Lavender
Encyclopedia
The lavenders are a genus
of 39 species of flowering plant
s in the mint family, Lamiaceae
. An Old World genus, distributed from Macaronesia
(Cape Verde
and Canary Islands
and Madeira
) across Africa, the Mediterranean, South-West Asia, Arabia, Western Iran and South-East India. It is thought the genus originated in Asia but it is most diversified in its western distribution.
, herbaceous
plants, subshrub
s, and small shrub
s. The color of some lavender flowers has come to be called lavender
.
The leaves are long and narrow in most species. In other species they are pinnately toothed, or pinnate
, sometimes multiple pinnate and dissected. Flowers are borne in whorls, held on spikes rising above the foliage. Flowers may be blue, violet or lilac. The calyx is tubular, with five lobes. The corolla is often asymmetric.
, L. pedunculata and L. dentata
were described in Roman times (Lis-Balchin 2002). From the Middle Ages onwards, the European species were considered two separate groups or genera, Stoechas (LL. stoechas, pedunculata, dentata) and Lavandula (LL. spica, latifolia), until Linnaeus combined them, believing the name lavandula derived from the Latin 'lavare' to wash, referring to the use of infusions of the plants. He only recognised 5 species in the Species Plantarum
(1753), L. multifida
and L. dentata
(Spain) and L. stoechas
and L. spica from Southern Europe. L. pedunculata was included within L. stoechas
.
By 1790 L. pinnata
and L. carnosa were recognised. The latter was subsequently transferred to Anisochilus. By 1826 de Lassaras described 12 species in three sections, and by 1848 eighteen species were known.
One of the first modern major classifications was that of Dorothy Chaytor in 1937 at Kew. The six sections she proposed for 28 species still left many intermediates that could not easily be assigned. Her sections included Stoechas, Spica
, Subnudae, Pterostoechas, Chaetostachys and Dentatae. However all the major cultivated and commercial forms resided in the Stoechas and Spica
sections. There were four species within Stoechas (Lavandula stoechas
, L. dentata
, L. viridis and L. pedunculata) while Spica had three (L. officinalis (now L. angustifolia
), L. latifolia and L. lanata). She believed that the garden varieties were hybrids between true lavender L. angustifolia
and spike lavender (L. latifolia).
, Hyptis pectinata, Plectranthus barbatus
and Tetradenia fruticosa.
The first major clade
corresponds to subgenus Lavendula, and the second Fabricia. The Sabaudia group is less clearly defined. Within the lavendula clade, the subclades correspond to the existing sections, but place Dentatae separately from Stoechas, not within it. Within the Fabricia clade, the subclades correspond to Pterostoechas, Subnudae, and Chaetostachys.
Thus the current classification includes 39 species distributed across 8 sections (the original 6 of Chaytor and the two new sections of Upson and Andrews), in three subgenera (see Table below). However, since lavender cross-pollinates easily, there are countless variations that present difficulties in clssification.
and Madeira
, North
and East Africa
, Southern Europe
and the Mediterranean, Arabia and India
. Because the cultivated forms are planted in gardens worldwide, they are occasionally found growing wild as garden escapes, well beyond their natural range. Commonly such adventitious establishment is apparently harmless at worst, but in some cases Lavandula species have become invasive
; for example, in Australia Lavandula stoechas
has become a cause for concern; it occurs widely throughout the continent, and has been declared a noxious weed in Victoria since 1920. It also is regarded as a weed in parts of Spain.
Currently Lavandula is considered to have 3 subgenera (Upson and Andrews 2004), Lavandula, Fabricia and Sabaudia. In addition there are numerous hybrids and cultivars in commercial and horticultural usage. A number of other species within Lamiaceae are closely related (outgroups) including Ocimum gratissimum, Hyptis pectinata, Plectranthus barbatus and Tetradenia fruticosa. [3]
(formerly L. officinalis). A wide range of cultivar
s can be found. Other commonly grown ornamental species are L. stoechas
, (Spanish lavender) L. dentata
(French lavender), and L. multifida
(Egyptian lavender). Some species such as Lavandula stoechas
are not winter hardy in temperate climates - USDA Zones 8-10).
The lavandins Lavandula × intermedia are a class of hybrids of L. angustifolia and L. latifolia. The lavandins are widely cultivated for commercial use, since their flowers tend to be bigger than those of English lavender and the plants tend to be easier to harvest, but lavandin oil is regarded by some to be of a lower quality than that of English lavender, with a perfume less sweet.
from which bees make a high-quality honey
. Monofloral honey
is produced primarily around the Mediterranean, and is marketed worldwide as a premium product. Flowers can be candied and are sometimes used as cake decorations. Lavender flavours baked goods and desserts (it pairs especially well with chocolate), and is also used to make "lavender sugar". Lavender flowers are occasionally blended with black, green, or herbal tea, adding a fresh, relaxing scent and flavour.
