History of Hawaii
Encyclopedia
The human history of Hawaii includes phases of early Polynesia
n settlement, British arrival, unification, Euro-American and Asian immigrators, the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, a brief period as the Republic of Hawaii
, and admission to the United States as Hawaii Territory and then as the state of Hawaii
.
were made by Polynesians
who traveled to Hawaii using large double-hulled canoes. They brought with them pigs, dogs, chickens, taro
, sweet potato
es, coconut, banana, and sugarcane.
There are several theories regarding migration to Hawaii. The "one-migration" theory suggests a single settlement. A variation on the one-migration theory instead suggests a single, continuous settlement period.
A "multiple migration" theory suggests that there was a first settlement by a group called Menehune
(settlers from the Marquesas Islands
), and then a second settlement by the Tahitians.
On January 18, 1778 Captain James Cook
and his crew, while attempting to discover the Northwest Passage
between Alaska and Asia, were surprised to find the Hawaiian islands so far north in the Pacific. He named them the "Sandwich Islands". After the discovery by Cook, other Europeans and Americans came to the Sandwich Islands.
It is said by several that the Spanish made it two centuries before. Juan de Gaitán is said to have arrived to Hawaii in 1555. There are spanish maps of the era in which islands are shown in Hawaii latitude, but 10º further east. The first sea chart that would prove this is dated 1551, signed by Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Italian and French cartographers, which it is shown an archipelago located at points close to the place Hawaii occupies on the globe.
, for the first time in 1810 with the help of foreign weapons and advisors. The monarchy then adopted a flag similar to the one used today by the State of Hawaii present flag
, with the Union Flag
in the canton (top quarter next to the flagpole) and eight horizontal stripes (alternating white, red, blue, from the top), representing the eight major islands of Hawaii.
In May 1819, Prince became King Kamehameha II
. Under pressure from his co-regent and stepmother, Kaahumanu, he abolished the kapu
system that had ruled life in the islands. He signaled this revolutionary change by sitting down to eat with Kaahumanu and other women of chiefly rank, an act forbidden under the old religious system—see Ai Noa
. Kekuaokalani, a cousin who thought he was to share power with Liholiho, organized supporters of the kapu system, but his forces were defeated by Kaahumanu and Liholiho in December 1819 at the battle of Kuamoo.
affected the islands when Georg Anton Schäffer
, agent of the Russian-American Company
, came to retrieve goods seized by Kaumualii
, chief of Kauai
island. Kaumualii signed a treaty making Tsar Alexander I
protectorate
over Kauai. From 1817 to 1853 Fort Elizabeth
, near the Waimea River, was one of three Russian forts on the island.
In 1839 Captain Laplace of the French frigate Artémise sailed to Hawaii.
Under the threat of war, King Kamehameha III
signed the Edict of Toleration
on July 17, 1839 and paid $20,000 in compensation for the deportation of the priests and the incarceration and torture of converts, agreeing to Laplace's demands. The kingdom proclaimed:
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu returned and Kamehameha III donated land for them to build a church as reparation.
In August 1849, French admiral Louis Tromelin
arrived in Honolulu Harbor
with La Poursuivante and Gassendi. De Tromelin made ten demands to King Kamehameha III
on August 22, mainly that full religious rights be given to Catholics, (the ban on Catholicism had been lifted, but Catholics still enjoyed only partial religious rights). On August 25 the demands had not been met. After a second warning was made to the civilians, French troops overwhelmed the skeleton force
and captured Honolulu Fort, spiked the coastal guns and destroyed all other weapons they found (mainly muskets and ammunition). They raided government buildings and general property in Honolulu, causing $100,000 in damages. After the raids the invasion force withdrew to the fort. De Tromelin eventually recalled his men and left Hawaii on September 5.
warship entered Honolulu Harbor and demanded that King Kamehameha III
cede the Hawaiian Islands to the British Crown. Under the guns of the frigate, Kamehameha stepped down under protest. Kamehameha III surrendered to Paulet on February 25, writing:
Gerrit P. Judd
, a missionary who had become the Minister of Finance, secretly sent envoys to the United States, France and Britain, to protest Paulet's actions.
The protest was forwarded to Rear Admiral Richard Darton Thomas
, Paulet's commanding officer, who arrived at Honolulu harbor on July 26, 1843 on . Thomas repudiated Paulet's actions, and on July 31, 1843, restored the Hawaiian government. In his restoration speech, Kamehameha declared that "Ua mau ke ea o ka āina i ka pono", the motto of the future State of Hawaii translated as "The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness."
ended in 1872 with the death of Kamehameha V
. After the short reign of Lunalilo
, the House of Kalākaua
came to the throne. These transitions were by election of candidates of noble birth.Princess Ka'iulani was an important figure in Hawaii'in history. She tried very hard to prevent her country from becoming part of the United States.
between the Kingdom of Hawaii and the United States allowed for duty-free importation of Hawaiian sugar (from sugarcane
) into the United States beginning in 1876. This promoted sugar plantation agriculture. In exchange, Hawai'i ceded Pearl Harbor, including Ford Island (in Hawaiian, Moku'ume'ume), together with its shore for four or five miles back, free of cost to the U.S. The U. S. demanded this area based on an 1873 report commissioned by the U. S. Secretary of War.
This treaty explicitly acknowledged Hawai'i as a sovereign nation.
Although the treaty also included duty-free importation of rice
, which was by this time becoming a major crop in the abandoned taro
patches in the wetter parts of the islands, it was the influx of immigrants from Asia (first Chinese, and later Japanese) needed to support the escalating sugar industry that provided the impetus for expansion of rice growing. High water requirements for growing sugarcane resulted in extensive water works projects on all of the major islands to divert streams from the wet windward slopes to the dry lowlands.
s and revolution
s challenged the governments of the Kingdom and Republic of Hawaii during the late 19th century.
and an armed militia forced the king to promulgate what is known as the Bayonet Constitution. The impetus given for the new constitution was the frustration of the Reform Party (also known as the Missionary Party) with growing debts, spending habits of the King, and general governance. It was specifically triggered by a failed attempt by Kalākaua to create a Polynesian Federation, and accusations of an opium bribery scandal. The 1887 constitution stripped the monarchy of much of its authority, imposed significant income and property requirements for voting, and completely disenfranchised all Asians from voting. When Kalākaua died in 1891 during a visit to San Francisco, his sister Liliuokalani assumed the throne.
