Livonian people
Encyclopedia
The Livonians or Livs are the indigenous inhabitants of Livonia
, a large part of what is today northwestern Latvia
and southwestern Estonia
. They spoke the Uralic
Livonian language
, a language which is closely related to Estonian
and Finnish
. As of 2010, there was one person known to have learned Livonian as her mother tongue
and approximately 30 who had learnt it as a second language.
Historical, social and economic factors, together with the ethnically dispersed population, have resulted in the diminution of the Livonian population, with only a small group surviving in the 21st century. In 2011, there were 180 registered Livonians in Latvia.
around the Gulf of Riga
as early as 1800 B.C. The first speakers of Indo-European
Baltic languages
, i.e. the linguistic ancestors of today's Latvians
and Lithuanians
, are thought to have arrived in the area around 2000 B.C. The exact date of the Uralic migration to the Baltic region has been disputed, but according to DNA
studies, there were Uralic peoples in the Baltic some 10,000 years ago. These peoples later merged with the Balts
and Finnic tribes.
Historically, Livonians lived in two separate areas of Latvia, one group in Livonia and another on the northern coast of Courland. The latter were referred as Curonians, together with the Balts living there. The Livonians referred to themselves as rāndalist ("coast dwellers") and supported themselves mainly with fishing, but also with agriculture
and animal husbandry
. Since they controlled an important trade route, the Daugava River (Livonian: Väina), their culture was highly developed through trade with the Gotland
ers, Russians
and Finns, and, from the end of the first millennium AD onwards, with the Germans
, Swedes and Danes.
However, along with the traders came missionaries from Western Europe who wanted to convert the pagan
Livonians to Christianity
. It has been suggested that first person to convert some Livonians to Christianity was Danish archbishop Absalon
, who supposedly built a church in the Livonian village today known as Kolka
. In the 12th century, Germans invaded Livonia, and based themselves in Ykskyle, today known as Ikšķile
. Archbishop Hartvig II converted some Livonians in the surrounding area, including local elder Caupo of Turaida
, who later allied himself with the Germans.
After Meinhard
died in 1196, his place was taken by Berthold. Berthold tried to convert Livonians by force, launching two raids on Livonia. The first took place in 1196, but he was forced to retreat to Germany after being ambushed near Salaspils
. He tried again in 1198, but this time he was killed by the Livonian soldier Ymaut.
Berthold was followed by Albert von Buxhövden, who forced Livonian leaders at the mouth of the Daugava River to give him land to build a Christian settlement. Building started in 1201. From this grew the city of Riga
.
When this did not immediately induce the Livonians, Estonians
, and Baltic peoples in the hinterland to convert, a knightly order was formed, the Knights of the Sword, primarily consisting of Germans, to bring salvation to the pagans by force. In a campaign that was part of the wars known as the Northern Crusades
, these knights defeated, subdued and converted the Livonians; in 1208, Pope Innocent III declared that all Livonians had been converted to Christianity. Afterward they had to join the Knights of the Sword as infantry during the wars against the Estonians and the Latvian tribes, which continued until 1217.
During the Livonian Crusade
, once prosperous Livonia
was devastated, and whole regions were almost completely depopulated. This vacuum was filled by Latvia
n tribes - Curonians
, Semigallians
, Latgallians and Selonians
- who started to move into the area around 1220, and continued to do so for at least thirty years. They settled mostly in the Daugava Valley, so that the Livonians of Livonia in the east were cut off from those living on the peninsula of Curonia in the west.
Because of the ongoing resistance of the Latvian tribes, the Knights of the Sword eventually had to look for support to the much more powerful Teutonic Order, which up until then was active primarily in Poland
and Lithuania
. Having been reorganised as a subdivision of the Teutonic Order and renamed the Livonian Order
in 1237, the former Knights of the Sword finally overpowered the Curonians
in 1267, and subsequently the Semigallians
in 1290. From then on most of Latvia remained under German control until the 16th century, with the city of Riga and several other cities forming independent, German-ruled bishoprics, and the Livonian Order ruling the rest of the land.
's Reformation
. Seeing a chance in the resulting military weakness of the Order, Czar Ivan the Terrible of Russia
invaded Livonia in 1558, seeking access to the Baltic Sea. However, Sweden
and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
entered the war as allies of the Livonian Order, resulting in almost a quarter of a century of war. The outcome of this Livonian War
(1558–1582) was a Russian defeat, but also the dissolution of the Livonian Order. Livonia and southeastern Latvia were claimed by the Poland-Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Curonia became an independent duchy, with Gotthard Kettler
, the Livonian Order's last Grandmaster, as its first duke.
After only ten years of peace, a new series of wars between the olish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden
, which had claimed Estonia after the Livonian War, ravaged Livonia from 1592. Eventually, the Swedes were victorious. In 1629, they could finally call Livonia and the city of Riga their own. In Estonia and Livonia, the period of Swedish rule is still looked back upon as a kind of golden age. Although they were part of a long history of foreign occupiers, the Swedes did much to help their subjects in the Baltic region. For example, under the 17th Century Swedish Kings Gustav II Adolf and Charles XI
, general elementary education was introduced, the Bible
was translated in Estonian
and Latvian
, and a university was founded in Tartu
in southern Estonia.
