Layforce
Encyclopedia
Layforce was an ad hoc
military formation of the British Army
consisting of a number of commando
units during the Second World War.
Formed in February 1941 under the command of Colonel Robert Laycock
, after whom the force was named, it consisted of approximately 2,000 men and served in the Middle Eastern theatre of operations. Initially tasked with conducting raiding operations to disrupt Axis lines of communication in the Mediterranean it was planned that they would take part in operations to capture the Greek island of Rhodes
. As the strategic situation in the theatre turned against the Allies, however, the commandos were largely diverted from their original role and were used primarily to reinforce regular troops throughout the Mediterranean theatre.
Elements of the force saw action in Bardia
, Crete
, Syria
, and Tobruk
before they were disbanded in August 1941. Afterwards its personnel either returned to their former units or went on to serve with other special forces units raised in the Middle East.
under Colonel Robert Laycock
were sent to the Middle East to carry out raids in the eastern Mediterranean. This force became known as 'Layforce' after their commander and initially they were drawn from 'A' Troop from No. 3 Commando
, No. 7
, No. 8 (Guards)
, and No. 11 (Scottish) Commando
s, with additional personnel being drawn from No. 50
and No. 52 Commando
s upon their arrival in Egypt in March.
Laycock held the rank of a colonel (rather than brigadier
) on the staff because his command was not, formally and organisationally, a full brigade with all its supporting elements, although, with a strength of over 2,000 men it was basically equivalent.On disembarkation the reported All Rank strength of the Battalions was as follows: 'A' Battalion (Colvin): 36 officers and 541 other ranks; 'B' Battalion (Daly): 38 officers and 502 other ranks, 'C' Battalion (Pedder): 35 officers and 498 other ranks; and 'D' Battalion (Young): 36 officers and 532 other ranks. The Folbot Section (Courtney) had 12 folbots, one officer and 18 other ranks. For reasons of security, the commandos were organised into four battalions and were redesignated as such. No. 7 Commando became 'A' Battalion, No. 8 (Guards) became 'B' Battalion, No. 11 (Scottish) became 'C' Battalion and No. 50 and No. 52 were amalgamated to form 'D' Battalion. Together they were to operate as a brigade
of the British 6th Division, attached to the 8th Army
. Each battalion was placed under the command of a lieutenant colonel
and consisted of a headquarters, a signals section
, a specialist equipment section equipped with a form of collapsible canoe
known as a 'folbot', and two commando companies
with five troop
s, each troop consisting of 50 men.
as part of Operation Cordite. The arrival of the Afrika Korps
in Cyrenaica
and the invasions of Yugoslavia
and Greece
greatly changed the strategic outlook, however, and by the time that Layforce arrived in Egypt in March the situation had become dire.
Nevertheless, conceptually there was still a role for commando-style operations. Indeed, arguably a series of successful small-scale raids at vital points in the German rear areas might have forced Rommel to divert some of his offensive capability to defend his lines of communications
. However, a number of strategic and operational factors arose that essentially undermined the entire Layforce concept almost as soon as it became established.
Following the invasions of the Balkans, a large part of the 8th Army was deployed to Greece in an attempt to turn back the German advance. Layforce, however, was not sent, although their three infantry assault ships, which they had brought with them from the United Kingdom and which were invaluable in carrying out amphibious operations, were taken from them due to a lack of resources in the theatre. This decision essentially robbed the commandos of one of the critical capabilities and although later the Glengyle
was released to Laycock's force, the other two ships were not and as a result he was severely limited in the forces that he could deploy.Saunders 1959, p. 55. On top of this, the failure of the British to maintain air superiority in the theatre severely hampered their ability to carry out landing operations, while the deployment of forces to Greece meant that in the end the commandos became the only troops in general reserve and as the strategic situation worsened it became increasingly difficult to employ them in the manner for which it had been intended as they were called upon to reinforce the rest of the army elsewhere.
and three days later they received orders to carry out the Bardia raid
and another on Bomba. 'A' and 'C' Battalions were dispatched to attack Bardia, while four Troops from 'B' Battalion embarked on a destroyer
and headed for Bomba. The attacks had to be abandoned, however, due to high seas which would have made disembarking and re-embarking too dangerous.
A few days later it was decided to implement the attack on Bardia. This time, the raiders were drawn from 'A' Battalion (No. 7 Commando), and embarked upon Glengyle. A number of naval support elements were attached, including three Royal Australian Navy
destroyers—, , and —and the anti-aircraft cruiser . Due to concerns about the force being attacked from the air, it was decided that the raid would take place under the cover of darkness and as a result additional assets in the form of the submarine and a detachment from the Folboat Troop (later known as the Special Boat Section) under Roger Courtney
, were tasked with providing navigational assistance by marking both the anchorage and landing beach.
The raid was carried out on the night of 19/20 April 1941. As a result of a number of mishaps, things went awry from the beginning. The submarine missed its rendezvous with the landing ship, having been strafed by an Allied plane shortly beforehand. Problems with the release gear for the assault craft meant that some of the commando parties were late getting ashore, and another landed at the wrong beach.