Though it has many other traditional uses in southern France, lavender is not used in traditional southern French cooking. It does not appear at all in the best-known compendium of Provençal cooking, J.-B. Reboul's Cuisinière Provençale In the 1970s, a herb blend called herbes de Provence
usually including lavender was invented by spice wholesalers, and lavender has more recently become popular in cookery.
Lavender lends a floral and slightly sweet flavour to most dishes, and is sometimes paired with sheep's-milk and goat's-milk cheeses. For most cooking applications the dried buds (also referred to as flowers) are used, though some chefs experiment with the leaves as well. Only the buds contain the essential oil
of lavender, from which the scent and flavour of lavender are best derived.
In the United States, both lavender syrup and dried lavender buds are used to make lavender scone
s and marshmallow
s.
.
English lavender (Lavandula angustifolia
) yields an essential oil
with sweet overtones, and can be used in balms, salves, perfumes, cosmetics, and topical applications. Lavandin, Lavandula × intermedia (also known as Dutch lavender), yields a similar essential oil, but with higher levels of terpene
s including camphor
, which add a sharper overtone to the fragrance. Mexican lavender, Lavandula stoechas
is not used medicinally, but mainly for landscaping.
Essential oil of lavender has antiseptic
and anti-inflammatory
properties. It was used in hospitals during World War I
to disinfect floors and walls. These extracts are also used as fragrances for bath products.
According to folk wisdom, lavender has many uses. Infusions of lavender soothe and heal insect bites and burns. Bunches of lavender repel insects. If applied to the temples, lavender oil soothes headaches. In pillows, lavender seeds and flowers aid sleep and relaxation. An infusion
of three flowerheads added to a cup of boiling water soothes and relaxes at bedtime. Lavender oil
(or extract of Lavender) heals acne
when used diluted 1:10 with water, rosewater
, or witch hazel
; it also treats skin burns and inflammatory conditions.
A recent clinical study investigated anxiolytic
effects and influence on sleep quality. Lavender oil with a high percentage of linalool and linalyl acetate
, in form of capsules, was generally well tolerated. It showed meaningful efficacy in alleviating anxiety and related sleep disturbances.
.
Avoid ingesting lavender during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
In vitro, lavender oil is cytotoxic. It increases photosensitivity
as well. Lavender oil is cytotoxic to human skin cells in vitro (endothelial cells and fibroblasts) at a concentration of 0.25%. Linalool, a component of lavender oil, may be its active component. Aqueous extracts reduced mitotic index
, but induced chromosomal
aberrations and mitotic aberrations in comparison with control, significantly. Aqueous extracts induced breaks, stickiness, pole deviations and micronuclei. These effects were related to extract concentrations.
However, according to a 2005 study "although it was recently reported that lavender oil, and its major constituent linalyl acetate, are toxic to human skin cells in vitro, contact dermatitis to lavender oil appears to occur at only a very low frequency. The relevance of this in vitro toxicity to dermatological application of Lavandula oils remains unclear."
In terms of phototoxicity, a 2007 investigative report from European researchers stated that, "Lavender oil and sandalwood oil did not induce photohaemolysis in our test system. However, a few reports on photosensitivity reactions due to these substances have been published, e.g. one patient with persistent light reaction and a positive photo-patch test to sandalwood
oil."
which indicated that studies in human cell lines indicated that both lavender oil and tea tree oil
had estrogenic and antiandrogenic activities. They concluded that repeated topical exposure to lavender and tea tree oils probably caused prepubertal gynaecomastia in some boys. The Aromatherapy Trade Council of the UK has issued a rebuttal.
The Australian Tea Tree Association, a group that promotes the interests of Australian tea tree oil producers, exporters, and manufacturers issued a letter that questioned the study and called on the New England Journal of Medicine for a retraction (ATTIA).
The New England Journal of Medicine has so far not replied and has not retracted the study.
s. Lavender is also used extensively as herbal filler inside sachets used to freshen linens. Dried and sealed in pouches, lavender flowers are placed among stored items of clothing to give a fresh fragrance and to deter moth
s. Dried lavender flowers have become recently popular for wedding confetti. Lavender is also popular in scented water
s and sachets
.
called the lavender herb nardus, after the Syria
n city of Naarda. It was also commonly called nard.