Although Sweden kept the Poles and the Danes
at a distance, this could not be said of the Russians. In the Great Northern War
(1700–1721), Czar Peter the Great utterly destroyed Sweden's pretensions to being a regional superpower. In the 1721 Treaty of Nystad
, Estonia and Livonia, which had again been completely devastated after more than twenty years of war, were claimed by Russia. Curonia continued to be ruled by its dukes for another three quarters of a century, but in 1795, that region also became a Russian possession as part of the Third Partition of Poland
.
were eventually completely assimilated by the Latvians. The last remnant of this once vibrant nation was made up of several families living along the river Salaca
(Livonian: Salatsi), but in the second half of the 19th century, the Livonian language
and culture completely disappeared from the region known to this day as Livonia; the last known speaker of the eastern Livonian dialect died in 1864, though according to some reports, there were still some people in early 20th century in the Polish area, who knew they were descended from Livonians. In the Latvian dialect spoken in Livonia, a large number of Livonian loanwords have survived, and other traces of Livonian can by found in many geographical names in the region.
In Curonia, the Livonian language
and culture also came under heavy pressure, but here it retained a last foothold on the outermost tip of the Curonian Peninsula. Several factors made sure that in this area, known as Līvõd rānda, the Livonian Coast, Latvian culture was too weak to assimilate the Livonians. For one thing, the society of the Livonians living in this area was exclusively sea-oriented and based on fishing, while that of the Latvians in the interior was exclusively land-oriented and mostly agricultural. This meant there was not a lot of interaction between the two groups. Also, the Livonian Coast was separated from the interior of Curonia by dense forests and impassable marshlands, which made regular interaction even less likely. The people of the Livonian Coast had much closer ties to the inhabitants of the Estonian island of Saaremaa
, across the Gulf of Riga
to the north. In their isolated fishing villages, these Livonians kept to themselves for centuries. It was not until the 20th century that the outside world intruded on their quiet existence.
by attacking the Germans and the Austrians
from the east, but soon it was pushed back in a series of devastating German victories, which eventually left almost the entire Baltic region in German hands. The Livonian Coast was occupied by the Germans in 1915. At their approach, many Livonians fled their homes, often never to return. Their main destinations were Estonia and inner parts of Latvia. The rest of the people were driven from their homes by the Germans, and had to wait until 1919 before they were allowed to return.
The Russian defeat and the subsequent abdication of Czar Nicholas II
opened the door for Vladimir Lenin
and the communists to make a grab for power in Russia, leading to the establishment of the Soviet government in Russia in 1917. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
the following year ended the war between Germany and Soviet Russia
and left the Baltic region firmly in German hands. However, after the German capitulation in 1919, the Baltic peoples rose up and established the independent republics of Estonia
, Latvia
and Lithuania
.
. The clearest expression of this revival was the establishment on April 2, 1923 of the Livonian Society, which considered itself the representative of the Livonian people. Also, a Livonian language choir was founded and Livonian song festivals were held along the entire Livonian Coast. Furthermore, a Livonian flag was adopted, with the colours green (for the forests), white (for the beaches) and blue (for the sea), and a division similar to the Latvian flag (three horizontal bars with the middle one half as wide as the outer ones). Although the Latvian government prohibited the formation of an ethnic Livonian parish within the Lutheran Church of Latvia in 1923, it approved the introduction of the Livonian language as an optional subject in elementary schools in the villages of the Livonian Coast that same year. The thirties saw the publication of the first Livonian language reader, poetry collections of several Livonian writers, and a monthly magazine in the Livonian language, called "Līvli" ("The Livonian"). Also, contact was made with related peoples such as the Estonians and the Finns — spurred by the Finnish promotion of closer ties with the kindred Finnic peoples
— and in 1939, the Livonian Community Centre in Mazirbe
(Livonian: Irē) was founded with subsidies from the Estonian and Finnish governments.
This cultural revival of the Interbellum
years served to give the Livonian people for the first time a clear consciousness of their ethnic identity. Before, they had always referred to themselves as rāndalist ("coast dwellers") or kalāmīed ("fishermen"). From the 1920s and 1930s on, though, they began to call themselves līvõd, līvnikad, or līvlist ("Livonians").
. This occupation and the subsequent German invasion of 1941 ended all progress the Livonians had made in the preceding twenty years. All cultural expressions were prohibited and just like twenty years before, the inhabitants of the Livonian Coast were driven from their homes. Most of them spent the war years in Riga or western Latvia, but some fled across the Baltic Sea
to Gotland
. The Curonian Peninsula was one of the areas where the Germans held out until the general capitulation of May 5, 1945, which meant there was not a house left standing when the Livonians returned home after the war.
. For one thing, they were not allowed to sail far enough from shore to continue their fishery. For another, like the Estonians, Latvians, and Lithuanians, large numbers of them were deported to Siberia
between 1945 and 1952, with a clear peak in 1949, when agriculture was collectivised in the Baltic states. Also, in 1955 a Soviet military base was constructed in the middle of the Livonian Coast. To accomplish this, some Livonians were forcibly relocated to villages farther from the coast. Subsequently, the western villages of the Livonian Coast had to be almost completely evacuated when the Soviet Union made its Baltic coastline (its western border) a "closed border area" where no one was allowed to live.
Livonian culture was repressed during the Soviet period. For example, the Livonian Society was banned and the Livonian Community Centre expropriated and given to others. Within the Latvian SSR
, the Livonians were not recognised as a separate ethnic group.
. The 1980s, Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev
's policies of glasnost
and perestroika
opened the Iron Curtain
, bringing change. In 1986, the Livonian Cultural Society was founded. It was later renamed the Livonian Union (Livonian: Līvõd Īt).