The landings went ahead unopposed, however, and the commandos moved to the various targets that had been identified by intelligence. In the end, however, little damage was achieved as a number of the targets proved not to exist or were not where they were thought to be. One party was able to damage a bridge, while another set a tyre dump on fire and blew up the breeches
of a number of naval guns. Due to the delays during the landings and the need to depart while it was still dark, however, time ran out and the commandos were forced to withdraw having achieved little. On the way back, an officer was accidentally shot when he failed to respond correctly when challenged by a sentry, while 67 men, not knowing that there were no assault craft at their designated beach due to the earlier error, were left behind and later captured.
Despite the lack of tangible success the raid was not a complete failure. The appearance of the commandos behind their lines forced the Germans to divert the main part of an armoured brigade from where they had previously been undertaking offensive action around Sollum, in order to defend against further raids. Indeed, although there were still some elements of operational art that had to be refined, the raid demonstrated the strategic value that the commandos might have had within the theatre if strategic imperatives and resource constraints had not served to derail the concept.
On 6 April 1941 the Germans had invaded Greece, less than a month later, on 28 April, the last Allied troops had been evacuated having been forced back to the sea, unable to stop the German advance. On 20 May Crete had been invaded as the Germans had launched an airborne assault on the island. The island eventually fell to the Germans on 1 June, however, about a week before that there was still some hope that the tide could be turned and so it was decided to deploy the commandos from Layforce to the island to carry out raids on the German lines of communications with a view to either turning back the invasion or enabling an evacuation to take place.
On 25 May Layforce, consisting mainly of 'A' and 'D' Battalions, with a detachment from 'B' Battalion—'C' Battalion (No. 11 (Scottish) Commando) which had been sent to reinforce the garrison on Cyprus
in case of a German invasion there—departed Alexandria and attempted to land on Crete. They were turned back by bad weather, however, and forced to return to Alexandria where they re-embarked upon the Abdiel
to make another attempt. On the night of 26/27 May they landed in Suda Bay. Almost as soon as they landed it was decided that they could not be employed in an offensive role and would instead be used to cover the withdrawal route towards Sphakia to the south. As such upon landing they were ordered to leave all their heavy equipment, including radios and transport behind. This was a role that they were poorly equipped for, though, as they were lacking in the indirect fire support weapons such as mortars or artillery and were armed only very lightly mainly with rifles and a few Bren light machine guns.
Nevertheless by sunrise on 27 May they had taken up position in defence along the main road that led inland from Sphakia and from then until 31 May they were engaged in carrying out a number of rearguard actions to enable the main body of troops to be taken off the beaches by the navy. Throughout the entire time they were almost constantly under aerial attack.
On 28 May the defenders began disengaging the enemy and began to withdraw along the pass through the central mountains that separated it from the port of Sphakia in the south. The defence of the pass fell to the Commandos along with two Australia
n infantry battalions—the 2/7th and 2/8th Battalions—and the 5th New Zealand Brigade. In the first two nights of the evacuation approximately 8,000 men were taken off, while on the third night, 30 May, covered by the Australians and Laycock's commandos, the New Zealanders were able to get off too.
For the commandos, the fighting was heaviest on that first day. During the height of the German attack on the pass, G Troop from 'A' Battalion (No. 7 Commando), under Lieutenant F. Nicholls carried out a bayonet assault after a force of Germans took up a position on a hill on the Commando's left flank from where they began to enfilade the entire position. Twice the Germans came at them and each time the attack was turned back by stubborn defence. Elsewhere that same day, however, Laycock's headquarters was ambushed and in a rather confused action he and his brigade major
, Freddie Graham, commandeered a tank in which they returned to the main body.
By 31 May the evacuation was drawing to a close and the commandos, running low on ammunition, rations and water, fell back towards Sphakia too. Laycock and some of his headquarters, including his intelligence officer Evelyn Waugh
managed to get out on the last ship to depart, however, in the end, the vast majority of the commandos were left behind on the island. Although some of them were later able to make their own way back to Egypt, in the end of the 800 commandos that had been sent to Crete, by the end of the operation about 600 were listed as killed, missing or wounded and only 23 officers and 156 others managed to get off the island.
controlled Syria
and Lebanon
. As a part of this operation, 'C' Battalion (No. 11 (Scottish) Commando) were relieved of their garrison duties on Cyprus and were tasked with seizing a crossing over the Litani River
on 9 June ahead of the Allied advance. Embarking upon the Glengyle under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Richard Pedder, the plan called for the commandos to land on the north bank of the river, near Kafr Bada, and attempt to seize the bridge that spanned the river there before the defenders could detonate the explosive charges that were believed to have been placed on the structure.
Upon arriving offshore, the raiding party waited until dawn to take to the water in order to conceal their approach as best as possible. The force was broken up into three detachments with Pedder commanding the centre, the second in command, Major Geoffrey Keyes
commanding the right detachment and Captain George More commanding the left detachment. The landing was unopposed, however, the southern detachment under Keyes soon discovered that they had been put ashore by mistake on the wrong side of the river. As Pedder's detachment advanced on the target, the French colonial troops
from the 22nd Algerian Tirailleurs
that were defending the area opened fire and in the ensuing engagement Pedder was killed and a number of other officers in the centre detachment were wounded. Nevertheless, the detachment pressed on and, under the command of the Regimental Sergeant Major
, they succeeded in securing one of the barracks buildings near the redoubt that formed the key to defence of the position. At the same time, the left detachment under More captured a number of howitzers and field guns, as well as a number of prisoners, but as the initial surprise of the attack wore off and the defenders were able to organise themselves, the fighting became more intense and as the French brought up mortars and artillery, a stalement developed.
