassmaking (Israeli 2003, 321), despite the fractious nature of the Islamic world. Persia and MesopotamiaMesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
(along with parts of Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
for some time) came under control of the Seljuq
Great Seljuq Empire
The Great Seljuq Empire was a medieval Persianate, Turko-Persian Sunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks. The Seljuq Empire controlled a vast area stretching from the Hindu Kush to eastern Anatolia and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf...
Turks, and later the Mongols, while in the Eastern Mediterranean, the Ayyubid and Mamluk
Mamluk
A Mamluk was a soldier of slave origin, who were predominantly Cumans/Kipchaks The "mamluk phenomenon", as David Ayalon dubbed the creation of the specific warrior...
Dynasties held sway. Furthermore, this period saw European interruptions into the Middle East due to the Crusades
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars, blessed by the Pope and the Catholic Church with the main goal of restoring Christian access to the holy places in and near Jerusalem...
(Israeli 2003, 321; Pinder-Wilson 1991, 126). Glass production seemingly ceased to exist in Persia and Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
, and little is known about the reasons for this (Israeli 2003, 321). However, in the earlier part of this period, there is evidence for glass-making in Central Asia
Central Asia
Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...
, for example at Kuva in modern Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan , officially the Republic of Uzbekistan is a doubly landlocked country in Central Asia and one of the six independent Turkic states. It shares borders with Kazakhstan to the west and to the north, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to the east, and Afghanistan and Turkmenistan to the south....
(Ivanov 2003, 211-212). This tradition presumably ended with the Mongol invasions of the mid-13th century that destroyed other sites in the region (Anarbaev and Rehren 2009).
The glass-producing regions of Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
and Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
continued their industries. It is for the materials excavated and produced at sites such as Samsat in southern Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
(Redford 1994), Aleppo
Aleppo
Aleppo is the largest city in Syria and the capital of Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Syrian governorate. With an official population of 2,301,570 , expanding to over 2.5 million in the metropolitan area, it is also one of the largest cities in the Levant...
and Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
in Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
(Pinder-Wilson 1991, 131), Hebron
Hebron
Hebron , is located in the southern West Bank, south of Jerusalem. Nestled in the Judean Mountains, it lies 930 meters above sea level. It is the largest city in the West Bank and home to around 165,000 Palestinians, and over 500 Jewish settlers concentrated in and around the old quarter...
in the Levant
Levant
The Levant or ) is the geographic region and culture zone of the "eastern Mediterranean littoral between Anatolia and Egypt" . The Levant includes most of modern Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian territories, and sometimes parts of Turkey and Iraq, and corresponds roughly to the...
(Spaer 1992, 46), and Cairo
Cairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
(Carboni 2001, 323; Israeli 2003, 231) that this period is referred to as the ‘Golden Age’ of Islamic glass. The Middle Islamic Period is characterized by the perfection of various polychrome decorative traditions, the most important of which are marvering, enamelling, and gilding
Gilding
The term gilding covers a number of decorative techniques for applying fine gold leaf or powder to solid surfaces such as wood, stone, or metal to give a thin coating of gold. A gilded object is described as "gilt"...
, while relief-carving and lustre
Lustre
Lustre or Luster may refer to:* Lustre , a description of the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal, rock or mineral* Lusterware, ceramics with lustre glazes* Lustre , a Free Software distributed file system...
painting seemingly fell out of fashion (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 126-130). Marvering involves applying a continuous trail of opaque glass (in various colours such as white, red, yellow, or pale blue) around the body of a glass object. This trail may then be manipulated by pulling it, creating a characteristic ‘wavy’ pattern. The object was then rolled on a marver (a stone or iron slab) to work the trail into the glass vessel itself (Carboni 2001, 291). This technique, used on a variety of glass objects from bowls and bottles to chess pieces, was introduced around the late 12th century AD (Carboni 2001, 291), but is in fact a revival of a much older glass-working tradition that has its origins in the Late Bronze Age in Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
(Tatton-Brown and Andrews 1991, 26).