Lavender was one of the holy herbs used in the biblical Temple
to prepare the holy essence, and nard is mentioned in the Song of Solomon
(4,14)
During Roman
times, flowers were sold for 100 denarii per pound, which was about the same as a month's wages for a farm laborer, or fifty haircuts from the local barber. Lavender was commonly used in Roman baths to scent the water, and it was thought to restore the skin. Its late Latin
name was lavandārius, from lavanda (things to be washed), from the verb lavāre (to wash). When the Roman Empire
conquered southern Britain, the Romans introduced lavender.
The Greeks discovered early on that lavender if crushed and treated correctly would release a relaxing fume when burned.
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
of 39 species of flowering plant
Flowering plant
The flowering plants , also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants like the gymnosperms and can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of synapomorphies...
s in the mint family, Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
The mints, taxonomically known as Lamiaceae or Labiatae, are a family of flowering plants. They have traditionally been considered closely related to Verbenaceae, but in the 1990s, phylogenetic studies suggested that many genera classified in Verbenaceae belong instead in Lamiaceae...
. An Old World genus, distributed from Macaronesia
Macaronesia
Macaronesia is a modern collective name for several groups of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean near Europe and North Africa belonging to three countries: Portugal, Spain, and Cape Verde...
(Cape Verde
Cape Verde
The Republic of Cape Verde is an island country, spanning an archipelago of 10 islands located in the central Atlantic Ocean, 570 kilometres off the coast of Western Africa...
and Canary Islands
Canary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
and Madeira
Madeira
Madeira is a Portuguese archipelago that lies between and , just under 400 km north of Tenerife, Canary Islands, in the north Atlantic Ocean and an outermost region of the European Union...
) across Africa, the Mediterranean, South-West Asia, Arabia, Western Iran and South-East India. It is thought the genus originated in Asia but it is most diversified in its western distribution.
Description
The genus includes annualsAnnual plant
An annual plant is a plant that usually germinates, flowers, and dies in a year or season. True annuals will only live longer than a year if they are prevented from setting seed...
, herbaceous
Herbaceous
A herbaceous plant is a plant that has leaves and stems that die down at the end of the growing season to the soil level. They have no persistent woody stem above ground...
plants, subshrub
Subshrub
A subshrub or dwarf shrub is a short woody plant. Prostrate shrub is a similar term.It is distinguished from a shrub by its ground-hugging stems and lower height, with overwintering perennial woody growth typically less than 10–20 cm tall, or by being only weakly woody and/or persisting...
s, and small shrub
Shrub
A shrub or bush is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and shorter height, usually under 5–6 m tall. A large number of plants may become either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions they experience...
s. The color of some lavender flowers has come to be called lavender
Lavender (color)
Lavender is a pale tint of violet. It applies particularly to the color of the flower of the same name. The web color called lavender is displayed at right—it matches the color of the very palest part of the lavender flower; however, the more saturated color shown below as floral lavender more...
.
The leaves are long and narrow in most species. In other species they are pinnately toothed, or pinnate
Pinnate
Pinnate is a term used to describe feather-like or multi-divided features arising from both sides of a common axis in plant or animal structures, and comes from the Latin word pinna meaning "feather", "wing", or "fin". A similar term is pectinate, which refers to a comb-like arrangement of parts...
, sometimes multiple pinnate and dissected. Flowers are borne in whorls, held on spikes rising above the foliage. Flowers may be blue, violet or lilac. The calyx is tubular, with five lobes. The corolla is often asymmetric.
History
Historically L. stoechasLavandula stoechas
Lavandula stoechas occurs naturally in the Mediterranean region.-Description:A perennial shrub, it usually grows to 30–100 cm tall and wide...
, L. pedunculata and L. dentata
Lavandula dentata
Lavandula dentata is a species of lavender, the main species known by the English common name French lavender. It is native to the Mediterranean region. It is commonly grown as an ornamental plant and its essential oil is used in perfumes....
were described in Roman times (Lis-Balchin 2002). From the Middle Ages onwards, the European species were considered two separate groups or genera, Stoechas (LL. stoechas, pedunculata, dentata) and Lavandula (LL. spica, latifolia), until Linnaeus combined them, believing the name lavandula derived from the Latin 'lavare' to wash, referring to the use of infusions of the plants. He only recognised 5 species in the Species Plantarum
Species Plantarum
Species Plantarum was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work by Carl Linnaeus. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today. This means that the first names to be considered validly published in botany are those that appear...