Queen Liliuokalani in her autobiography called her brother's reign "a golden age materially for Hawaii". Native Hawaiians felt the 1887 constitution was imposed by a minority of the foreign population because of the king's refusal to renew the Reciprocity Treaty, which now included an amendment that would have allowed the US Navy to have a permanent naval base at Pearl Harbor in Oahu, and the king's foreign policy. According to bills submitted by the King to the Hawaiian parliament, the King's foreign policy included an alliance with Japan and supported other countries suffering from colonialism. Many Native Hawaiians opposed US military presence in their country.
In 1889, a rebellion of Native Hawaiians led by Colonel Robert Wilcox
attempted to replace the unpopular Bayonet Constitution and stormed Iolani Palace. The rebellion was crushed.
According to Queen Liliuokalani, immediately upon ascending the throne, she received petitions from two-thirds of her subjects and the major Native Hawaiian political party in parliament, Hui Kalaiaina, asking her to proclaim a new constitution. Liliuokalani drafted a new constitution that would restore the monarchy's authority and the suffrage
requirements of the 1887 constitution.
In response to Liliuokalani's suspected actions, a group of European and American residents formed a Committee of Safety
on January 14, 1893. After a meeting of supporters, the Committee committed itself to removing the Queen and annexation to the United States.
United States Government Minister John L. Stevens
summoned a company of uniformed US Marines from the and two companies of US sailors to land and take up positions at the US Legation, Consulate, and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16, 1893. The Committee of Safety had claimed an "imminent threat to American lives and property".
The Provisional Government of Hawaii
was established to manage the Hawaiian islands between the overthrow and expected annexation, supported by the Honolulu Rifles, a militia group which had defended the kingdom against the Wilcox rebellion in 1889.
Under this pressure, Liliuokalani abdicated her throne. The Queen's statement yielding authority, on January 17, 1893, also pleaded for justice:
An immediate investigation into the events of the overthrow commissioned by President Cleveland
was conducted by former Congressman James Henderson Blount
. The Blount Report
was completed on July 17, 1893 and concluded that "United States diplomatic and military representatives had abused their authority and were responsible for the change in government."
Minister Stevens was recalled, and the military commander of forces in Hawaii was forced to resign his commission. President Cleveland stated "Substantial wrong has thus been done which a due regard for our national character as well as the rights of the injured people requires we should endeavor to repair the monarchy." Cleveland further stated in his 1893 State of the Union Address
and
that, "Upon the facts developed it seemed to me the only honorable course for our Government to pursue was to undo the wrong that had been done by those representing us and to restore as far as practicable the status existing at the time of our forcible intervention." Submitting the matter to Congress on December 18, 1893, after provisional President Sanford Dole refused to reinstate the Queen on Cleveland's command, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee
under chairman John Morgan
continued investigation into the matter.
On February 26, 1894, the Morgan Report
was submitted, contradicting the Blount Report and finding Stevens and the US troops "not guilty" of any involvement in the overthrow. The report asserted that, "The complaint by Liliuokalani in the protest that she sent to the President of the United States and dated the 18th day of January, is not, in the opinion of the committee, well founded in fact or in justice." After submission of the Morgan Report, Cleveland ended any efforts to reinstate the monarchy, and conducted diplomatic relations with the Dole government. He rebuffed further entreaties from the Queen to intervene.
In an 1895 Counter-Revolution
, a group led by Colonel Robert Nowlein, Minister Joseph Nawahi
, members of the Royal Household Guards, and later Robert Wilcox
attempted to overthrow the Republic. The leaders including Liliuokalani were captured, convicted, and imprisoned.
failed to be reelected US president
, the new president became Grover Cleveland
, a friend of Liliuokalani and anti-expansionist
. He delayed annexation and demanded restoration of the Queen. Fears grew of a US intervention to restore the kingdom
. A Constitutional Convention began on May 30, 1894 and the Republic of Hawaii
was declared on July 4, 1894, American Independence Day
, under the presidency of Sanford Dole.
In March 1897, William McKinley
succeeded Grover Cleveland as president. He agreed to a treaty of annexation but it failed in the Senate
because petitions from the islands indicated lack of popular support and would be in violation of international law. A joint resolution
was written by Congressman Francis G. Newlands
to annex Hawaii and violate Hawaii's Sovereign Rights. McKinley signed the Newlands Resolution
which illegally annexed Hawaii on July 7, 1898 to become the Territory of Hawaii
. On February 22, 1900 the Hawaiian Organic Act
established a territorial government with Sanford Dole, the former President of the Republic of Hawaii
, appointed governor by the US President. The territorial legislature convened for the first time on February 20, 1901. Some Hawaiian people formed the Hawaiian Independent Party
, under the leadership of Robert Wilcox, the first congressional delegate
from Hawaii.
The overthrow of the kingdom and the subsequent annexation has been called the first major instance of American imperialism.
expanded during the territory period. Some diversified to dominate related industries including transportation, banking and real estate. Economic and political power was concentrated in what were known as the "Big Five
" corporations.
Pearl Harbor
was attacked on December 7, 1941 by the Empire of Japan
which triggered the United States' entry into World War II
. Most Americans had never heard of Pearl Harbor, even though it had been used by the US Navy since the Spanish-American War
. Hawaii was put under martial law until the end of the war.
of industry-wide strikes
, protests, and other civil disobedience
. In the territorial elections of 1954 the reign of the Hawaii Republican Party
in the legislature came to an abrupt end, as they were replaced by the Democratic Party of Hawaii
. Democrats lobbied for statehood and gained the governorship for 40 years, from 1962 to 2002. The Revolution also unionized the labor force which hastened the decline of the plantations.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower
signed the Hawaii Admission Act
on March 18, 1959 which allowed for Hawaiian statehood. After a popular referendum in which over 93% voted in favor of statehood, it was admitted as the 50th state on August 21, 1959, with a population of about 423,620 (85%) Americans and foreigners and 76,620 (15%) Native Hawaiians.
and are now using statehood as a path toward more self-government. After years of cultural and societal repression and along with other self-determination movements worldwide the 1960s is thought to have seen the rebirth of Hawaiian culture and identity in the Hawaiian Renaissance
.