After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Latvia became once again an independent country. In this new nation, Livonians were finally recognised as an indigenous ethnic minority, whose language and culture must be protected and advanced. All rights and possessions which had been taken away from them during the Soviet era were now returned to them. For example, the old Livonian Community Centre in Mazirbe
(Irē) was given back and transformed into a historical museum, called the House of the Livonian People. Also, the Livonian language was reintroduced in the elementary schools in Riga, Staicele
, Ventspils
, Dundaga
and Kolka
.
Furthermore, on February 4, 1992, the Latvian government created a cultural historic protected territory called Līvõd rānda - the Livonian Coast
- which included all twelve of the Livonian villages: Lūžņa
(Livonian: Lūž), Miķeļtornis
(Pizā), Lielirbe
(Īra), Jaunciems
(Ūžkilā), Sīkrags
(Sīkrõg), Mazirbe
(Irē), Košrags
(Kuoštrõg), Pitrags
(Pitrõg), Saunags
(Sǟnag), Vaide
(Vaid), Kolka (Kūolka), and Melnsils
(Mustānum). The Latvian government discourages settlement of ethnic Latvians and other non-Livonians in this area and prohibits alterations to historic village sites. Also, it is prohibited for anyone to start a hotel, restaurant, or other public establishment which might adversely influence the Livonian culture or draw outsiders into the area.
Today, many Latvians claim to have some Livonian ancestry. However, there are only 176 people in Latvia who identify themselves as Livonian. According to data from 1995, the Livonian language was spoken by no more than 30 people, of whom only nine were native speakers. An article published by the Foundation for Endangered Languages in 2007 stated that there were only 182 registered Livonians and a mere six native speakers. "The last Livonian", who had learned the Livonian language as a part of an unbroken chain of Livonian generations, was Viktor Berthold
(b. 1921). He was buried on 28 February, 2009 in the Livonian village of Kolka in Courland.
The Livonian Dāvis Stalts was elected into the Latvian parliament, the Saeima
in 2011
.
Livonia
Livonia is a historic region along the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. It was once the land of the Finnic Livonians inhabiting the principal ancient Livonian County Metsepole with its center at Turaida...
, a large part of what is today northwestern Latvia
Latvia
Latvia , officially the Republic of Latvia , is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia , to the south by Lithuania , to the east by the Russian Federation , to the southeast by Belarus and shares maritime borders to the west with Sweden...
and southwestern Estonia
Estonia
Estonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipsi and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea lies...
. They spoke the Uralic
Uralic languages
The Uralic languages constitute a language family of some three dozen languages spoken by approximately 25 million people. The healthiest Uralic languages in terms of the number of native speakers are Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian, Mari and Udmurt...
Livonian language
Livonian language
Livonian belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages. It is a nearly extinct language, with one of its last native speakers having died in February 2009. It is closely related to Estonian...
, a language which is closely related to Estonian
Estonian language
Estonian is the official language of Estonia, spoken by about 1.1 million people in Estonia and tens of thousands in various émigré communities...
and Finnish
Finnish language
Finnish is the language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland Primarily for use by restaurant menus and by ethnic Finns outside Finland. It is one of the two official languages of Finland and an official minority language in Sweden. In Sweden, both standard Finnish and Meänkieli, a...
. As of 2010, there was one person known to have learned Livonian as her mother tongue
First language
A first language is the language a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity...
and approximately 30 who had learnt it as a second language.
Historical, social and economic factors, together with the ethnically dispersed population, have resulted in the diminution of the Livonian population, with only a small group surviving in the 21st century. In 2011, there were 180 registered Livonians in Latvia.
Prehistory
The linguistic ancestors of modern Livonians may have lived on the eastern shores of the Baltic SeaBaltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
around the Gulf of Riga
Gulf of Riga
The Gulf of Riga, or Bay of Riga, is a bay of the Baltic Sea between Latvia and Estonia. According to C.Michael Hogan, a saline stratification layer is found at a depth of approximately seventy metres....
as early as 1800 B.C. The first speakers of Indo-European
Indo-European
Indo-European may refer to:* Indo-European languages** Aryan race, a 19th century and early 20th century term for those peoples who are the native speakers of Indo-European languages...
Baltic languages
Baltic languages
The Baltic languages are a group of related languages belonging to the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family and spoken mainly in areas extending east and southeast of the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe...
, i.e. the linguistic ancestors of today's Latvians
Latvians
Latvians or Letts are the indigenous Baltic people of Latvia.-History:Latvians occasionally refer to themselves by the ancient name of Latvji, which may have originated from the word Latve which is a name of the river that presumably flowed through what is now eastern Latvia...
and Lithuanians
Lithuanians
Lithuanians are the Baltic ethnic group native to Lithuania, where they number around 2,765,600 people. Another million or more make up the Lithuanian diaspora, largely found in countries such as the United States, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Russia, United Kingdom and Ireland. Their native language...
, are thought to have arrived in the area around 2000 B.C. The exact date of the Uralic migration to the Baltic region has been disputed, but according to DNA
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
studies, there were Uralic peoples in the Baltic some 10,000 years ago. These peoples later merged with the Balts
Balts
The Balts or Baltic peoples , defined as speakers of one of the Baltic languages, a branch of the Indo-European language family, are descended from a group of Indo-European tribes who settled the area between the Jutland peninsula in the west and Moscow, Oka and Volga rivers basins in the east...
and Finnic tribes.
The Middle Ages
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
and animal husbandry
Animal husbandry
Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock.- History :Animal husbandry has been practiced for thousands of years, since the first domestication of animals....