(1753), L. multifida
Lavandula multifida
Lavandula multifida is a small plant, sometimes a shrub, native to the southern regions of the Mediterranean, including Iberia, Sicily and the Canary Islands.The stems are grey and wooly. Leaves are double pinnate...
and L. dentata
Lavandula dentata
Lavandula dentata is a species of lavender, the main species known by the English common name French lavender. It is native to the Mediterranean region. It is commonly grown as an ornamental plant and its essential oil is used in perfumes....
(Spain) and L. stoechas
Lavandula stoechas
Lavandula stoechas occurs naturally in the Mediterranean region.-Description:A perennial shrub, it usually grows to 30–100 cm tall and wide...
and L. spica from Southern Europe. L. pedunculata was included within L. stoechas
Lavandula stoechas
Lavandula stoechas occurs naturally in the Mediterranean region.-Description:A perennial shrub, it usually grows to 30–100 cm tall and wide...
.
By 1790 L. pinnata
Lavandula pinnata
Lavandula pinnata is a plant in the mint family, Lamiaceae.-Description:Lavandula pinnata is a small shrub with opposite, simple, pinnately dissected leaves, and square stems. The flowers are purple, borne in summer....
and L. carnosa were recognised. The latter was subsequently transferred to Anisochilus. By 1826 de Lassaras described 12 species in three sections, and by 1848 eighteen species were known.
One of the first modern major classifications was that of Dorothy Chaytor in 1937 at Kew. The six sections she proposed for 28 species still left many intermediates that could not easily be assigned. Her sections included Stoechas, Spica
Spica
Spica is the brightest star in the constellation Virgo, and the 15th brightest star in the nighttime sky. It is 260 light years distant from Earth...
, Subnudae, Pterostoechas, Chaetostachys and Dentatae. However all the major cultivated and commercial forms resided in the Stoechas and Spica
Spica
Spica is the brightest star in the constellation Virgo, and the 15th brightest star in the nighttime sky. It is 260 light years distant from Earth...
sections. There were four species within Stoechas (Lavandula stoechas
Lavandula stoechas
Lavandula stoechas occurs naturally in the Mediterranean region.-Description:A perennial shrub, it usually grows to 30–100 cm tall and wide...
, L. dentata
Lavandula dentata
Lavandula dentata is a species of lavender, the main species known by the English common name French lavender. It is native to the Mediterranean region. It is commonly grown as an ornamental plant and its essential oil is used in perfumes....
, L. viridis and L. pedunculata) while Spica had three (L. officinalis (now L. angustifolia
Lavandula angustifolia
Lavandula angustifolia Lavandula angustifolia Lavandula angustifolia (also Lavandula spica or Lavandula vera; common lavender, true lavender, narrow-leaved lavender or English lavender (though not native to England); formerly L...
), L. latifolia and L. lanata). She believed that the garden varieties were hybrids between true lavender L. angustifolia
Lavandula angustifolia
Lavandula angustifolia Lavandula angustifolia Lavandula angustifolia (also Lavandula spica or Lavandula vera; common lavender, true lavender, narrow-leaved lavender or English lavender (though not native to England); formerly L...
and spike lavender (L. latifolia).
Current classification
Currently Lavandula is considered to have 3 subgenera (Upson and Andrews 2004), Lavandula, Fabricia and Sabaudia. In addition there are numerous hybrids and cultivars in commercial and horticultural usage. A number of other species within Lamiaceae are closely related (outgroups) including Ocimum gratissimumOcimum gratissimum
Ocimum gratissimum, also known as Clove Basil, African Basil, and in Hawaii as Wild Basil, is a species of Ocimum. It is naturalized in Hawaii.-Pharmacology of extracts and essential oils:...
, Hyptis pectinata, Plectranthus barbatus
Plectranthus barbatus
Plectranthus barbatus, or more commonly known as Coleus forskohlii and Indian Coleus , is a tropical perennial plant related to the typical coleus species...
and Tetradenia fruticosa.
The first major clade
Clade
A clade is a group consisting of a species and all its descendants. In the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a single "branch" on the "tree of life". The idea that such a "natural group" of organisms should be grouped together and given a taxonomic name is central to biological...
corresponds to subgenus Lavendula, and the second Fabricia. The Sabaudia group is less clearly defined. Within the lavendula clade, the subclades correspond to the existing sections, but place Dentatae separately from Stoechas, not within it. Within the Fabricia clade, the subclades correspond to Pterostoechas, Subnudae, and Chaetostachys.