Gilding
Gilding
The term gilding covers a number of decorative techniques for applying fine gold leaf or powder to solid surfaces such as wood, stone, or metal to give a thin coating of gold. A gilded object is described as "gilt"...
during this period involved applying small amounts of gold in suspension onto a glass body, followed by a low firing to fuse the two materials, and was adopted from Byzantine
Byzantine
Byzantine usually refers to the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages.Byzantine may also refer to:* A citizen of the Byzantine Empire, or native Greek during the Middle Ages...
traditions (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 130). This technique was often combined with enamelling, the application of ground glass with a colourant, to traditional and new vessel forms, and represents the height of Islamic glassmaking (Carboni 2001, 323-325). Enamelling, a resurrection of older techniques, was first practiced in the Islamic world at Raqqa (Syria) during the late 12th century, but also spread to Cairo
Cairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
during Mamluk
Mamluk
A Mamluk was a soldier of slave origin, who were predominantly Cumans/Kipchaks The "mamluk phenomenon", as David Ayalon dubbed the creation of the specific warrior...
rule (Carboni 2001, 323; Gudenrath 2006, 42). A study of various enamelled vessels, including beakers and mosque lamp
Mosque lamp
Mosque lamps of glass, enamelled and often with gilding, survive in considerable numbers from the Islamic art of the Middle Ages, especially the 13th and 14th centuries, with Cairo in Egypt and Aleppo and Damascus in Syria the most important centres of production...
s, suggests that there are two subtle yet distinct firing practices, possibly representing two distinct production centres or glass-working traditions (Gudenrath 2006, 47). Due to its high demand, enamelled glass was exported throughout the Islamic world, Europe, and China during this period (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 135). Enamelling eventually ended in Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
and Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
following disruption by various Mongol invasions from the 13th through to the 15th centuries AD (Israeli 2003, 376).
A final note on glass from the Middle Islamic Period is the increased interaction between the Middle East and Europe. The Crusades
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars, blessed by the Pope and the Catholic Church with the main goal of restoring Christian access to the holy places in and near Jerusalem...
allowed for the European discovery of Islamic gilded and enamelled vessels. The ‘Goblet of the Eight Princes’ brought to France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
from the Levant
Levant
The Levant or ) is the geographic region and culture zone of the "eastern Mediterranean littoral between Anatolia and Egypt" . The Levant includes most of modern Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian territories, and sometimes parts of Turkey and Iraq, and corresponds roughly to the...
is one of the earliest examples of this technique (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 135). Furthermore, large amounts of raw plant ash were exported solely to Venice
Venice
Venice is a city in northern Italy which is renowned for the beauty of its setting, its architecture and its artworks. It is the capital of the Veneto region...
, fuelling that city’s glass industries (Jacoby 1993). It was also in Venice
Venice
Venice is a city in northern Italy which is renowned for the beauty of its setting, its architecture and its artworks. It is the capital of the Veneto region...
that enamelling was resurrected following its decline in the Islamic world (Gudenrath 2006, 47).
Late Islamic Glass: 15th to Mid 19th Century AD
The Late Islamic Period is dominated by three main empires and areas of glass production; the Ottomans in Turkey, the Safavid (and later the Zand and Qajar) Dynasty in Persia, and the Mughals in northern IndiaIndia
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
(Pinder-Wilson 1991, 136). The most important over-riding characteristic of glass production in this period is the “direct influence of European glass” and, in particular, that of Venice
Venice
Venice is a city in northern Italy which is renowned for the beauty of its setting, its architecture and its artworks. It is the capital of the Veneto region...
, Bohemia
Bohemia
Bohemia is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands. It is located in the contemporary Czech Republic with its capital in Prague...
(in the 18th century), and the Dutch (Carboni 2001, 371). The production of high-quality fine glass essentially ended in Egypt, Syria, and Persia, and it was only in India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
during the 17th century that Islamic glass regained a high level of artistic expression following European influence (Carboni 2001, 371; Markel 1991, 82-83). The lack of court patronage for glassmaking and the high quality of European glass led contributed to a decline in the industry; however, utilitarian glass was still being made in the traditional centres (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 136).