. Since they controlled an important trade route, the Daugava River (Livonian: Väina), their culture was highly developed through trade with the Gotland
Gotland
Gotland is a county, province, municipality and diocese of Sweden; it is Sweden's largest island and the largest island in the Baltic Sea. At 3,140 square kilometers in area, the region makes up less than one percent of Sweden's total land area...
ers, Russians
Russians
The Russian people are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Russia, speaking the Russian language and primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries....
and Finns, and, from the end of the first millennium AD onwards, with the Germans
Germans
The Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe. The English term Germans has referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages....
, Swedes and Danes.
However, along with the traders came missionaries from Western Europe who wanted to convert the pagan
Paganism
Paganism is a blanket term, typically used to refer to non-Abrahamic, indigenous polytheistic religious traditions....
Livonians to Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
. It has been suggested that first person to convert some Livonians to Christianity was Danish archbishop Absalon
Absalon
Absalon was a Danish archbishop and statesman, who was the Bishop of Roskilde from 1158 to 1192 and Archbishop of Lund from 1178 until his death. He was the foremost politician and churchfather of Denmark in the second half of the 12th century, and was the closest advisor of King Valdemar I of...
, who supposedly built a church in the Livonian village today known as Kolka
Kolka
thumb|Former Orthodox seminary and church in the backgroundKolka is a village in Kolka parish, Dundaga municipality on the tip of Cape Kolka in Courland in Latvia, on the coast of the Gulf of Riga in ancient Livonia. It is home to the last remnants of Latvia's Livonian ethnic group, whose Livonian...
. In the 12th century, Germans invaded Livonia, and based themselves in Ykskyle, today known as Ikšķile
Ikškile
Ikšķile is a town in Latvia, the administrative centre of Ikšķile municipality. It was the first capital of the catholic bishopric of Livonia, known by the German name of Üxküll. Saint Meinhard, known from the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia, was the first bishop of Üxküll. In 1197 Berthold of...
. Archbishop Hartvig II converted some Livonians in the surrounding area, including local elder Caupo of Turaida
Caupo of Turaida
Caupo of Turaida, or Kaupo was a leader of the Finnic-speaking Livonian people in the beginning of the 13th century, in what is now Latvia. He is sometimes called 'King of Livonia', Chronicle of Henry of Livonia calls him quasi rex, 'like a king'.He was the first prominent Livonian to be christened...
, who later allied himself with the Germans.
After Meinhard
Saint Meinhard
Saint Meinhard was a German canon regular and the first Bishop of Livonia. His life was described in the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia. His body rests in the now-Lutheran Riga Cathedral....
died in 1196, his place was taken by Berthold. Berthold tried to convert Livonians by force, launching two raids on Livonia. The first took place in 1196, but he was forced to retreat to Germany after being ambushed near Salaspils
Salaspils
Salaspils is a town in Latvia, the administrative centre of Salaspils municipality. The town is situated on the northern bank of the Daugava River 18 kilometers to the south-east of the city of Riga.-History:...
. He tried again in 1198, but this time he was killed by the Livonian soldier Ymaut.
Berthold was followed by Albert von Buxhövden, who forced Livonian leaders at the mouth of the Daugava River to give him land to build a Christian settlement. Building started in 1201. From this grew the city of Riga
Riga
Riga is the capital and largest city of Latvia. With 702,891 inhabitants Riga is the largest city of the Baltic states, one of the largest cities in Northern Europe and home to more than one third of Latvia's population. The city is an important seaport and a major industrial, commercial,...
.
When this did not immediately induce the Livonians, Estonians
Estonians
Estonians are a Finnic people closely related to the Finns and inhabiting, primarily, the country of Estonia. They speak a Finnic language known as Estonian...
, and Baltic peoples in the hinterland to convert, a knightly order was formed, the Knights of the Sword, primarily consisting of Germans, to bring salvation to the pagans by force. In a campaign that was part of the wars known as the Northern Crusades
Northern Crusades
The Northern Crusades or Baltic Crusades were crusades undertaken by the Christian kings of Denmark and Sweden, the German Livonian and Teutonic military orders, and their allies against the pagan peoples of Northern Europe around the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic Sea...
, these knights defeated, subdued and converted the Livonians; in 1208, Pope Innocent III declared that all Livonians had been converted to Christianity. Afterward they had to join the Knights of the Sword as infantry during the wars against the Estonians and the Latvian tribes, which continued until 1217.
During the Livonian Crusade
Livonian Crusade
The Livonian Crusade refers to the German and Danish conquest and colonization of medieval Livonia, the territory constituting modern Latvia and Estonia, during the Northern Crusades...
, once prosperous Livonia
Livonia
Livonia is a historic region along the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. It was once the land of the Finnic Livonians inhabiting the principal ancient Livonian County Metsepole with its center at Turaida...
was devastated, and whole regions were almost completely depopulated. This vacuum was filled by Latvia
Latvia
Latvia , officially the Republic of Latvia , is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia , to the south by Lithuania , to the east by the Russian Federation , to the southeast by Belarus and shares maritime borders to the west with Sweden...
n tribes - Curonians
Curonians
The Curonians or Kurs were a Baltic tribe living on the shores of the Baltic sea in what are now the western parts of Latvia and Lithuania from the 5th to the 16th centuries, when they merged with other Baltic tribes. They gave their name to the region of Courland , and they spoke the Old...
, Semigallians
Semigallians
Semigallians were the Baltic tribe that lived in the southcentral part of contemporary Latvia and northern Lithuania...