Thus the current classification includes 39 species distributed across 8 sections (the original 6 of Chaytor and the two new sections of Upson and Andrews), in three subgenera (see Table below). However, since lavender cross-pollinates easily, there are countless variations that present difficulties in clssification.
Distribution
The native range extends across the Canary IslandsCanary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
and Madeira
Madeira
Madeira is a Portuguese archipelago that lies between and , just under 400 km north of Tenerife, Canary Islands, in the north Atlantic Ocean and an outermost region of the European Union...
, North
North Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
and East Africa
East Africa
East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easterly region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. In the UN scheme of geographic regions, 19 territories constitute Eastern Africa:...
, Southern Europe
Southern Europe
The term Southern Europe, at its most general definition, is used to mean "all countries in the south of Europe". However, the concept, at different times, has had different meanings, providing additional political, linguistic and cultural context to the definition in addition to the typical...
and the Mediterranean, Arabia and India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
. Because the cultivated forms are planted in gardens worldwide, they are occasionally found growing wild as garden escapes, well beyond their natural range. Commonly such adventitious establishment is apparently harmless at worst, but in some cases Lavandula species have become invasive
Invasive species
"Invasive species", or invasive exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats, with several definitions....
; for example, in Australia Lavandula stoechas
Lavandula stoechas
Lavandula stoechas occurs naturally in the Mediterranean region.-Description:A perennial shrub, it usually grows to 30–100 cm tall and wide...
has become a cause for concern; it occurs widely throughout the continent, and has been declared a noxious weed in Victoria since 1920. It also is regarded as a weed in parts of Spain.
Growing lavenders
Lavenders flourish best in dry, well-drained, sandy or gravelly soils in full sun. All types need little or no fertilizer and good air circulation; in areas of high humidity, root rot due to fungus infection can be a problem. Avoid organic mulches; use pea gravel, decomposed granite, or sand instead, as organics can trap moisture around the plants' bases, encouraging root rot.Currently Lavandula is considered to have 3 subgenera (Upson and Andrews 2004), Lavandula, Fabricia and Sabaudia. In addition there are numerous hybrids and cultivars in commercial and horticultural usage. A number of other species within Lamiaceae are closely related (outgroups) including Ocimum gratissimum, Hyptis pectinata, Plectranthus barbatus and Tetradenia fruticosa. [3]
Uses
The most common "true" species in cultivation is the common or English lavender Lavandula angustifoliaLavandula angustifolia
Lavandula angustifolia Lavandula angustifolia Lavandula angustifolia (also Lavandula spica or Lavandula vera; common lavender, true lavender, narrow-leaved lavender or English lavender (though not native to England); formerly L...
(formerly L. officinalis). A wide range of cultivar
Cultivar
A cultivar'Cultivar has two meanings as explained under Formal definition. When used in reference to a taxon, the word does not apply to an individual plant but to all those plants sharing the unique characteristics that define the cultivar. is a plant or group of plants selected for desirable...
s can be found. Other commonly grown ornamental species are L. stoechas
Lavandula stoechas
Lavandula stoechas occurs naturally in the Mediterranean region.-Description:A perennial shrub, it usually grows to 30–100 cm tall and wide...
, (Spanish lavender) L. dentata
Lavandula dentata
Lavandula dentata is a species of lavender, the main species known by the English common name French lavender. It is native to the Mediterranean region. It is commonly grown as an ornamental plant and its essential oil is used in perfumes....
(French lavender), and L. multifida
Lavandula multifida
Lavandula multifida is a small plant, sometimes a shrub, native to the southern regions of the Mediterranean, including Iberia, Sicily and the Canary Islands.The stems are grey and wooly. Leaves are double pinnate...
(Egyptian lavender). Some species such as Lavandula stoechas
Lavandula stoechas
Lavandula stoechas occurs naturally in the Mediterranean region.-Description:A perennial shrub, it usually grows to 30–100 cm tall and wide...
are not winter hardy in temperate climates - USDA Zones 8-10).
The lavandins Lavandula × intermedia are a class of hybrids of L. angustifolia and L. latifolia. The lavandins are widely cultivated for commercial use, since their flowers tend to be bigger than those of English lavender and the plants tend to be easier to harvest, but lavandin oil is regarded by some to be of a lower quality than that of English lavender, with a perfume less sweet.
Culinary use
Flowers yield abundant nectarNectar (plant)
Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants. It is produced in glands called nectaries, either within the flowers, in which it attracts pollinating animals, or by extrafloral nectaries, which provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists, which in turn provide anti-herbivore protection...
from which bees make a high-quality honey
Honey
Honey is a sweet food made by bees using nectar from flowers. The variety produced by honey bees is the one most commonly referred to and is the type of honey collected by beekeepers and consumed by humans...