While this was going on, the right detachment under Keyes, having found itself on the wrong side of the river, made contact with an Australian battalion to the south which brought up a boat with which they could make a crossing. Due to the size of the boat, it had to make a number of trips before the detachment was on the northern side. Once that was complete Keyes was able to take command of the unit. After carrying out a reorganisation, he was able to launch an assault on the redoubt and by 13.00 they had captured it and the crossing secured.
The action cost the commando over 120 casualties, which equated to nearly a quarter of their strength. A short time later they returned to garrison duty on Cyprus.
. In June, as the 8th Army launched Operation Battleaxe
in an attempt to relieve the garrison from the east, it was decided that the commandos would carry out a raid on an Italian position that was dominating the forward positions of the Indian 18th Cavalry. The position, which was known as the Twin Pimples
, consisted of two small hills that sat close together and from where the Italians were able to observe the Allied lines. For a number of days prior to carrying out the raid, the commandos carried out patrols with the Indians to become familiar with the ground and to practice moving over the terrain at night. Finally on the night of 17/18 July they attacked.
It was a raid that was typical of what the men had been trained for, but which they had rarely been able to conduct since arriving in the Middle East. It proved to be highly successful, being well-planned and executed and under the cover of darkness with a carefully laid deception plan, the commandos managed to sneak up behind the hills, moving thorough the Italian forward positions unchallenged. In the end they advanced to within 30 yards before they were challenged, and when they finally were, the force rushed the Italian defenders and quickly overwhelmed them. They then withdrew from the position just before the defenders called in an artillery barrage on the position and returned to the garrison holding Tobruk. They suffered five casualties in the raid, one of whom later died of his wounds.
Laycock travelled to London to discuss with the War Office
his concerns about the way in which his force had been treated. Upon hearing about its disbandment later, the British prime minister, Sir Winston Churchill
—a great advocate for the commandos—ordered the formation of the Middle East Commando
, made up from the commandos that had remained in the theatre. When Laycock returned from England he found that, although the Middle East Commando had indeed been set up, there were very few men for him to command. What men there were, were formed into six troops. No. 1 and 2 Troops were made up of L Detachment
based at Geneifa under the command of David Stirling
, while 60 men from the disbanded No. 11 (Scottish) Commando made up No. 3 Troop. Nos. 4 and 5 Troops had been formed from No. 51 Commando
and the Special Boat Section made up No. 6 Troop, under Roger Courtney
. These designations, however, were largely ignored as the men referred to themselves by their old designations.
In November, as part of Operation Crusader
, an offensive aimed at relieving the besieged garrison at Tobruk, No. 3 Troop of Middle East Commando, under the command of Geoffrey Keyes, who had by then been promoted to lieutenant colonel, were involved in Operation Flipper
, an attempt to raid Erwin Rommel
's headquarters in Libya and kill the German commander. The raid was part of a larger operation involving Stirling's L Detachment and the SBS to penetrate behind the German lines and cause disruption in the rear areas in order to assist in the general offensive. In the end, however, the raid failed and only two men—one of whom was Laycock himself—managed to return to British lines. Keyes was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross
for his leadership and bravery during the raid.
Although the Middle East Commando remained in existence after this—largely in an effort to placate Churchill—its personnel were mainly absorbed into larger formations. Many of these men joined the Special Air Service
, which was expanded by Stirling with Churchill's approval. Laycock was promoted to brigadier
and put in charge of the Special Service Brigade, Middle East Command, replacing Brigadier Charles Haydon.
Ad hoc
Ad hoc is a Latin phrase meaning "for this". It generally signifies a solution designed for a specific problem or task, non-generalizable, and not intended to be able to be adapted to other purposes. Compare A priori....
military formation of the British Army
British Army
The British Army is the land warfare branch of Her Majesty's Armed Forces in the United Kingdom. It came into being with the unification of the Kingdom of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. The new British Army incorporated Regiments that had already existed in England...
consisting of a number of commando
British Commandos
The British Commandos were formed during the Second World War in June 1940, following a request from the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, for a force that could carry out raids against German-occupied Europe...
units during the Second World War.
Formed in February 1941 under the command of Colonel Robert Laycock
Robert Laycock
Major General Sir Robert Edward Laycock KCMG, CB, DSO, KStJ was a British soldier, most famous for his service with the commandos during the Second World War...
, after whom the force was named, it consisted of approximately 2,000 men and served in the Middle Eastern theatre of operations. Initially tasked with conducting raiding operations to disrupt Axis lines of communication in the Mediterranean it was planned that they would take part in operations to capture the Greek island of Rhodes
Rhodes
Rhodes is an island in Greece, located in the eastern Aegean Sea. It is the largest of the Dodecanese islands in terms of both land area and population, with a population of 117,007, and also the island group's historical capital. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within...