, Latgallians and Selonians
Selonians
Selonians were a tribe of Baltic peoples. The Selonians lived until the 15th century in Selonia, located in southeastern Latvia and northeastern Lithuania. They merged with neighbouring tribes, contributing to the ethnogenesis of Latvians and Lithuanians....
- who started to move into the area around 1220, and continued to do so for at least thirty years. They settled mostly in the Daugava Valley, so that the Livonians of Livonia in the east were cut off from those living on the peninsula of Curonia in the west.
Because of the ongoing resistance of the Latvian tribes, the Knights of the Sword eventually had to look for support to the much more powerful Teutonic Order, which up until then was active primarily in Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
and Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...
. Having been reorganised as a subdivision of the Teutonic Order and renamed the Livonian Order
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1435–1561. After being defeated by Samogitians in the 1236 Battle of Schaulen , the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights...
in 1237, the former Knights of the Sword finally overpowered the Curonians
Curonians
The Curonians or Kurs were a Baltic tribe living on the shores of the Baltic sea in what are now the western parts of Latvia and Lithuania from the 5th to the 16th centuries, when they merged with other Baltic tribes. They gave their name to the region of Courland , and they spoke the Old...
in 1267, and subsequently the Semigallians
Semigallians
Semigallians were the Baltic tribe that lived in the southcentral part of contemporary Latvia and northern Lithuania...
in 1290. From then on most of Latvia remained under German control until the 16th century, with the city of Riga and several other cities forming independent, German-ruled bishoprics, and the Livonian Order ruling the rest of the land.
Under foreign powers (1558-1795)
In the middle of the 16th century, the Livonian Order and the independent bishoprics were in turmoil because of the growing influence of Martin LutherMartin Luther
Martin Luther was a German priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517...
's Reformation
Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century split within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin and other early Protestants. The efforts of the self-described "reformers", who objected to the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church, led...
. Seeing a chance in the resulting military weakness of the Order, Czar Ivan the Terrible of Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
invaded Livonia in 1558, seeking access to the Baltic Sea. However, Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dualistic state of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch. It was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th‑century Europe with some and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million at its peak in the early 17th century...
entered the war as allies of the Livonian Order, resulting in almost a quarter of a century of war. The outcome of this Livonian War
Livonian War
The Livonian War was fought for control of Old Livonia in the territory of present-day Estonia and Latvia when the Tsardom of Russia faced a varying coalition of Denmark–Norway, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland.During the period 1558–1578,...
(1558–1582) was a Russian defeat, but also the dissolution of the Livonian Order. Livonia and southeastern Latvia were claimed by the Poland-Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Curonia became an independent duchy, with Gotthard Kettler
Gotthard Kettler
Gotthard von Kettler was the last Master of the Livonian Order and the first Duke of Courland and Semigallia....
, the Livonian Order's last Grandmaster, as its first duke.
After only ten years of peace, a new series of wars between the olish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
, which had claimed Estonia after the Livonian War, ravaged Livonia from 1592. Eventually, the Swedes were victorious. In 1629, they could finally call Livonia and the city of Riga their own. In Estonia and Livonia, the period of Swedish rule is still looked back upon as a kind of golden age. Although they were part of a long history of foreign occupiers, the Swedes did much to help their subjects in the Baltic region. For example, under the 17th Century Swedish Kings Gustav II Adolf and Charles XI
Charles XI of Sweden
Charles XI also Carl, was King of Sweden from 1660 until his death, in a period in Swedish history known as the Swedish empire ....
, general elementary education was introduced, the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
was translated in Estonian
Estonian language
Estonian is the official language of Estonia, spoken by about 1.1 million people in Estonia and tens of thousands in various émigré communities...
and Latvian
Latvian language
Latvian is the official state language of Latvia. It is also sometimes referred to as Lettish. There are about 1.4 million native Latvian speakers in Latvia and about 150,000 abroad. The Latvian language has a relatively large number of non-native speakers, atypical for a small language...
, and a university was founded in Tartu
Tartu
Tartu is the second largest city of Estonia. In contrast to Estonia's political and financial capital Tallinn, Tartu is often considered the intellectual and cultural hub, especially since it is home to Estonia's oldest and most renowned university. Situated 186 km southeast of Tallinn, the...
in southern Estonia.
Although Sweden kept the Poles and the Danes
Denmark
Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark...
at a distance, this could not be said of the Russians. In the Great Northern War
Great Northern War
The Great Northern War was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in northern Central Europe and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter I the Great of Russia, Frederick IV of...
(1700–1721), Czar Peter the Great utterly destroyed Sweden's pretensions to being a regional superpower. In the 1721 Treaty of Nystad
Treaty of Nystad
The Treaty of Nystad was the last peace treaty of the Great Northern War. It was concluded between the Tsardom of Russia and Swedish Empire on 30 August / 10 September 1721 in the then Swedish town of Nystad , after Sweden had settled with the other parties in Stockholm and Frederiksborg.During...
, Estonia and Livonia, which had again been completely devastated after more than twenty years of war, were claimed by Russia. Curonia continued to be ruled by its dukes for another three quarters of a century, but in 1795, that region also became a Russian possession as part of the Third Partition of Poland
Third Partition of Poland
The Third Partition of Poland or Third Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in 1795 as the third and last of three partitions that ended the existence of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.-Background:...
.