. Monofloral honey
Monofloral honey
Monofloral honey is a type of honey which has a high value in the marketplace because it has a distinctive flavor or other attribute due to its being predominantly from the nectar of one plant species....
is produced primarily around the Mediterranean, and is marketed worldwide as a premium product. Flowers can be candied and are sometimes used as cake decorations. Lavender flavours baked goods and desserts (it pairs especially well with chocolate), and is also used to make "lavender sugar". Lavender flowers are occasionally blended with black, green, or herbal tea, adding a fresh, relaxing scent and flavour.
Though it has many other traditional uses in southern France, lavender is not used in traditional southern French cooking. It does not appear at all in the best-known compendium of Provençal cooking, J.-B. Reboul's Cuisinière Provençale In the 1970s, a herb blend called herbes de Provence
Herbes de Provence
Herbes de Provence is a mixture of dried herbs typical of Provence. Formerly simply a descriptive term referring to herbs typical of Provence, in the 1970s, commercial blends started to be sold under this name....
usually including lavender was invented by spice wholesalers, and lavender has more recently become popular in cookery.
Lavender lends a floral and slightly sweet flavour to most dishes, and is sometimes paired with sheep's-milk and goat's-milk cheeses. For most cooking applications the dried buds (also referred to as flowers) are used, though some chefs experiment with the leaves as well. Only the buds contain the essential oil
Essential oil
An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils or aetherolea, or simply as the "oil of" the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove...
of lavender, from which the scent and flavour of lavender are best derived.
In the United States, both lavender syrup and dried lavender buds are used to make lavender scone
Scone (bread)
The scone is a small Scottish quick bread especially popular in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand,Belgium and Ireland, but are also eaten in many other countries. They are usually made of wheat, barley or oatmeal, with baking powder as a leavening agent...
s and marshmallow
Marshmallow
The marshmallow is a confection that, in its modern form, typically consists of sugar, corn syrup, water, gelatin that has been softened in hot water, dextrose, vanilla flavourings, and sometimes colouring, whipped to a spongy consistency. Some marshmallow recipes call for egg whites...
s.
Medical uses
Lavender is used extensively with herbs and aromatherapyAromatherapy
Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine that uses volatile plant materials, known as essential oils, and other aromatic compounds for the purpose of altering a person's mind, mood, cognitive function or health....
.
English lavender (Lavandula angustifolia
Lavandula angustifolia
Lavandula angustifolia Lavandula angustifolia Lavandula angustifolia (also Lavandula spica or Lavandula vera; common lavender, true lavender, narrow-leaved lavender or English lavender (though not native to England); formerly L...
) yields an essential oil
Lavender oil
Lavender oil is an essential oil obtained by distillation from the flower spikes of certain species of lavender. Two forms are distinguished, lavender flower oil, a colorless oil, insoluble in water, having a density of 0.885 g/mL; and lavender spike oil, a distillate from the herb Lavandula...
with sweet overtones, and can be used in balms, salves, perfumes, cosmetics, and topical applications. Lavandin, Lavandula × intermedia (also known as Dutch lavender), yields a similar essential oil, but with higher levels of terpene
Terpene
Terpenes are a large and diverse class of organic compounds, produced by a variety of plants, particularly conifers, though also by some insects such as termites or swallowtail butterflies, which emit terpenes from their osmeterium. They are often strong smelling and thus may have had a protective...
s including camphor
Camphor
Camphor is a waxy, white or transparent solid with a strong, aromatic odor. It is a terpenoid with the chemical formula C10H16O. It is found in wood of the camphor laurel , a large evergreen tree found in Asia and also of Dryobalanops aromatica, a giant of the Bornean forests...
, which add a sharper overtone to the fragrance. Mexican lavender, Lavandula stoechas
Lavandula stoechas
Lavandula stoechas occurs naturally in the Mediterranean region.-Description:A perennial shrub, it usually grows to 30–100 cm tall and wide...
is not used medicinally, but mainly for landscaping.
Essential oil of lavender has antiseptic
Antiseptic
Antiseptics are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction...
and anti-inflammatory
Anti-inflammatory
Anti-inflammatory refers to the property of a substance or treatment that reduces inflammation. Anti-inflammatory drugs make up about half of analgesics, remedying pain by reducing inflammation as opposed to opioids, which affect the central nervous system....
properties. It was used in hospitals during World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
to disinfect floors and walls. These extracts are also used as fragrances for bath products.