. As the strategic situation in the theatre turned against the Allies, however, the commandos were largely diverted from their original role and were used primarily to reinforce regular troops throughout the Mediterranean theatre.
Elements of the force saw action in Bardia
Bardia
Bardia is a geographic region in the Democratic Republic of Nepal.Bardia comprises a portion of the Terai, or lowland hills and valleys of southern Nepal. The Terai is over 1,000 feet in elevation, and extends all along the Indian border...
, Crete
Crete
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits...
, Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
, and Tobruk
Tobruk
Tobruk or Tubruq is a city, seaport, and peninsula on Libya's eastern Mediterranean coast, near the border with Egypt. It is the capital of the Butnan District and has a population of 120,000 ....
before they were disbanded in August 1941. Afterwards its personnel either returned to their former units or went on to serve with other special forces units raised in the Middle East.
Formation
In February 1941, a force of commandosBritish Commandos
The British Commandos were formed during the Second World War in June 1940, following a request from the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, for a force that could carry out raids against German-occupied Europe...
under Colonel Robert Laycock
Robert Laycock
Major General Sir Robert Edward Laycock KCMG, CB, DSO, KStJ was a British soldier, most famous for his service with the commandos during the Second World War...
were sent to the Middle East to carry out raids in the eastern Mediterranean. This force became known as 'Layforce' after their commander and initially they were drawn from 'A' Troop from No. 3 Commando
No. 3 Commando
No. 3 Commando was a battalion-sized commando unit raised by the British Army for service during the Second World War. Formed in July 1940 from volunteers for special service, it was the first such unit to carry the title of "Commando"...
, No. 7
No. 7 Commando
No. 7 Commando was a unit of the British Commandos and part of the British Army during the Second World War. The Commando was formed in August 1940 in the United Kingdom No. 7 Commando was transferred to the Middle East as part of Layforce...
, No. 8 (Guards)
No. 8 (Guards) Commando
No. 8 Commando was a unit of the British Commandos and part of the British Army during the Second World War. The Commando was formed in June 1940 primarily from members of the Brigade of Guards. It was one of the units selected to be sent to the Middle East as part of Layforce...
, and No. 11 (Scottish) Commando
No. 11 (Scottish) Commando
No. 11 Commando was a battalion-sized commando unit of the British Army during the Second World War. Formed in Scotland members of No. 11 Commando adopted the Tam o'shanter as their official headress....
s, with additional personnel being drawn from No. 50
No. 50 Commando
No. 50 Commando was a battalion sized British Commando unit of the British Army during the Second World War. The Commando was formed in 1940, from volunteers in Egypt and Palestine. Shortly after formation it was amalgamated with No. 52 Commando and became 'D' Battalion, Layforce.-Background:The...
and No. 52 Commando
No. 52 Commando
No. 52 Commando was a battalion sized British Commando unit of the British Army during the Second World War. The Commando was formed in 1940, from volunteers in Egypt and Palestine. Shortly after formation it was amalgamated with No. 50 Commando and became 'D' Battalion, Layforce.-Background:The...
s upon their arrival in Egypt in March.
Laycock held the rank of a colonel (rather than brigadier
Brigadier
Brigadier is a senior military rank, the meaning of which is somewhat different in different military services. The brigadier rank is generally superior to the rank of colonel, and subordinate to major general....
) on the staff because his command was not, formally and organisationally, a full brigade with all its supporting elements, although, with a strength of over 2,000 men it was basically equivalent.On disembarkation the reported All Rank strength of the Battalions was as follows: 'A' Battalion (Colvin): 36 officers and 541 other ranks; 'B' Battalion (Daly): 38 officers and 502 other ranks, 'C' Battalion (Pedder): 35 officers and 498 other ranks; and 'D' Battalion (Young): 36 officers and 532 other ranks. The Folbot Section (Courtney) had 12 folbots, one officer and 18 other ranks. For reasons of security, the commandos were organised into four battalions and were redesignated as such. No. 7 Commando became 'A' Battalion, No. 8 (Guards) became 'B' Battalion, No. 11 (Scottish) became 'C' Battalion and No. 50 and No. 52 were amalgamated to form 'D' Battalion. Together they were to operate as a brigade
Brigade
A brigade is a major tactical military formation that is typically composed of two to five battalions, plus supporting elements depending on the era and nationality of a given army and could be perceived as an enlarged/reinforced regiment...
of the British 6th Division, attached to the 8th Army
Eighth Army (United Kingdom)
The Eighth Army was one of the best-known formations of the British Army during World War II, fighting in the North African and Italian campaigns....
. Each battalion was placed under the command of a lieutenant colonel
Lieutenant colonel
Lieutenant colonel is a rank of commissioned officer in the armies and most marine forces and some air forces of the world, typically ranking above a major and below a colonel. The rank of lieutenant colonel is often shortened to simply "colonel" in conversation and in unofficial correspondence...
and consisted of a headquarters, a signals section
Section (military unit)
A section is a small military unit in some armies. In many armies, it is a squad of seven to twelve soldiers. However in France and armies based on the French model, it is the sub-division of a company .-Australian Army:...