With the support of Senators Daniel Inouye
and Daniel Akaka
of Hawaii, Congress passed a joint resolution called the "Apology Resolution" (US Public Law 103-150). It was signed by President Bill Clinton
on November 23, 1993. This resolution apologized "to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893... and the deprivation of the rights of Native Hawaiians to self-determination." The implications of this resolution have been extensively debated.
Senator Akaka proposed what is called the Akaka Bill
to extend federal recognition to those of Native Hawaiian ancestry as a sovereign group similar to Native American
tribes.
Polynesia
Polynesia is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including language, culture and beliefs...
n settlement, British arrival, unification, Euro-American and Asian immigrators, the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, a brief period as the Republic of Hawaii
Republic of Hawaii
The Republic of Hawaii was the formal name of the government that controlled Hawaii from 1894 to 1898 when it was run as a republic. The republic period occurred between the administration of the Provisional Government of Hawaii which ended on July 4, 1894 and the adoption of the Newlands...
, and admission to the United States as Hawaii Territory and then as the state of Hawaii
Hawaii
Hawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states , and is the only U.S. state made up entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of...
.
Discovery and settlement
The earliest settlements in the Hawaiian IslandsHawaiian Islands
The Hawaiian Islands are an archipelago of eight major islands, several atolls, numerous smaller islets, and undersea seamounts in the North Pacific Ocean, extending some 1,500 miles from the island of Hawaii in the south to northernmost Kure Atoll...
were made by Polynesians
Polynesians
The Polynesian peoples is a grouping of various ethnic groups that speak Polynesian languages, a branch of the Oceanic languages within the Austronesian languages, and inhabit Polynesia. They number approximately 1,500,000 people...
who traveled to Hawaii using large double-hulled canoes. They brought with them pigs, dogs, chickens, taro
Taro
Taro is a common name for the corms and tubers of several plants in the family Araceae . Of these, Colocasia esculenta is the most widely cultivated, and is the subject of this article. More specifically, this article describes the 'dasheen' form of taro; another variety is called eddoe.Taro is...
, sweet potato
Sweet potato
The sweet potato is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the family Convolvulaceae. Its large, starchy, sweet-tasting, tuberous roots are an important root vegetable. The young leaves and shoots are sometimes eaten as greens. Of the approximately 50 genera and more than 1,000 species of...
es, coconut, banana, and sugarcane.
There are several theories regarding migration to Hawaii. The "one-migration" theory suggests a single settlement. A variation on the one-migration theory instead suggests a single, continuous settlement period.
A "multiple migration" theory suggests that there was a first settlement by a group called Menehune
Menehune
In Hawaiian mythology, the Menehune [pronounced meh-neh-HOO-neh] are said to be a people, sometimes described as dwarfs in size, who live in the deep forests and hidden valleys of the Hawaiian Islands, far from the eyes of normal humans. Their favorite food is the maia , but they also like...
(settlers from the Marquesas Islands
Marquesas Islands
The Marquesas Islands enana and Te Fenua `Enata , both meaning "The Land of Men") are a group of volcanic islands in French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France in the southern Pacific Ocean. The Marquesas are located at 9° 00S, 139° 30W...
), and then a second settlement by the Tahitians.
On January 18, 1778 Captain James Cook
James Cook
Captain James Cook, FRS, RN was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer who ultimately rose to the rank of captain in the Royal Navy...
and his crew, while attempting to discover the Northwest Passage
Northwest Passage
The Northwest Passage is a sea route through the Arctic Ocean, along the northern coast of North America via waterways amidst the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans...
between Alaska and Asia, were surprised to find the Hawaiian islands so far north in the Pacific. He named them the "Sandwich Islands". After the discovery by Cook, other Europeans and Americans came to the Sandwich Islands.
It is said by several that the Spanish made it two centuries before. Juan de Gaitán is said to have arrived to Hawaii in 1555. There are spanish maps of the era in which islands are shown in Hawaii latitude, but 10º further east. The first sea chart that would prove this is dated 1551, signed by Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Italian and French cartographers, which it is shown an archipelago located at points close to the place Hawaii occupies on the globe.
Formation of the Hawaiian Kingdom
The islands were united under a single ruler, Kamehameha IKamehameha I
Kamehameha I , also known as Kamehameha the Great, conquered the Hawaiian Islands and formally established the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1810. By developing alliances with the major Pacific colonial powers, Kamehameha preserved Hawaii's independence under his rule...
, for the first time in 1810 with the help of foreign weapons and advisors. The monarchy then adopted a flag similar to the one used today by the State of Hawaii present flag
Flag of Hawaii
The flag of the state of Hawaii is the official standard symbolizing Hawaii as a U.S. state. The same flag had also previously been used by the kingdom, protectorate, republic, and territory of Hawaii...
, with the Union Flag
Union Flag
The Union Flag, also known as the Union Jack, is the flag of the United Kingdom. It retains an official or semi-official status in some Commonwealth Realms; for example, it is known as the Royal Union Flag in Canada. It is also used as an official flag in some of the smaller British overseas...
in the canton (top quarter next to the flagpole) and eight horizontal stripes (alternating white, red, blue, from the top), representing the eight major islands of Hawaii.
In May 1819, Prince became King Kamehameha II
Kamehameha II
Kamehameha II was the second king of the Kingdom of Hawaii. His birth name was Liholiho and full name was Kalaninui kua Liholiho i ke kapu Iolani...
. Under pressure from his co-regent and stepmother, Kaahumanu, he abolished the kapu
Kapu
Kapu refers to the ancient Hawaiian code of conduct of laws and regulations. The kapu system was universal in lifestyle, gender roles, politics, religion, etc. An offense that was kapu was often a corporal offense, but also often denoted a threat to spiritual power, or theft of mana. Kapus were...
system that had ruled life in the islands. He signaled this revolutionary change by sitting down to eat with Kaahumanu and other women of chiefly rank, an act forbidden under the old religious system—see Ai Noa
'Ai Noa
The Ai Noa , was a period of taboo-breaking which convulsed the Hawaiian Islands in 1819. Women were allowed to eat forbidden food and to eat with men; the priests were no longer to offer human sacrifices; the many prohibitions surrounding the high chiefs were relaxed.Kamehameha I, the conqueror of...