Historical documents and accounts, such as the Surname-i Humayun, show the presence of glassmaking, and a glassmaker’s guild, in Istanbul
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
, as well as production at Beykoz
Beykoz
Beykoz is a district in the suburbs of Istanbul, Turkey at the northern end of the Bosphorus on the Anatolian side. Beykoz includes everything from the streams of Küçüksu and Göksu up to the opening of the Bosphorus into the Black Sea, and the villages in the hinterland as far as the river of Riva...
on the coast of the Bosphorus, in the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
. The glass made at these centres was not of great quality and was highly influenced by Venetian and Bohemian styles and techniques (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 137). In Persia, evidence for glassmaking following the Mongol invasions of the 13th century does not reappear until the Safavid period (17th century). European travellers wrote accounts of glass factories in Shiraz
Shiraz
Shiraz may refer to:* Shiraz, Iran, a city in Iran* Shiraz County, an administrative subdivision of Iran* Vosketap, Armenia, formerly called ShirazPeople:* Hovhannes Shiraz, Armenian poet* Ara Shiraz, Armenian sculptor...
, and it is thought that transplanted Italian craftsmen brought about this revival (Carboni 2001, 374). No significant decorative treatments or technical characteristics of glass were introduced or revived during this period in Persia. Bottle and jug forms with simple applied or ribbed decoration, made from coloured transparent glass, were common, and are linked to the Shirazi wine industry (Carboni 2001, 374-375).
Mughal
Mughal (tribe)
The term Mughal is simply a Turkic word and many groups in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh use the term Mughal to describe themselves...
glassmaking in India, on the other hand, saw a return to the enamelling and gilding traditions from the Middle Islamic Period, as well as the glass-carving techniques used in Persia during the earliest centuries of the Islamic world (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 138). Glass workshops and factories were initially found near the Mughal capital of Agra
Agra
Agra a.k.a. Akbarabad is a city on the banks of the river Yamuna in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, India, west of state capital, Lucknow and south from national capital New Delhi. With a population of 1,686,976 , it is one of the most populous cities in Uttar Pradesh and the 19th most...
, Patna (eastern India), and in Gujarat province (western India), and by the 18th century had spread to other regions in western India (Markel 1991, 83). New forms were introduced using these older Islamic glass-working techniques, and of these, nargileh (water pipe) bases became the most dominant (Markel 1991, 84). Square bottles based on Dutch forms, decorated with enamelling and gilding in Indian motifs, are another important expression in Mughal glassmaking, and were produced at Bhuj
Bhuj
Bhuj is a city and a municipality in Kachchh district in the state of Gujarat, India.-History:It was established by Rao Hamirji in 1510 and was made the state capital by Rao Khengarji I in 1549. Its foundation stone as state capital laid formally on Vikram Samvat 1604 Maagha 5th...
, Kutch, and in Gujarat (Carboni 2001, 389; Markel 1991, 87). Ethnographic study of current glass production in Jalesar
Jalesar
Jalesar is a city and a municipal board in Etah district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is concted by road to other towns such as Hathras, Etah, Aligarh and it is approx 40 km from Agra.-Geography:...
shows fundamental similarities between this site and the Early Islamic tank furnaces found in the Levant
Levant
The Levant or ) is the geographic region and culture zone of the "eastern Mediterranean littoral between Anatolia and Egypt" . The Levant includes most of modern Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian territories, and sometimes parts of Turkey and Iraq, and corresponds roughly to the...
, despite differences in the shape of the structures (round in India, rectangular at Bet She’arim), highlighting the technological continuity of the glass industry throughout the Islamic period (Sode and Kock 2001).