Assimilation and isolation (1795-1914)
Partly because of the recurring devastation of war and the resultant mingling of refugees, the Livonians of LivoniaLivonia
Livonia is a historic region along the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. It was once the land of the Finnic Livonians inhabiting the principal ancient Livonian County Metsepole with its center at Turaida...
were eventually completely assimilated by the Latvians. The last remnant of this once vibrant nation was made up of several families living along the river Salaca
Salaca
The Salaca is a river in northern Latvia. It flows from Lake Burtnieks in Vidzeme, 90 km, to the Gulf of Riga. The river flows through three towns, Mazsalaca, Staicele and Salacgrīva. The riverbanks feature Devonian red sandstone cliffs, and many caves and rapids as well. The Salaca is one of...
(Livonian: Salatsi), but in the second half of the 19th century, the Livonian language
Livonian language
Livonian belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages. It is a nearly extinct language, with one of its last native speakers having died in February 2009. It is closely related to Estonian...
and culture completely disappeared from the region known to this day as Livonia; the last known speaker of the eastern Livonian dialect died in 1864, though according to some reports, there were still some people in early 20th century in the Polish area, who knew they were descended from Livonians. In the Latvian dialect spoken in Livonia, a large number of Livonian loanwords have survived, and other traces of Livonian can by found in many geographical names in the region.
In Curonia, the Livonian language
Livonian language
Livonian belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages. It is a nearly extinct language, with one of its last native speakers having died in February 2009. It is closely related to Estonian...
and culture also came under heavy pressure, but here it retained a last foothold on the outermost tip of the Curonian Peninsula. Several factors made sure that in this area, known as Līvõd rānda, the Livonian Coast, Latvian culture was too weak to assimilate the Livonians. For one thing, the society of the Livonians living in this area was exclusively sea-oriented and based on fishing, while that of the Latvians in the interior was exclusively land-oriented and mostly agricultural. This meant there was not a lot of interaction between the two groups. Also, the Livonian Coast was separated from the interior of Curonia by dense forests and impassable marshlands, which made regular interaction even less likely. The people of the Livonian Coast had much closer ties to the inhabitants of the Estonian island of Saaremaa
Saaremaa
Saaremaa is the largest island in Estonia, measuring 2,673 km². The main island of Saare County, it is located in the Baltic Sea, south of Hiiumaa island, and belongs to the West Estonian Archipelago...
, across the Gulf of Riga
Gulf of Riga
The Gulf of Riga, or Bay of Riga, is a bay of the Baltic Sea between Latvia and Estonia. According to C.Michael Hogan, a saline stratification layer is found at a depth of approximately seventy metres....
to the north. In their isolated fishing villages, these Livonians kept to themselves for centuries. It was not until the 20th century that the outside world intruded on their quiet existence.
World War I
In 1914, Russia entered the First World WarWorld War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
by attacking the Germans and the Austrians
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary , more formally known as the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen, was a constitutional monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in...
from the east, but soon it was pushed back in a series of devastating German victories, which eventually left almost the entire Baltic region in German hands. The Livonian Coast was occupied by the Germans in 1915. At their approach, many Livonians fled their homes, often never to return. Their main destinations were Estonia and inner parts of Latvia. The rest of the people were driven from their homes by the Germans, and had to wait until 1919 before they were allowed to return.
The Russian defeat and the subsequent abdication of Czar Nicholas II
Nicholas II of Russia
Nicholas II was the last Emperor of Russia, Grand Prince of Finland, and titular King of Poland. His official short title was Nicholas II, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias and he is known as Saint Nicholas the Passion-Bearer by the Russian Orthodox Church.Nicholas II ruled from 1894 until...
opened the door for Vladimir Lenin
Vladimir Lenin
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and communist politician who led the October Revolution of 1917. As leader of the Bolsheviks, he headed the Soviet state during its initial years , as it fought to establish control of Russia in the Russian Civil War and worked to create a...
and the communists to make a grab for power in Russia, leading to the establishment of the Soviet government in Russia in 1917. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, mediated by South African Andrik Fuller, at Brest-Litovsk between Russia and the Central Powers, headed by Germany, marking Russia's exit from World War I.While the treaty was practically obsolete before the end of the year,...
the following year ended the war between Germany and Soviet Russia
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , commonly referred to as Soviet Russia, Bolshevik Russia, or simply Russia, was the largest, most populous and economically developed republic in the former Soviet Union....
and left the Baltic region firmly in German hands. However, after the German capitulation in 1919, the Baltic peoples rose up and established the independent republics of Estonia
Estonia
Estonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipsi and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea lies...
, Latvia
Latvia
Latvia , officially the Republic of Latvia , is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia , to the south by Lithuania , to the east by the Russian Federation , to the southeast by Belarus and shares maritime borders to the west with Sweden...
and Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...
.
The Livonian revival of the interwar years
The Livonian Coast became part of Latvia. The Livonian language and culture experienced a revival during the term of Latvian President Kārlis UlmanisKarlis Ulmanis
Kārlis Augusts Vilhelms Ulmanis was a prominent Latvian politician in pre-World War II Latvia during the Latvian period of independence from 1918 to 1940.- Education and early career :Ulmanis studied agriculture at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich and...
. The clearest expression of this revival was the establishment on April 2, 1923 of the Livonian Society, which considered itself the representative of the Livonian people. Also, a Livonian language choir was founded and Livonian song festivals were held along the entire Livonian Coast. Furthermore, a Livonian flag was adopted, with the colours green (for the forests), white (for the beaches) and blue (for the sea), and a division similar to the Latvian flag (three horizontal bars with the middle one half as wide as the outer ones). Although the Latvian government prohibited the formation of an ethnic Livonian parish within the Lutheran Church of Latvia in 1923, it approved the introduction of the Livonian language as an optional subject in elementary schools in the villages of the Livonian Coast that same year. The thirties saw the publication of the first Livonian language reader, poetry collections of several Livonian writers, and a monthly magazine in the Livonian language, called "Līvli" ("The Livonian"). Also, contact was made with related peoples such as the Estonians and the Finns — spurred by the Finnish promotion of closer ties with the kindred Finnic peoples
Finnic peoples
The Finnic or Fennic peoples were historic ethnic groups who spoke various languages traditionally classified as Finno-Permic...