. Kekuaokalani, a cousin who thought he was to share power with Liholiho, organized supporters of the kapu system, but his forces were defeated by Kaahumanu and Liholiho in December 1819 at the battle of Kuamoo.
Imperial Russia
In 1815 the Russian empireRussian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
affected the islands when Georg Anton Schäffer
Georg Anton Schäffer
Georg Anton Schäffer was a German physician in the employ of the Russian-American Company who attempted to conquer Hawaii for the Company and, ultimately, the Russian Empire...
, agent of the Russian-American Company
Russian-American Company
The Russian-American Company was a state-sponsored chartered company formed largely on the basis of the so-called Shelekhov-Golikov Company of Grigory Shelekhov and Ivan Larionovich Golikov The Russian-American Company (officially: Under His Imperial Majesty's Highest Protection (patronage)...
, came to retrieve goods seized by Kaumualii
Kaumualii
Kaumualii was the last independent Alii Aimoku of Kauai and Niihau before becoming a vassal of Kamehameha I of the unified Kingdom of Hawaii in 1810...
, chief of Kauai
Kauai
Kauai or Kauai, known as Tauai in the ancient Kaua'i dialect, is geologically the oldest of the main Hawaiian Islands. With an area of , it is the fourth largest of the main islands in the Hawaiian archipelago, and the 21st largest island in the United States. Known also as the "Garden Isle",...
island. Kaumualii signed a treaty making Tsar Alexander I
Alexander I of Russia
Alexander I of Russia , served as Emperor of Russia from 23 March 1801 to 1 December 1825 and the first Russian King of Poland from 1815 to 1825. He was also the first Russian Grand Duke of Finland and Lithuania....
protectorate
Protectorate
In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
over Kauai. From 1817 to 1853 Fort Elizabeth
Russian Fort Elizabeth
Russian Fort Elizabeth is a fort on the island of Kauai in Hawaii. It was the last remaining Russian fort on the Hawaiian islands, built in the early 19th century by the Russian-American Company as the result of an alliance with High Chief Kaumualii to gain influence in Hawaii...
, near the Waimea River, was one of three Russian forts on the island.
The French
In the early kingdom, Protestant ministers convinced Hawaiian rulers to make Catholicism illegal, deport French priests, and imprison Native Hawaiian Catholic converts.In 1839 Captain Laplace of the French frigate Artémise sailed to Hawaii.
Under the threat of war, King Kamehameha III
Kamehameha III
Kamehameha III was the King of Hawaii from 1825 to 1854. His full Hawaiian name was Keaweaweula Kiwalao Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa and then lengthened to Keaweaweula Kiwalao Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa Kalani Waiakua Kalanikau Iokikilo Kiwalao i ke kapu Kamehameha when he ascended the throne.Under his...
signed the Edict of Toleration
Edict of Toleration (Hawaii)
An Edict of Toleration was issued by King Kamehameha III of Hawaii on June 17, 1839, which allowed for the establishment of the Hawaii Catholic Church. The Roman Catholic Church was suppressed in the Kingdom of Hawaii during the reigns of Kamehameha and Kamehameha II.During their administrations,...
on July 17, 1839 and paid $20,000 in compensation for the deportation of the priests and the incarceration and torture of converts, agreeing to Laplace's demands. The kingdom proclaimed:
That the Catholic worship be declared free, throughout all the dominions subject to the king of the Sandwich Islands; the members of this religious faith shall enjoy in them the privileges granted to Protestants.
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu returned and Kamehameha III donated land for them to build a church as reparation.
In August 1849, French admiral Louis Tromelin
Louis Tromelin
Louis-François-Marie-Nicolas Le Goarant de Tromelin was a nineteenth-century French Naval captain, sent to the Pacific Ocean on political and military missions, and credited with the discovery of Phoenix Island in the Phoenix group and Fais Island in the Carolines...
arrived in Honolulu Harbor
Honolulu Harbor
Honolulu Harbor, also called Kulolia and Ke Awa O Kou, is the principal seaport of Honolulu and the State of Hawaii in the United States. It is from Honolulu Harbor, located on Mamala Bay, that the City & County of Honolulu was developed and urbanized, in an outward fashion, over the course of the...
with La Poursuivante and Gassendi. De Tromelin made ten demands to King Kamehameha III
Kamehameha III
Kamehameha III was the King of Hawaii from 1825 to 1854. His full Hawaiian name was Keaweaweula Kiwalao Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa and then lengthened to Keaweaweula Kiwalao Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa Kalani Waiakua Kalanikau Iokikilo Kiwalao i ke kapu Kamehameha when he ascended the throne.Under his...
on August 22, mainly that full religious rights be given to Catholics, (the ban on Catholicism had been lifted, but Catholics still enjoyed only partial religious rights). On August 25 the demands had not been met. After a second warning was made to the civilians, French troops overwhelmed the skeleton force
Skeleton crew
A skeleton crew is the minimum number of personnel needed to operate and maintain an item at its most simple operating requirements, such as a ship or business, during an emergency and, at the same time, to keep vital functions operating.- Uses :...
and captured Honolulu Fort, spiked the coastal guns and destroyed all other weapons they found (mainly muskets and ammunition). They raided government buildings and general property in Honolulu, causing $100,000 in damages. After the raids the invasion force withdrew to the fort. De Tromelin eventually recalled his men and left Hawaii on September 5.
British
On February 10, 1843, Lord George Paulet on the Royal NavyRoyal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
warship entered Honolulu Harbor and demanded that King Kamehameha III
Kamehameha III
Kamehameha III was the King of Hawaii from 1825 to 1854. His full Hawaiian name was Keaweaweula Kiwalao Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa and then lengthened to Keaweaweula Kiwalao Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa Kalani Waiakua Kalanikau Iokikilo Kiwalao i ke kapu Kamehameha when he ascended the throne.Under his...
cede the Hawaiian Islands to the British Crown. Under the guns of the frigate, Kamehameha stepped down under protest. Kamehameha III surrendered to Paulet on February 25, writing:
- Where are you, chiefs, people, and commons from my ancestors, and people from foreign lands?'