, a specialist equipment section equipped with a form of collapsible canoe
Folding kayak
A folding kayak is a direct descendant of the original Inuit kayak made of animal skins stretched over frames made from wood and bones. A modern folder has a collapsible frame made of some combination of wood, aluminium and plastic, and a skin made of a tough fabric with a waterproof coating...
known as a 'folbot', and two commando companies
Company (military unit)
A company is a military unit, typically consisting of 80–225 soldiers and usually commanded by a Captain, Major or Commandant. Most companies are formed of three to five platoons although the exact number may vary by country, unit type, and structure...
with five troop
Troop
A troop is a military unit, originally a small force of cavalry, subordinate to a squadron and headed by the troop leader. In many armies a troop is the equivalent unit to the infantry section or platoon...
s, each troop consisting of 50 men.
Background
Although upon Layforce's formation the commando concept was still in its embryonic phase, when it had initially embarked from the United Kingdom, it had been intended that the force would be employed to carry out a campaign of harassment and dislocation against enemy forces in the Mediterranean. At the time that Layforce was raised, the British were largely in the ascendency in the theatre, having largely defeated the Italians, and it was felt that the commandos could be employed in the capture of the Greek island of RhodesRhodes
Rhodes is an island in Greece, located in the eastern Aegean Sea. It is the largest of the Dodecanese islands in terms of both land area and population, with a population of 117,007, and also the island group's historical capital. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within...
as part of Operation Cordite. The arrival of the Afrika Korps
Afrika Korps
The German Africa Corps , or the Afrika Korps as it was popularly called, was the German expeditionary force in Libya and Tunisia during the North African Campaign of World War II...
in Cyrenaica
Cyrenaica
Cyrenaica is the eastern coastal region of Libya.Also known as Pentapolis in antiquity, it was part of the Creta et Cyrenaica province during the Roman period, later divided in Libia Pentapolis and Libia Sicca...
and the invasions of Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia refers to three political entities that existed successively on the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century....
and Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
greatly changed the strategic outlook, however, and by the time that Layforce arrived in Egypt in March the situation had become dire.
Nevertheless, conceptually there was still a role for commando-style operations. Indeed, arguably a series of successful small-scale raids at vital points in the German rear areas might have forced Rommel to divert some of his offensive capability to defend his lines of communications
Line of communication
A line of communication is the route that connects an operating military unit with its supply base. Supplies and reinforcements are transported along the line of communication. Therefore, a secure and open line of communication is vital for any military force to continue to operate effectively...
. However, a number of strategic and operational factors arose that essentially undermined the entire Layforce concept almost as soon as it became established.
HMS Glengyle
HMS Glengyle was a Landing Ship, Infantry of the Royal Navy. She saw service in the Second World War-Design and conversion:Glengyle was built by Caledon Shipbuilding & Engineering Company, Dundee, for the Glen Line...
was released to Laycock's force, the other two ships were not and as a result he was severely limited in the forces that he could deploy.Saunders 1959, p. 55. On top of this, the failure of the British to maintain air superiority in the theatre severely hampered their ability to carry out landing operations, while the deployment of forces to Greece meant that in the end the commandos became the only troops in general reserve and as the strategic situation worsened it became increasingly difficult to employ them in the manner for which it had been intended as they were called upon to reinforce the rest of the army elsewhere.
Bardia
In early April Laycock received orders to begin carrying out a raids on the Afrika Korps' lines of communication along the North African coast. On 12 April they carried out a preliminary move to AlexandriaAlexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
and three days later they received orders to carry out the Bardia raid
Bardia raid
The Bardia raid was an amphibious landing at the coastal town of Bardia in North Africa by British Commandos over the night of 19/20 April 1941 during the Second World War. The raid was carried out by No...
and another on Bomba. 'A' and 'C' Battalions were dispatched to attack Bardia, while four Troops from 'B' Battalion embarked on a destroyer
Destroyer
In naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet, convoy or battle group and defend them against smaller, powerful, short-range attackers. Destroyers, originally called torpedo-boat destroyers in 1892, evolved from...
and headed for Bomba. The attacks had to be abandoned, however, due to high seas which would have made disembarking and re-embarking too dangerous.
A few days later it was decided to implement the attack on Bardia. This time, the raiders were drawn from 'A' Battalion (No. 7 Commando), and embarked upon Glengyle. A number of naval support elements were attached, including three Royal Australian Navy
Royal Australian Navy
The Royal Australian Navy is the naval branch of the Australian Defence Force. Following the Federation of Australia in 1901, the ships and resources of the separate colonial navies were integrated into a national force: the Commonwealth Naval Forces...
destroyers—, , and —and the anti-aircraft cruiser . Due to concerns about the force being attacked from the air, it was decided that the raid would take place under the cover of darkness and as a result additional assets in the form of the submarine and a detachment from the Folboat Troop (later known as the Special Boat Section) under Roger Courtney
Roger Courtney
Roger James Allen Courtney MC, known as Jumbo, was influential in the establishment of the Special Boat Section's which saw action in World War II. They would eventually lead to the formation of the UK Special Boat Service....