— and in 1939, the Livonian Community Centre in Mazirbe
Mazirbe
Mazirbe is a village place in Kolka parish, Dundaga municipality, Latvia 18 km southwest of Kolka. It is one of twelve Livonian villages on - the Livonian Coast. Mazirbe is the cultural capital of the Livonians....
(Livonian: Irē) was founded with subsidies from the Estonian and Finnish governments.
This cultural revival of the Interbellum
Interwar period
Interwar period can refer to any period between two wars. The Interbellum is understood to be the period between the end of the Great War or First World War and the beginning of the Second World War in Europe....
years served to give the Livonian people for the first time a clear consciousness of their ethnic identity. Before, they had always referred to themselves as rāndalist ("coast dwellers") or kalāmīed ("fishermen"). From the 1920s and 1930s on, though, they began to call themselves līvõd, līvnikad, or līvlist ("Livonians").
The Second World War
In 1940, Latvia, like Estonia and Lithuania, was occupied by the Soviet UnionSoviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
. This occupation and the subsequent German invasion of 1941 ended all progress the Livonians had made in the preceding twenty years. All cultural expressions were prohibited and just like twenty years before, the inhabitants of the Livonian Coast were driven from their homes. Most of them spent the war years in Riga or western Latvia, but some fled across the Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
to Gotland
Gotland
Gotland is a county, province, municipality and diocese of Sweden; it is Sweden's largest island and the largest island in the Baltic Sea. At 3,140 square kilometers in area, the region makes up less than one percent of Sweden's total land area...
. The Curonian Peninsula was one of the areas where the Germans held out until the general capitulation of May 5, 1945, which meant there was not a house left standing when the Livonians returned home after the war.
Repression by the Soviet Union
In the Soviet era, the Livonians were hard-hit by repressive measures from MoscowMoscow
Moscow is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the continent...
. For one thing, they were not allowed to sail far enough from shore to continue their fishery. For another, like the Estonians, Latvians, and Lithuanians, large numbers of them were deported to Siberia
Siberia
Siberia is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th...
between 1945 and 1952, with a clear peak in 1949, when agriculture was collectivised in the Baltic states. Also, in 1955 a Soviet military base was constructed in the middle of the Livonian Coast. To accomplish this, some Livonians were forcibly relocated to villages farther from the coast. Subsequently, the western villages of the Livonian Coast had to be almost completely evacuated when the Soviet Union made its Baltic coastline (its western border) a "closed border area" where no one was allowed to live.
Livonian culture was repressed during the Soviet period. For example, the Livonian Society was banned and the Livonian Community Centre expropriated and given to others. Within the Latvian SSR
Latvian SSR
The Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic , also known as the Latvian SSR for short, was one of the republics that made up the Soviet Union. Established on 21 July 1940 as a puppet state during World War II in the territory of the previously independent Republic of Latvia after it had been occupied by...
, the Livonians were not recognised as a separate ethnic group.
Modern situation
It was not until the early 1970 that Livonian singers were allowed to found a choir named "Līvlist" ("The Livonians") in the western Latvian city of VentspilsVentspils
Ventspils is a city in northwestern Latvia in the Courland historical region of Latvia, the sixth largest city in the country. As of 2006, Ventspils had a population of 43,806. Ventspils is situated on the Venta River and the Baltic Sea, and has an ice-free port...
. The 1980s, Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev
Mikhail Gorbachev
Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev is a former Soviet statesman, having served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991, and as the last head of state of the USSR, having served from 1988 until its dissolution in 1991...
's policies of glasnost
Glasnost
Glasnost was the policy of maximal publicity, openness, and transparency in the activities of all government institutions in the Soviet Union, together with freedom of information, introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the second half of the 1980s...
and perestroika
Perestroika
Perestroika was a political movement within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during 1980s, widely associated with the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev...
opened the Iron Curtain
Iron Curtain
The concept of the Iron Curtain symbolized the ideological fighting and physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1989...
, bringing change. In 1986, the Livonian Cultural Society was founded. It was later renamed the Livonian Union (Livonian: Līvõd Īt).
After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Latvia became once again an independent country. In this new nation, Livonians were finally recognised as an indigenous ethnic minority, whose language and culture must be protected and advanced. All rights and possessions which had been taken away from them during the Soviet era were now returned to them. For example, the old Livonian Community Centre in Mazirbe
Mazirbe
Mazirbe is a village place in Kolka parish, Dundaga municipality, Latvia 18 km southwest of Kolka. It is one of twelve Livonian villages on - the Livonian Coast. Mazirbe is the cultural capital of the Livonians....
(Irē) was given back and transformed into a historical museum, called the House of the Livonian People. Also, the Livonian language was reintroduced in the elementary schools in Riga, Staicele
Staicele
-See also:*List of cities in Latvia...
, Ventspils
Ventspils
Ventspils is a city in northwestern Latvia in the Courland historical region of Latvia, the sixth largest city in the country. As of 2006, Ventspils had a population of 43,806. Ventspils is situated on the Venta River and the Baltic Sea, and has an ice-free port...