- Hear ye! I make known to you that I am in perplexity by reason of difficulties into which I have been brought without cause, therefore I have given away the life of our land. Hear ye! but my rule over you, my people, and your privileges will continue, for I have hope that the life of the land will be restored when my conduct is justified.
- Done at Honolulu, Oahu, this 25th day of February, 1843.
- Kamehameha III.
- Kekauluohi.
Gerrit P. Judd
Gerrit P. Judd
Gerrit Parmele Judd was an American physician and missionary to the Kingdom of Hawaii who later became a trusted advisor and cabinet minister to King Kamehameha III.- Life :...
, a missionary who had become the Minister of Finance, secretly sent envoys to the United States, France and Britain, to protest Paulet's actions.
The protest was forwarded to Rear Admiral Richard Darton Thomas
Richard Darton Thomas
Admiral Richard Darton Thomas was a Royal Navy officer who went on to be Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Station.-Naval career:...
, Paulet's commanding officer, who arrived at Honolulu harbor on July 26, 1843 on . Thomas repudiated Paulet's actions, and on July 31, 1843, restored the Hawaiian government. In his restoration speech, Kamehameha declared that "Ua mau ke ea o ka āina i ka pono", the motto of the future State of Hawaii translated as "The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness."
Kamehameha family
Dynastic rule by the Kamehameha familyHouse of Kamehameha
The House of Kamehameha , or the Kamehameha Dynasty, was the reigning family of the Kingdom of Hawaii between the unification of the islands by Kamehameha I in 1810 and the death of Kamehameha V in 1872...
ended in 1872 with the death of Kamehameha V
Kamehameha V
aloghaKamehameha V , born as Lot Kapuāiwa, reigned as monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii from 1863 to 1872. His motto was "Onipa`a": immovable, firm, steadfast or determined; he worked diligently for his people and kingdom and was described as the last great traditional chief...
. After the short reign of Lunalilo
Lunalilo
Lunalilo, born William Charles Lunalilo , was king of the Kingdom of Hawaii from January 8, 1873 until February 3, 1874...
, the House of Kalākaua
House of Kalakaua
The House of Kalākaua, or the Kalākaua Dynasty, was the reigning family of the Kingdom of Hawaii between the assumption of King David Kalākaua to the throne in 1874 and the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani in 1893. Liliuokalani died in 1917, leaving only cousins as heirs...
came to the throne. These transitions were by election of candidates of noble birth.Princess Ka'iulani was an important figure in Hawaii'in history. She tried very hard to prevent her country from becoming part of the United States.
United States
The Reciprocity Treaty of 1875Reciprocity Treaty of 1875
The Treaty of reciprocity between the United States of America and the Hawaiian Kingdom was a free trade agreement signed and ratified in 1875 that is generally known as the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875....
between the Kingdom of Hawaii and the United States allowed for duty-free importation of Hawaiian sugar (from sugarcane
Sugarcane
Sugarcane refers to any of six to 37 species of tall perennial grasses of the genus Saccharum . Native to the warm temperate to tropical regions of South Asia, they have stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sugar, and measure two to six metres tall...
) into the United States beginning in 1876. This promoted sugar plantation agriculture. In exchange, Hawai'i ceded Pearl Harbor, including Ford Island (in Hawaiian, Moku'ume'ume), together with its shore for four or five miles back, free of cost to the U.S. The U. S. demanded this area based on an 1873 report commissioned by the U. S. Secretary of War.
This treaty explicitly acknowledged Hawai'i as a sovereign nation.
Although the treaty also included duty-free importation of rice
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
, which was by this time becoming a major crop in the abandoned taro
Taro
Taro is a common name for the corms and tubers of several plants in the family Araceae . Of these, Colocasia esculenta is the most widely cultivated, and is the subject of this article. More specifically, this article describes the 'dasheen' form of taro; another variety is called eddoe.Taro is...
patches in the wetter parts of the islands, it was the influx of immigrants from Asia (first Chinese, and later Japanese) needed to support the escalating sugar industry that provided the impetus for expansion of rice growing. High water requirements for growing sugarcane resulted in extensive water works projects on all of the major islands to divert streams from the wet windward slopes to the dry lowlands.
Hawaiian revolutions
Several rebellionRebellion
Rebellion, uprising or insurrection, is a refusal of obedience or order. It may, therefore, be seen as encompassing a range of behaviors aimed at destroying or replacing an established authority such as a government or a head of state...
s and revolution
Revolution
A revolution is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively short period of time.Aristotle described two types of political revolution:...
s challenged the governments of the Kingdom and Republic of Hawaii during the late 19th century.
Rebellion of 1887
In 1887, a group of cabinet officials and advisors to King David KalākauaKalakaua
Kalākaua, born David Laamea Kamanakapuu Mahinulani Nalaiaehuokalani Lumialani Kalākaua and sometimes called The Merrie Monarch , was the last reigning king of the Kingdom of Hawaii...
and an armed militia forced the king to promulgate what is known as the Bayonet Constitution. The impetus given for the new constitution was the frustration of the Reform Party (also known as the Missionary Party) with growing debts, spending habits of the King, and general governance. It was specifically triggered by a failed attempt by Kalākaua to create a Polynesian Federation, and accusations of an opium bribery scandal. The 1887 constitution stripped the monarchy of much of its authority, imposed significant income and property requirements for voting, and completely disenfranchised all Asians from voting. When Kalākaua died in 1891 during a visit to San Francisco, his sister Liliuokalani assumed the throne.
Queen Liliuokalani in her autobiography called her brother's reign "a golden age materially for Hawaii". Native Hawaiians felt the 1887 constitution was imposed by a minority of the foreign population because of the king's refusal to renew the Reciprocity Treaty, which now included an amendment that would have allowed the US Navy to have a permanent naval base at Pearl Harbor in Oahu, and the king's foreign policy. According to bills submitted by the King to the Hawaiian parliament, the King's foreign policy included an alliance with Japan and supported other countries suffering from colonialism. Many Native Hawaiians opposed US military presence in their country.