, were tasked with providing navigational assistance by marking both the anchorage and landing beach.
The raid was carried out on the night of 19/20 April 1941. As a result of a number of mishaps, things went awry from the beginning. The submarine missed its rendezvous with the landing ship, having been strafed by an Allied plane shortly beforehand. Problems with the release gear for the assault craft meant that some of the commando parties were late getting ashore, and another landed at the wrong beach.
The landings went ahead unopposed, however, and the commandos moved to the various targets that had been identified by intelligence. In the end, however, little damage was achieved as a number of the targets proved not to exist or were not where they were thought to be. One party was able to damage a bridge, while another set a tyre dump on fire and blew up the breeches
Breech-loading weapon
A breech-loading weapon is a firearm in which the cartridge or shell is inserted or loaded into a chamber integral to the rear portion of a barrel....
of a number of naval guns. Due to the delays during the landings and the need to depart while it was still dark, however, time ran out and the commandos were forced to withdraw having achieved little. On the way back, an officer was accidentally shot when he failed to respond correctly when challenged by a sentry, while 67 men, not knowing that there were no assault craft at their designated beach due to the earlier error, were left behind and later captured.
Despite the lack of tangible success the raid was not a complete failure. The appearance of the commandos behind their lines forced the Germans to divert the main part of an armoured brigade from where they had previously been undertaking offensive action around Sollum, in order to defend against further raids. Indeed, although there were still some elements of operational art that had to be refined, the raid demonstrated the strategic value that the commandos might have had within the theatre if strategic imperatives and resource constraints had not served to derail the concept.
Crete
On 25 May Layforce, consisting mainly of 'A' and 'D' Battalions, with a detachment from 'B' Battalion—'C' Battalion (No. 11 (Scottish) Commando) which had been sent to reinforce the garrison on Cyprus
Cyprus
Cyprus , officially the Republic of Cyprus , is a Eurasian island country, member of the European Union, in the Eastern Mediterranean, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria and north of Egypt. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.The earliest known human activity on the...
in case of a German invasion there—departed Alexandria and attempted to land on Crete. They were turned back by bad weather, however, and forced to return to Alexandria where they re-embarked upon the Abdiel
HMS Abdiel
Three ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Abdiel, after Abdiel, a Seraph in Milton's Paradise Lost. was a Marksman-class destroyer, built as HMS Ithuriel but renamed before being launched in 1915. She was sold for scrapping in 1936. was an Abdiel-class minelayer launched in 1940 and...
to make another attempt. On the night of 26/27 May they landed in Suda Bay. Almost as soon as they landed it was decided that they could not be employed in an offensive role and would instead be used to cover the withdrawal route towards Sphakia to the south. As such upon landing they were ordered to leave all their heavy equipment, including radios and transport behind. This was a role that they were poorly equipped for, though, as they were lacking in the indirect fire support weapons such as mortars or artillery and were armed only very lightly mainly with rifles and a few Bren light machine guns.
Nevertheless by sunrise on 27 May they had taken up position in defence along the main road that led inland from Sphakia and from then until 31 May they were engaged in carrying out a number of rearguard actions to enable the main body of troops to be taken off the beaches by the navy. Throughout the entire time they were almost constantly under aerial attack.
On 28 May the defenders began disengaging the enemy and began to withdraw along the pass through the central mountains that separated it from the port of Sphakia in the south. The defence of the pass fell to the Commandos along with two Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
n infantry battalions—the 2/7th and 2/8th Battalions—and the 5th New Zealand Brigade. In the first two nights of the evacuation approximately 8,000 men were taken off, while on the third night, 30 May, covered by the Australians and Laycock's commandos, the New Zealanders were able to get off too.
For the commandos, the fighting was heaviest on that first day. During the height of the German attack on the pass, G Troop from 'A' Battalion (No. 7 Commando), under Lieutenant F. Nicholls carried out a bayonet assault after a force of Germans took up a position on a hill on the Commando's left flank from where they began to enfilade the entire position. Twice the Germans came at them and each time the attack was turned back by stubborn defence. Elsewhere that same day, however, Laycock's headquarters was ambushed and in a rather confused action he and his brigade major
Brigade Major
In the British Army, a Brigade Major was the Chief of Staff of a brigade. He held the rank of Major and was head of the brigade's "G - Operations and Intelligence" section directly and oversaw the two other branches, "A - Administration" and "Q - Quartermaster"...
, Freddie Graham, commandeered a tank in which they returned to the main body.
By 31 May the evacuation was drawing to a close and the commandos, running low on ammunition, rations and water, fell back towards Sphakia too. Laycock and some of his headquarters, including his intelligence officer Evelyn Waugh
Evelyn Waugh
Arthur Evelyn St. John Waugh , known as Evelyn Waugh, was an English writer of novels, travel books and biographies. He was also a prolific journalist and reviewer...
managed to get out on the last ship to depart, however, in the end, the vast majority of the commandos were left behind on the island. Although some of them were later able to make their own way back to Egypt, in the end of the 800 commandos that had been sent to Crete, by the end of the operation about 600 were listed as killed, missing or wounded and only 23 officers and 156 others managed to get off the island.