The Roles of Islamic Glass
Whilst the various functions of Islamic glass have been touched upon during the previous discussion (mosque lamps from the Middle Islamic Period, wine bottles from Safavid Persia, nargileh bases from Mughal India), glass filled a multitude of roles throughout the history of the Islamic world. A variety of vessel forms used to hold a wide range of materials make up the bulk of glass objects (bowls, goblets, dishes, perfume bottles, etc.), and have seen the most attention from Islamic glass scholars (Carboni 2001; Israeli 2003; Kröger 1995; Pinder-Wilson 1991; Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 2001). Some of the more distinct vessel functions from the Islamic period include inkwells (Israeli 2003, 345), qumqum or perfume sprinklers (Carboni 2001, 350-351; Israeli 2003, 378,382; Pinder-Wilson 1991, 128-129), and vessels associated with Islamic science and medicine such as alembics, test-tubes, and cuppers (Carboni 2001, 375; Israeli 2003, 347; Kröger 1995, 186; Pinder-Wilson 2001, 56-60). Glass was also used for aesthetic purposes in the form of decorative figurines (Carboni 2001, 303; Israeli 2003, 383;), and for jewellery as bracelets (Carboni 1994; Spaer 1992) and beads (Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 2001, 119-123; Spaer 1992, 46). The bracelets, in particular, may prove to be an important archaeological tool in the dating of Islamic sites (Spaer 1992, 54). Glass also filled various utilitarian roles, with evidence of use as windows (Kröger 1995, 184, Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 2001, 61), and as coin weights (Schick 1998, 95; Whitehouse 2002, 195). The variety of functions filled by glass and the sheer bulk of the material found through excavation further highlights its significance as a distinct and highly-developed material industry throughout the Islamic world.Study of Islamic glass
Islamic glass from this period has been given relatively little attention by scholars. One exception to this was the work carried out by Carl J. Lamm (1902–1987) (Israeli 2003, 322). Lamm catalogued and classified the glass finds from important Islamic sites; for example SusaSusa
Susa was an ancient city of the Elamite, Persian and Parthian empires of Iran. It is located in the lower Zagros Mountains about east of the Tigris River, between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers....
in Iran (Lamm 1931), and at Samarra
Samarra
Sāmarrā is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Salah ad-Din Governorate, north of Baghdad and, in 2003, had an estimated population of 348,700....
in Iraq (Lamm 1928). One of the most important discoveries in the field of Islamic glass was a shipwreck dated to around 1036 AD on the Turkey coast at Serçe Liman. The recovered cargo included vessel fragments and glass cullet exported from Syria (Pinder-Wilson 1991, 114). The significance of these finds lies in the information they can tell us about the production and distribution of Islamic glass. Despite this, the majority of studies have concentrated on stylistic and decorative classification (Carboni 2001; Kröger 1995; Lamm 1928; Lamm 1931; Scanlon and Pinder-Wilson 2001), and as such technological aspects of the industry, as well as undecorated vessels and objects, have often been overlooked within the field. This, in particular, is frustrating because the majority of glass finds during the Islamic period are undecorated and used for utilitarian purposes (Carboni 2001, 139).
See also
- GildingGildingThe term gilding covers a number of decorative techniques for applying fine gold leaf or powder to solid surfaces such as wood, stone, or metal to give a thin coating of gold. A gilded object is described as "gilt"...
- GlassGlassGlass is an amorphous solid material. Glasses are typically brittle and optically transparent.The most familiar type of glass, used for centuries in windows and drinking vessels, is soda-lime glass, composed of about 75% silica plus Na2O, CaO, and several minor additives...
- Hedwig glassHedwig glassHedwig glasses or Hedwig beakers are a type of glass beaker originating in the Middle East or Norman Sicily and dating from the 10th-12th centuries AD. They are named after the Silesian princess Saint Hedwig , to whom three of them are traditionally said to have belonged. So far, a total of 14...
- Islamic ArtIslamic artIslamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by or ruled by culturally Islamic populations...
- Lustreware
- Vitreous EnamelVitreous enamelVitreous enamel, also porcelain enamel in U.S. English, is a material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing, usually between 750 and 850 °C...