Wilcox Rebellions
A plot by Princess Liliuokalani was exposed to overthrow King David Kalākaua in a military coup in 1888.In 1889, a rebellion of Native Hawaiians led by Colonel Robert Wilcox
Robert William Wilcox
Robert William Kalanihiapo Wilcox , nicknamed the Iron Duke of Hawaii, was a native Hawaiian revolutionary soldier and politician. He led uprisings against both the government of the Kingdom of Hawaii under King Kalākaua and the Republic of Hawaii under Sanford Dole, what are now known as the...
attempted to replace the unpopular Bayonet Constitution and stormed Iolani Palace. The rebellion was crushed.
Revolution of 1893
Suffrage
Suffrage, political franchise, or simply the franchise, distinct from mere voting rights, is the civil right to vote gained through the democratic process...
requirements of the 1887 constitution.
In response to Liliuokalani's suspected actions, a group of European and American residents formed a Committee of Safety
Committee of Safety (Hawaii)
The Committee of Safety, formally the Citizen's Committee of Public Safety, was a 13-member group of the Hawaiian League also known as the Annexation Club...
on January 14, 1893. After a meeting of supporters, the Committee committed itself to removing the Queen and annexation to the United States.
United States Government Minister John L. Stevens
John L. Stevens
John Leavitt Stevens was the United States Department of State Minister to the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1893 when he was accused of conspiring to overthrow Queen Liliuokalani in association with the Committee of Safety, led by Lorrin A. Thurston and Sanford B...
summoned a company of uniformed US Marines from the and two companies of US sailors to land and take up positions at the US Legation, Consulate, and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16, 1893. The Committee of Safety had claimed an "imminent threat to American lives and property".
The Provisional Government of Hawaii
Provisional Government of Hawaii
The Provisional Government of Hawaii abbreviated "P.G." was proclaimed on January 17, 1893 by the 13 member Committee of Safety under the leadership of Sanford B. Dole...
was established to manage the Hawaiian islands between the overthrow and expected annexation, supported by the Honolulu Rifles, a militia group which had defended the kingdom against the Wilcox rebellion in 1889.
Under this pressure, Liliuokalani abdicated her throne. The Queen's statement yielding authority, on January 17, 1893, also pleaded for justice:
- I Liliuokalani, by the Grace of God and under the Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Queen, do hereby solemnly protest against any and all acts done against myself and the Constitutional Government of the Hawaiian Kingdom by certain persons claiming to have established a Provisional Government of and for this Kingdom.
- That I yield to the superior force of the United States of America whose Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency John L. Stevens, has caused United States troops to be landed at Honolulu and declared that he would support the Provisional Government.
- Now to avoid any collision of armed forces, and perhaps the loss of life, I do this under protest and impelled by said force yield my authority until such time as the Government of the United States shall, upon facts being presented to it, undo the action of its representatives and reinstate me in the authority which I claim as the Constitutional Sovereign of the Hawaiian Islands.
An immediate investigation into the events of the overthrow commissioned by President Cleveland
Grover Cleveland
Stephen Grover Cleveland was the 22nd and 24th president of the United States. Cleveland is the only president to serve two non-consecutive terms and therefore is the only individual to be counted twice in the numbering of the presidents...
was conducted by former Congressman James Henderson Blount
James Henderson Blount
James Henderson Blount was an American statesman, soldier and congressman from Georgia. He opposed the annexation of Hawaii in 1893 in his investigation into the alleged American involvement in the political revolution in the Kingdom of Hawai'i...
. The Blount Report
Blount Report
The Blount Report is the popular name given to the part of the 1893 United States House of Representatives Foreign Relations Committee Report regarding the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. The report was conducted by U.S. Commissioner James H. Blount, appointed by U.S...
was completed on July 17, 1893 and concluded that "United States diplomatic and military representatives had abused their authority and were responsible for the change in government."
Minister Stevens was recalled, and the military commander of forces in Hawaii was forced to resign his commission. President Cleveland stated "Substantial wrong has thus been done which a due regard for our national character as well as the rights of the injured people requires we should endeavor to repair the monarchy." Cleveland further stated in his 1893 State of the Union Address
State of the Union Address
The State of the Union is an annual address presented by the President of the United States to the United States Congress. The address not only reports on the condition of the nation but also allows the president to outline his legislative agenda and his national priorities.The practice arises...
and
that, "Upon the facts developed it seemed to me the only honorable course for our Government to pursue was to undo the wrong that had been done by those representing us and to restore as far as practicable the status existing at the time of our forcible intervention." Submitting the matter to Congress on December 18, 1893, after provisional President Sanford Dole refused to reinstate the Queen on Cleveland's command, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee
United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations
The United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations is a standing committee of the United States Senate. It is charged with leading foreign-policy legislation and debate in the Senate. The Foreign Relations Committee is generally responsible for overseeing and funding foreign aid programs as...
under chairman John Morgan
John Tyler Morgan
John Tyler Morgan was a general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War, and a six-term U.S. senator from the state of Alabama after the war. He was a strong supporter of states rights and racial segregation through the Reconstruction era. He was an expansionist, arguing for...
continued investigation into the matter.
On February 26, 1894, the Morgan Report
Morgan Report
The Morgan Report was an 1894 report concluding an official U.S. Congressional investigation into the events surrounding the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, including the alleged role of U.S. military troops in the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani...
was submitted, contradicting the Blount Report and finding Stevens and the US troops "not guilty" of any involvement in the overthrow. The report asserted that, "The complaint by Liliuokalani in the protest that she sent to the President of the United States and dated the 18th day of January, is not, in the opinion of the committee, well founded in fact or in justice." After submission of the Morgan Report, Cleveland ended any efforts to reinstate the monarchy, and conducted diplomatic relations with the Dole government. He rebuffed further entreaties from the Queen to intervene.
More Rebellions
In 1893 the Leper War on Kauai was suppressed with troops.In an 1895 Counter-Revolution
1895 Counter-Revolution in Hawaii
The 1895 Counter-revolution in Hawaii was a brief war from January 6 to January 9, 1895, that consisted of three battles on the island of Oahu, Hawaii...
, a group led by Colonel Robert Nowlein, Minister Joseph Nawahi
Joseph Nawahi
Joseph Nāwahī also known as Joseph Kahooluhi Nāwahī and as Joseph Kahooluhi Nāwahīokalaniōpuu was a native Hawaiian legislator, lawyer, newspaper publisher, and painter.-Life:...