Syria
On 8 June 1941 the Allies launched Operation Exporter, the invasion of Vichy FrenchVichy France
Vichy France, Vichy Regime, or Vichy Government, are common terms used to describe the government of France that collaborated with the Axis powers from July 1940 to August 1944. This government succeeded the Third Republic and preceded the Provisional Government of the French Republic...
controlled Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
and Lebanon
Lebanon
Lebanon , officially the Republic of LebanonRepublic of Lebanon is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies. The term Lebanese Republic, a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names that is not used in today's world. Arabic is the most common language spoken among...
. As a part of this operation, 'C' Battalion (No. 11 (Scottish) Commando) were relieved of their garrison duties on Cyprus and were tasked with seizing a crossing over the Litani River
Litani River
The Litani River is an important water resource in southern Lebanon. The river rises in the fertile Beqaa Valley valley, west of Baalbek, and empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre. Exceeding 140 km in length, the Litani River is the longest river in Lebanon and provides an average...
on 9 June ahead of the Allied advance. Embarking upon the Glengyle under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Richard Pedder, the plan called for the commandos to land on the north bank of the river, near Kafr Bada, and attempt to seize the bridge that spanned the river there before the defenders could detonate the explosive charges that were believed to have been placed on the structure.
Upon arriving offshore, the raiding party waited until dawn to take to the water in order to conceal their approach as best as possible. The force was broken up into three detachments with Pedder commanding the centre, the second in command, Major Geoffrey Keyes
Geoffrey Charles Tasker Keyes
Lieutenant-Colonel Geoffrey Charles Tasker Keyes, VC, MC was a Scottish recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces...
commanding the right detachment and Captain George More commanding the left detachment. The landing was unopposed, however, the southern detachment under Keyes soon discovered that they had been put ashore by mistake on the wrong side of the river. As Pedder's detachment advanced on the target, the French colonial troops
French Colonial Forces
The French Colonial Forces , commonly called La Coloniale, was a general designation for the military forces that garrisoned in the French colonial empire from the late 17th century until 1960. They were recruited from mainland France or from the French settler and indigenous populations of the...
from the 22nd Algerian Tirailleurs
Tirailleur
Tirailleur literally means a shooting skirmisher in French from tir—shot. The term dates back to the Napoleonic period where it was used to designate light infantry trained to skirmish ahead of the main columns...
that were defending the area opened fire and in the ensuing engagement Pedder was killed and a number of other officers in the centre detachment were wounded. Nevertheless, the detachment pressed on and, under the command of the Regimental Sergeant Major
Regimental Sergeant Major
Regimental Sergeant Major is an appointment held by warrant officers class 1 in the British Army, the British Royal Marines and in the armies of many Commonwealth nations, including Australia and New Zealand; and by chief warrant officers in the Canadian Forces...
, they succeeded in securing one of the barracks buildings near the redoubt that formed the key to defence of the position. At the same time, the left detachment under More captured a number of howitzers and field guns, as well as a number of prisoners, but as the initial surprise of the attack wore off and the defenders were able to organise themselves, the fighting became more intense and as the French brought up mortars and artillery, a stalement developed.
While this was going on, the right detachment under Keyes, having found itself on the wrong side of the river, made contact with an Australian battalion to the south which brought up a boat with which they could make a crossing. Due to the size of the boat, it had to make a number of trips before the detachment was on the northern side. Once that was complete Keyes was able to take command of the unit. After carrying out a reorganisation, he was able to launch an assault on the redoubt and by 13.00 they had captured it and the crossing secured.
The action cost the commando over 120 casualties, which equated to nearly a quarter of their strength. A short time later they returned to garrison duty on Cyprus.
Tobruk
Following their involvement in the rearguard actions on Crete, a detachment of five officers and 70 other ranks from No. 8 Commando were sent to Tobruk, which was at the time under siegeSiege of Tobruk
The siege of Tobruk was a confrontation that lasted 240 days between Axis and Allied forces in North Africa during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War...
. In June, as the 8th Army launched Operation Battleaxe
Operation Battleaxe
Operation Battleaxe was a British Army operation during the Second World War in June 1941 with the goal of clearing eastern Cyrenaica of German and Italian forces; one of the main benefits of this would have been the lifting of the Siege of Tobruk....
in an attempt to relieve the garrison from the east, it was decided that the commandos would carry out a raid on an Italian position that was dominating the forward positions of the Indian 18th Cavalry. The position, which was known as the Twin Pimples
Twin Pimples raid
The Twin Pimples Raid was a British Commando raid on a feature in the Italian lines during the siege of Tobruk in the Second World War. The raid, carried out by men of the No. 8 Commando and the Royal Australian Engineers, was a complete success...
, consisted of two small hills that sat close together and from where the Italians were able to observe the Allied lines. For a number of days prior to carrying out the raid, the commandos carried out patrols with the Indians to become familiar with the ground and to practice moving over the terrain at night. Finally on the night of 17/18 July they attacked.