According to folk wisdom, lavender has many uses. Infusions of lavender soothe and heal insect bites and burns. Bunches of lavender repel insects. If applied to the temples, lavender oil soothes headaches. In pillows, lavender seeds and flowers aid sleep and relaxation. An infusion
Infusion
An infusion is the outcome of steeping plants with desired chemical compounds or flavors in water or oil.-History:The first recorded use of essential oils was in the 10th or 11th century by the Persian polymath Avicenna, possibly in The Canon of Medicine.-Preparation techniques:An infusion is very...
of three flowerheads added to a cup of boiling water soothes and relaxes at bedtime. Lavender oil
Lavender oil
Lavender oil is an essential oil obtained by distillation from the flower spikes of certain species of lavender. Two forms are distinguished, lavender flower oil, a colorless oil, insoluble in water, having a density of 0.885 g/mL; and lavender spike oil, a distillate from the herb Lavandula...
(or extract of Lavender) heals acne
Acne vulgaris
Acne vulgaris is a common human skin disease, characterized by areas of skin with seborrhea , comedones , papules , pustules , Nodules and possibly scarring...
when used diluted 1:10 with water, rosewater
Rosewater
Rose water or rose syrup is the hydrosol portion of the distillate of rose petals. Rose water, itself a by-product of the production of rose oil for use in perfume, is used to flavour food, as a component in some cosmetic and medical preparations, and for religious purposes throughout Europe and...
, or witch hazel
Witch Hazel (astringent)
Witch hazel is an astringent produced from the leaves and bark of the North American Witch-hazel shrub , which grows naturally from Nova Scotia west to Ontario, Canada, and south to Florida and Texas in the United States...
; it also treats skin burns and inflammatory conditions.
A recent clinical study investigated anxiolytic
Anxiolytic
An anxiolytic is a drug used for the treatment of anxiety, and its related psychological and physical symptoms...
effects and influence on sleep quality. Lavender oil with a high percentage of linalool and linalyl acetate
Linalyl acetate
Linalyl acetate is a naturally occurring phytochemical found in many flowers and spice plants. It is one of the principal components of the essential oils of bergamot and lavender. Chemically, it is the acetate ester of linalool, and the two often occur in conjunction.Synthetic linalyl acetate is...
, in form of capsules, was generally well tolerated. It showed meaningful efficacy in alleviating anxiety and related sleep disturbances.
Health precautions
These remedies should be used with caution since lavender oil can also be a powerful allergenAllergen
An allergen is any substance that can cause an allergy. In technical terms, an allergen is a non-parasitic antigen capable of stimulating a type-I hypersensitivity reaction in atopic individuals....
.
Avoid ingesting lavender during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
In vitro, lavender oil is cytotoxic. It increases photosensitivity
Photosensitivity
Photosensitivity is the amount to which an object reacts upon receiving photons, especially visible light.- Human medicine :Sensitivity of the skin to a light source can take various forms. People with particular skin types are more sensitive to sunburn...
as well. Lavender oil is cytotoxic to human skin cells in vitro (endothelial cells and fibroblasts) at a concentration of 0.25%. Linalool, a component of lavender oil, may be its active component. Aqueous extracts reduced mitotic index
Mitotic index
Mitotic index is a measure for the proliferation status of a cell population. It is defined as the ratio between the number of cells in mitosis and the total number of cells....
, but induced chromosomal
Chromosome
A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions.Chromosomes...
aberrations and mitotic aberrations in comparison with control, significantly. Aqueous extracts induced breaks, stickiness, pole deviations and micronuclei. These effects were related to extract concentrations.
However, according to a 2005 study "although it was recently reported that lavender oil, and its major constituent linalyl acetate, are toxic to human skin cells in vitro, contact dermatitis to lavender oil appears to occur at only a very low frequency. The relevance of this in vitro toxicity to dermatological application of Lavandula oils remains unclear."
In terms of phototoxicity, a 2007 investigative report from European researchers stated that, "Lavender oil and sandalwood oil did not induce photohaemolysis in our test system. However, a few reports on photosensitivity reactions due to these substances have been published, e.g. one patient with persistent light reaction and a positive photo-patch test to sandalwood
oil."