, members of the Royal Household Guards, and later Robert Wilcox
Robert William Wilcox
Robert William Kalanihiapo Wilcox , nicknamed the Iron Duke of Hawaii, was a native Hawaiian revolutionary soldier and politician. He led uprisings against both the government of the Kingdom of Hawaii under King Kalākaua and the Republic of Hawaii under Sanford Dole, what are now known as the...
attempted to overthrow the Republic. The leaders including Liliuokalani were captured, convicted, and imprisoned.
Republic of Hawaii
After Benjamin HarrisonBenjamin Harrison
Benjamin Harrison was the 23rd President of the United States . Harrison, a grandson of President William Henry Harrison, was born in North Bend, Ohio, and moved to Indianapolis, Indiana at age 21, eventually becoming a prominent politician there...
failed to be reelected US president
United States presidential election, 1892
In the United States presidential election of 1892, former President Grover Cleveland ran for re-election against the incumbent President Benjamin Harrison, who was also running for re-election. Cleveland defeated Harrison, thus becoming the only person in American history to be elected to a...
, the new president became Grover Cleveland
Grover Cleveland
Stephen Grover Cleveland was the 22nd and 24th president of the United States. Cleveland is the only president to serve two non-consecutive terms and therefore is the only individual to be counted twice in the numbering of the presidents...
, a friend of Liliuokalani and anti-expansionist
Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny was the 19th century American belief that the United States was destined to expand across the continent. It was used by Democrat-Republicans in the 1840s to justify the war with Mexico; the concept was denounced by Whigs, and fell into disuse after the mid-19th century.Advocates of...
. He delayed annexation and demanded restoration of the Queen. Fears grew of a US intervention to restore the kingdom
United States Invasion of Hawaii
Opposition to the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom took several forms. Following the overthrow of the monarchy on January 17, 1893, Hawaii's provisional government—under the leadership of Sanford B. Dole—attempted to annex the land to the United States under Republican Benjamin Harrison's...
. A Constitutional Convention began on May 30, 1894 and the Republic of Hawaii
Republic of Hawaii
The Republic of Hawaii was the formal name of the government that controlled Hawaii from 1894 to 1898 when it was run as a republic. The republic period occurred between the administration of the Provisional Government of Hawaii which ended on July 4, 1894 and the adoption of the Newlands...
was declared on July 4, 1894, American Independence Day
Independence Day (United States)
Independence Day, commonly known as the Fourth of July, is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, declaring independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain...
, under the presidency of Sanford Dole.
Annexation to the United States
In March 1897, William McKinley
William McKinley
William McKinley, Jr. was the 25th President of the United States . He is best known for winning fiercely fought elections, while supporting the gold standard and high tariffs; he succeeded in forging a Republican coalition that for the most part dominated national politics until the 1930s...
succeeded Grover Cleveland as president. He agreed to a treaty of annexation but it failed in the Senate
United States Senate
The United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral legislature of the United States, and together with the United States House of Representatives comprises the United States Congress. The composition and powers of the Senate are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution. Each...
because petitions from the islands indicated lack of popular support and would be in violation of international law. A joint resolution
Joint resolution
In the United States Congress, a joint resolution is a legislative measure that requires approval by the Senate and the House and is presented to the President for his/her approval or disapproval, in exactly the same case as a bill....
was written by Congressman Francis G. Newlands
Francis G. Newlands
Francis Griffith Newlands was a United States Representative and Senator from Nevada.-Early life:Newlands was born in Natchez, Mississippi, on August 28, 1846...
to annex Hawaii and violate Hawaii's Sovereign Rights. McKinley signed the Newlands Resolution
Newlands Resolution
The Newlands Resolution, was a joint resolution written by and named after United States Congressman Francis G. Newlands. It was an Act of Congress to annex the Republic of Hawaii and create the Territory of Hawaii....
which illegally annexed Hawaii on July 7, 1898 to become the Territory of Hawaii
Territory of Hawaii
The Territory of Hawaii or Hawaii Territory was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from July 7, 1898, until August 21, 1959, when its territory, with the exception of Johnston Atoll, was admitted to the Union as the fiftieth U.S. state, the State of Hawaii.The U.S...
. On February 22, 1900 the Hawaiian Organic Act
Hawaiian Organic Act
The Hawaiian Organic Act of April 30, 1900 was a United States federal law enacted to provide a government for the territory of Hawaii.-Background:...
established a territorial government with Sanford Dole, the former President of the Republic of Hawaii
Republic of Hawaii
The Republic of Hawaii was the formal name of the government that controlled Hawaii from 1894 to 1898 when it was run as a republic. The republic period occurred between the administration of the Provisional Government of Hawaii which ended on July 4, 1894 and the adoption of the Newlands...
, appointed governor by the US President. The territorial legislature convened for the first time on February 20, 1901. Some Hawaiian people formed the Hawaiian Independent Party
Home Rule Party of Hawaii
As soon as the United States annexed the Hawaiian Islands and established the Territory of Hawaii, native Hawaiians became worried that both the Democratic Party of Hawai‘i and Hawai‘i Republican Party were incapable of representing them...
, under the leadership of Robert Wilcox, the first congressional delegate
Hawaii Territory's At-large congressional district
Hawaii Territory's At-large congressional district was the congressional district for the Territory of Hawaii, which was established by the Newlands Resolution of 1898....
from Hawaii.
The overthrow of the kingdom and the subsequent annexation has been called the first major instance of American imperialism.
Plantation era
Sugar plantations in HawaiiSugar plantations in Hawaii
Sugarcane was introduced to Hawaii by its first inhabitants in approximately 600 AD and was observed by Captain Cook upon arrival in the islands in 1778. Sugar quickly turned into a big business and generated rapid population growth in the islands with 337,000 people immigrating over the span of a...
expanded during the territory period. Some diversified to dominate related industries including transportation, banking and real estate. Economic and political power was concentrated in what were known as the "Big Five
Big Five (Hawaii)
The Big Five was the name given to a group of what started as sugarcane processing corporations that wielded considerable political power in the Territory of Hawaii during the early 20th century and leaned heavily towards the Hawaii Republican Party. The Big Five were Castle & Cooke, Alexander &...