It was a raid that was typical of what the men had been trained for, but which they had rarely been able to conduct since arriving in the Middle East. It proved to be highly successful, being well-planned and executed and under the cover of darkness with a carefully laid deception plan, the commandos managed to sneak up behind the hills, moving thorough the Italian forward positions unchallenged. In the end they advanced to within 30 yards before they were challenged, and when they finally were, the force rushed the Italian defenders and quickly overwhelmed them. They then withdrew from the position just before the defenders called in an artillery barrage on the position and returned to the garrison holding Tobruk. They suffered five casualties in the raid, one of whom later died of his wounds.
Disbandment
By late July 1941 the operations that Layforce had undertaken had severely reduced their strength and in the circumstances reinforcements were unlikely. The operational difficulties that had been exposed during the Bardia raid, combined with the strategic imperatives that had developed as the situation in the Middle East had evolved, and the overarching inability of the high command to fully embrace the commando concept had largely served to make the force ineffective and as a result the decision was made to disband Layforce. Many of the men went back to their previous regiments following the decision, while others chose to remain in the Middle East and subsequently joined other special forces units that were raised later.Laycock travelled to London to discuss with the War Office
War Office
The War Office was a department of the British Government, responsible for the administration of the British Army between the 17th century and 1964, when its functions were transferred to the Ministry of Defence...
his concerns about the way in which his force had been treated. Upon hearing about its disbandment later, the British prime minister, Sir Winston Churchill
Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, was a predominantly Conservative British politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century and served as Prime Minister twice...
—a great advocate for the commandos—ordered the formation of the Middle East Commando
Middle East Commando
Middle East Commando was a battalion sized British Commando unit of the British Army during the Second World War. The Commando was formed in the Middle East from the survivors of the Layforce Commando unit partly to placate Winston Churchill who championed the commando idea...
, made up from the commandos that had remained in the theatre. When Laycock returned from England he found that, although the Middle East Commando had indeed been set up, there were very few men for him to command. What men there were, were formed into six troops. No. 1 and 2 Troops were made up of L Detachment
History of the SAS
The History of the British Army's Special Air Service or SAS regiment begins with its formation during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War, and continues to the present day. It includes their early operations in North Africa, the Greek Islands, and the Invasion of Italy...
based at Geneifa under the command of David Stirling
David Stirling
Colonel Sir Archibald David Stirling, DSO, DFC, OBE was a Scottish laird, mountaineer, World War II British Army officer, and the founder of the Special Air Service.-Life before the war:...
, while 60 men from the disbanded No. 11 (Scottish) Commando made up No. 3 Troop. Nos. 4 and 5 Troops had been formed from No. 51 Commando
No. 51 Commando
No. 51 Commando was a battalion sized British Commando unit of the British Army during the Second World War. The Commando was formed in 1940, from volunteers from Palestine...
and the Special Boat Section made up No. 6 Troop, under Roger Courtney
Roger Courtney
Roger James Allen Courtney MC, known as Jumbo, was influential in the establishment of the Special Boat Section's which saw action in World War II. They would eventually lead to the formation of the UK Special Boat Service....
. These designations, however, were largely ignored as the men referred to themselves by their old designations.
In November, as part of Operation Crusader
Operation Crusader
Operation Crusader was a military operation by the British Eighth Army between 18 November–30 December 1941. The operation successfully relieved the 1941 Siege of Tobruk....
, an offensive aimed at relieving the besieged garrison at Tobruk, No. 3 Troop of Middle East Commando, under the command of Geoffrey Keyes, who had by then been promoted to lieutenant colonel, were involved in Operation Flipper
Operation Flipper
Operation Flipper was a British commando raid, during the Second World War, that included among its objectives an attack on the headquarters of Erwin Rommel, the commander of the Axis forces in North Africa. It was timed to strike on the night of 17/18 November 1941, just before the start of...
, an attempt to raid Erwin Rommel
Erwin Rommel
Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel , popularly known as the Desert Fox , was a German Field Marshal of World War II. He won the respect of both his own troops and the enemies he fought....
's headquarters in Libya and kill the German commander. The raid was part of a larger operation involving Stirling's L Detachment and the SBS to penetrate behind the German lines and cause disruption in the rear areas in order to assist in the general offensive. In the end, however, the raid failed and only two men—one of whom was Laycock himself—managed to return to British lines. Keyes was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross
Victoria Cross
The Victoria Cross is the highest military decoration awarded for valour "in the face of the enemy" to members of the armed forces of various Commonwealth countries, and previous British Empire territories....
for his leadership and bravery during the raid.
Although the Middle East Commando remained in existence after this—largely in an effort to placate Churchill—its personnel were mainly absorbed into larger formations. Many of these men joined the Special Air Service
Special Air Service
Special Air Service or SAS is a corps of the British Army constituted on 31 May 1950. They are part of the United Kingdom Special Forces and have served as a model for the special forces of many other countries all over the world...
, which was expanded by Stirling with Churchill's approval. Laycock was promoted to brigadier
Brigadier
Brigadier is a senior military rank, the meaning of which is somewhat different in different military services. The brigadier rank is generally superior to the rank of colonel, and subordinate to major general....
and put in charge of the Special Service Brigade, Middle East Command, replacing Brigadier Charles Haydon.