Controversy over possible endocrine-disrupting activity
In 2007, a study was published in the New England Journal of MedicineNew England Journal of Medicine
The New England Journal of Medicine is an English-language peer-reviewed medical journal published by the Massachusetts Medical Society. It describes itself as the oldest continuously published medical journal in the world.-History:...
which indicated that studies in human cell lines indicated that both lavender oil and tea tree oil
Tea tree oil
Tea tree oil, or melaleuca oil, is a pale yellow colour to nearly clear essential oil with a fresh camphoraceous odor. It is taken from the leaves of the Melaleuca alternifolia, which is native to the northeast coast of New South Wales, Australia...
had estrogenic and antiandrogenic activities. They concluded that repeated topical exposure to lavender and tea tree oils probably caused prepubertal gynaecomastia in some boys. The Aromatherapy Trade Council of the UK has issued a rebuttal.
The Australian Tea Tree Association, a group that promotes the interests of Australian tea tree oil producers, exporters, and manufacturers issued a letter that questioned the study and called on the New England Journal of Medicine for a retraction (ATTIA).
The New England Journal of Medicine has so far not replied and has not retracted the study.
Other uses
Flower spikes are used for dried flower arrangements. The fragrant, pale purple flowers and flower buds are used in potpourriPotpourri
Potpourri is a mixture of dried, naturally fragrant plant material, used to provide a gentle natural scent in houses. It is usually placed in a decorative wooden bowl, or tied in small sachet made from sheer fabric....
s. Lavender is also used extensively as herbal filler inside sachets used to freshen linens. Dried and sealed in pouches, lavender flowers are placed among stored items of clothing to give a fresh fragrance and to deter moth
Moth
A moth is an insect closely related to the butterfly, both being of the order Lepidoptera. Moths form the majority of this order; there are thought to be 150,000 to 250,000 different species of moth , with thousands of species yet to be described...
s. Dried lavender flowers have become recently popular for wedding confetti. Lavender is also popular in scented water
Scented water
Scented water, odoriferous water or sweet water, is a water with a sweet aromatic smell. It is made of flowers or herbs and is the precursor of the modern day perfume...
s and sachets
Sachet (scented bag)
A sachet is a small cloth scented bag filled with herbs, potpourri, or aromatic ingredients.It is also defined as a small soft bag containing perfumed or sweet-smelling items also referred to as an ascent bag, scent bag, sweet bag, sachet bag, sachet de senteurs, spiced sachet, potpourri sachet,...
.
History
The ancient GreeksAncient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
called the lavender herb nardus, after the Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
n city of Naarda. It was also commonly called nard.
Lavender was one of the holy herbs used in the biblical Temple
Solomon's Temple
Solomon's Temple, also known as the First Temple, was the main temple in ancient Jerusalem, on the Temple Mount , before its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar II after the Siege of Jerusalem of 587 BCE....
to prepare the holy essence, and nard is mentioned in the Song of Solomon
Song of Solomon
The Song of Songs of Solomon, commonly referred to as Song of Songs or Song of Solomon, is a book of the Hebrew Bible—one of the megillot —found in the last section of the Tanakh, known as the Ketuvim...
(4,14)
nard and saffron,
calamus and cinnamon,
with every kind of incense tree,
with myrrh and aloes,
and all the finest spices.
During Roman
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
times, flowers were sold for 100 denarii per pound, which was about the same as a month's wages for a farm laborer, or fifty haircuts from the local barber. Lavender was commonly used in Roman baths to scent the water, and it was thought to restore the skin. Its late Latin
Late Latin
Late Latin is the scholarly name for the written Latin of Late Antiquity. The English dictionary definition of Late Latin dates this period from the 3rd to the 6th centuries AD extending in Spain to the 7th. This somewhat ambiguously defined period fits between Classical Latin and Medieval Latin...
name was lavandārius, from lavanda (things to be washed), from the verb lavāre (to wash). When the Roman Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
conquered southern Britain, the Romans introduced lavender.
The Greeks discovered early on that lavender if crushed and treated correctly would release a relaxing fume when burned.
Taxonomic table
I. Subgenus Lavandula Upson & S. Andrews subgen. nov.
II. Subgenus Fabricia (Adams.) Upson & S. Andrews, comb.nov.
III. Subgenus Sabaudia (Buscal. & Muschl.) Upson & S. Andrews, comb. et stat. nov.
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Sources
- Chaytor D A. A taxonomic study of the genus Lavandula. 1937
- Lis-Balchin M (ed.). Lavender: The genus Lavandula. Taylor and Francis 2002
- Upson T, Andrews S. The Genus Lavandula. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2004
- United States Department of Agriculture GRIN: Lavandula
- Joan Head: The Lavenders
- Everything Lavender
External links
- Medicinal use from University of Maryland Medical Center