" corporations.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
Pearl Harbor
Pearl Harbor
Pearl Harbor, known to Hawaiians as Puuloa, is a lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. Much of the harbor and surrounding lands is a United States Navy deep-water naval base. It is also the headquarters of the U.S. Pacific Fleet...
was attacked on December 7, 1941 by the Empire of Japan
Empire of Japan
The Empire of Japan is the name of the state of Japan that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 to the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of...
which triggered the United States' entry into World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. Most Americans had never heard of Pearl Harbor, even though it had been used by the US Navy since the Spanish-American War
Spanish-American War
The Spanish–American War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States, effectively the result of American intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence...
. Hawaii was put under martial law until the end of the war.
Democratic Revolution of 1954
The Democratic Revolution of 1954 was a nonviolent revolutionNonviolent revolution
A nonviolent revolution is a revolution using mostly campaigns of civil resistance, including various forms of nonviolent protest, to bring about the departure of governments seen as entrenched and authoritarian...
of industry-wide strikes
Strike action
Strike action, also called labour strike, on strike, greve , or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances. Strikes became important during the industrial revolution, when mass labour became...
, protests, and other civil disobedience
Civil disobedience
Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a government, or of an occupying international power. Civil disobedience is commonly, though not always, defined as being nonviolent resistance. It is one form of civil resistance...
. In the territorial elections of 1954 the reign of the Hawaii Republican Party
Hawaii Republican Party
The Hawaii Republican Party is the state affiliate of the Republican Party of the United States. Based in Honolulu, the party is a central organization established for the promotion of the party platform as it is drafted in convention every other year...
in the legislature came to an abrupt end, as they were replaced by the Democratic Party of Hawaii
Democratic Party of Hawaii
The Democratic Party of Hawaii is an arm of the Democratic Party of the United States based in Honolulu, Hawaii. The party is a centralized organization established to promote the party platform as drafted in convention biennially...
. Democrats lobbied for statehood and gained the governorship for 40 years, from 1962 to 2002. The Revolution also unionized the labor force which hastened the decline of the plantations.
Statehood
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower was the 34th President of the United States, from 1953 until 1961. He was a five-star general in the United States Army...
signed the Hawaii Admission Act
Hawaii Admission Act
The Admission Act, formally An Act to Provide for the Admission of the State of Hawaii into the Union is a statute enacted by the United States Congress and signed into law by President Dwight D. Eisenhower which dissolved the Territory of Hawaii and established the State of Hawaii as the 50th...
on March 18, 1959 which allowed for Hawaiian statehood. After a popular referendum in which over 93% voted in favor of statehood, it was admitted as the 50th state on August 21, 1959, with a population of about 423,620 (85%) Americans and foreigners and 76,620 (15%) Native Hawaiians.
Modern sovereignty movements
For many Native Hawaiians, the manner in which Hawaii became a US possession is a bitter part of its history. Hawaii Territory governors and judges were direct political appointees of the US president. Native Hawaiians created the Home Rule PartyHome Rule Party of Hawaii
As soon as the United States annexed the Hawaiian Islands and established the Territory of Hawaii, native Hawaiians became worried that both the Democratic Party of Hawai‘i and Hawai‘i Republican Party were incapable of representing them...
and are now using statehood as a path toward more self-government. After years of cultural and societal repression and along with other self-determination movements worldwide the 1960s is thought to have seen the rebirth of Hawaiian culture and identity in the Hawaiian Renaissance
Hawaiian Renaissance
The First and Second Hawaiian Renaissance was the Hawaiian resurgence of a distinct cultural identity that draws upon traditional kānaka maoli culture, with a significant divergence from the tourism-based "culture" which Hawaii was previously known for worldwide .-First Hawaiian...
.
With the support of Senators Daniel Inouye
Daniel Inouye
Daniel Ken "Dan" Inouye is the senior United States Senator from Hawaii, a member of the Democratic Party, and the President pro tempore of the United States Senate making him the highest-ranking Asian American politician in American history. Inouye is the chairman of the United States Senate...
and Daniel Akaka
Daniel Akaka
Daniel Kahikina Akaka is the junior U.S. Senator from Hawaii and a member of the Democratic Party. He is the first U.S. Senator of Native Hawaiian ancestry and is currently the only member of the Senate who has Chinese ancestry....
of Hawaii, Congress passed a joint resolution called the "Apology Resolution" (US Public Law 103-150). It was signed by President Bill Clinton
Bill Clinton
William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Inaugurated at age 46, he was the third-youngest president. He took office at the end of the Cold War, and was the first president of the baby boomer generation...
on November 23, 1993. This resolution apologized "to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893... and the deprivation of the rights of Native Hawaiians to self-determination." The implications of this resolution have been extensively debated.
Senator Akaka proposed what is called the Akaka Bill
Akaka Bill
The Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009 S1011/HR2314 is a bill before the 111th Congress. It is commonly known as the Akaka Bill after Senator Daniel Akaka of Hawaii, who has proposed various forms of this bill since 2000....
to extend federal recognition to those of Native Hawaiian ancestry as a sovereign group similar to Native American
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
tribes.
See also
- List of conflicts in Hawaii
- List of Missionaries to Hawaii
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Hawaii
Further reading
- Daws, Gavan, Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands, Macmillan, New York, 1968. Paperback edition, University of Hawaii PressUniversity of Hawaii PressThe University of Hawaii Press is a university press that is part of the University of Hawaii.The University of Hawaii Press was founded in 1947, with the mission of advancing and disseminating scholarship by publishing current research in all disciplines of the humanities and natural and social...
, Honolulu, 1974 - Vowell, SarahSarah VowellSarah Jane Vowell is an American author, journalist, essayist and social commentator. Often referred to as a "social observer," Vowell has written five nonfiction books on American history and culture, and was a contributing editor for the radio program This American Life on Public Radio...
. Unfamiliar FishesUnfamiliar FishesUnfamiliar Fishes is a nonfiction book by This American Life contributor Sarah Vowell, first published in 2011 in print and audiobook versions.-Synopsis:...
, Riverhead, New York, 2011. (Covers 1820-1898)