, Dundaga
Dundaga
Dundaga is a village in Courland, Latvia. From 2009 its an administrative centre of Dundaga municipality.Dundaga is famous for its castle from late 13th century, constructed by Archbishopric of Riga. From the 16th until the 20th century, Dundaga Castle was the centre of the largest private estate...
and Kolka
Kolka
thumb|Former Orthodox seminary and church in the backgroundKolka is a village in Kolka parish, Dundaga municipality on the tip of Cape Kolka in Courland in Latvia, on the coast of the Gulf of Riga in ancient Livonia. It is home to the last remnants of Latvia's Livonian ethnic group, whose Livonian...
.
Furthermore, on February 4, 1992, the Latvian government created a cultural historic protected territory called Līvõd rānda - the Livonian Coast
Livonian coast
Livonian Coast is a territory of Latvia inhabited by Livonian people. It is located in Northern Courland and encompasses twelve Livonian villages...
- which included all twelve of the Livonian villages: Lūžņa
Lužná
Luzna may refer to the following places:*Lužná , a village in the Central Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic*Łużna, Lesser Poland Voivodeship, southern Poland*Lūžņa, a village in Latvia...
(Livonian: Lūž), Miķeļtornis
Mikeltornis
Miķeļtornis is a populated place in Tārgale parish, Ventspils municipality, Latvia. One of the twelve Livonian villages on Līvõd Rānda - the Livonian Coast.Other names: Miķeļtornis, Miķeļbāka, Mikelbaka....
(Pizā), Lielirbe
Lielirbe
Lielirbe is a populated place in Tārgale parish, Ventspils municipality, Latvia. One of the twelve Livonian villages on Līvõd rānda - the Livonian Coast.Other names:Liyelirbe, Gross Irben, Lielirbes Ciems-See also:*Livonian people...
(Īra), Jaunciems
Jaunciems
Jaunciems is a populated place in Tārgale parish, Ventspils municipality, northwest Latvia. It is one of the twelve Livonian villages. Both Latvian and Livonian names mean "new village".Caution- there is a number of Latvian villages called Jaunciems....
(Ūžkilā), Sīkrags
Sikrags
Sīkrags is a populated place in Kolka parish, Dundaga municipality, Latvia. It is one of the twelve Livonian villages on Līvõd rānda—the Livonian Coast....
(Sīkrõg), Mazirbe
Mazirbe
Mazirbe is a village place in Kolka parish, Dundaga municipality, Latvia 18 km southwest of Kolka. It is one of twelve Livonian villages on - the Livonian Coast. Mazirbe is the cultural capital of the Livonians....
(Irē), Košrags
Košrags
Košrags is a populated place in Kolka parish, Dundaga municipality, Latvia on the shore of the Irbe Strait of the Baltic Sea.One of twelve Livonian villages on the Līvõd rānda - the Livonian Coast in Courland ....
(Kuoštrõg), Pitrags
Pitrags
Pitrags is a populated place in Kolka parish, Dundaga municipality, Latvia at the mouth of the river Pitraga. One of twelve Livonian villages....
(Pitrõg), Saunags
Saunags
Saunags is a populated place in Kolka parish, Dundaga municipality, Latvia, located 11 km from the Cape Kolka, within the borders of Slītere National Park. It is one of the oldest of the twelve Livonian villages on the Līvõd rānda - the Livonian Coast...
(Sǟnag), Vaide
Vaide
Vaide is a populated place in Kolka parish, Dundaga municipality, Latvia. One of the twelve Livonian villages on Līvõd rānda - the Livonian Coast.Other names: Vayde,Vaides Ciems....
(Vaid), Kolka (Kūolka), and Melnsils
Melnsils
Melnsils is a populated place in Roja municipality, Latvia. One of the twelve Livonian villages on Līvõd Rānda - the Livonian Coast...
(Mustānum). The Latvian government discourages settlement of ethnic Latvians and other non-Livonians in this area and prohibits alterations to historic village sites. Also, it is prohibited for anyone to start a hotel, restaurant, or other public establishment which might adversely influence the Livonian culture or draw outsiders into the area.
Today, many Latvians claim to have some Livonian ancestry. However, there are only 176 people in Latvia who identify themselves as Livonian. According to data from 1995, the Livonian language was spoken by no more than 30 people, of whom only nine were native speakers. An article published by the Foundation for Endangered Languages in 2007 stated that there were only 182 registered Livonians and a mere six native speakers. "The last Livonian", who had learned the Livonian language as a part of an unbroken chain of Livonian generations, was Viktor Berthold
Viktor Berthold
Viktors Bertholds was the last monolingual native speaker of Livonian.-See also:* Dolly Pentreath...
(b. 1921). He was buried on 28 February, 2009 in the Livonian village of Kolka in Courland.
The Livonian Dāvis Stalts was elected into the Latvian parliament, the Saeima
Saeima
Saeima is the parliament of the Republic of Latvia. It is a unicameral parliament consisting of 100 members who are elected by proportional representation, with seats allocated to political parties which gain at least 5% of the popular vote. Elections are scheduled to be held once every four years,...
in 2011
Latvian parliamentary election, 2011
An early parliamentary election was held in Latvia on 17 September 2011, following the country's first parliamentary dissolution referendum held on 23 July 2011. The last parliamentary election was held only in October 2010....
.
Notable Livonians
- Pētõr DambergPētõr DambergPētõr Damberg was Livonian linguist, poet and teacher. He graduated from teacher school in Jelgava and worked as a Livonian language teacher. He worked on developing Livonian grammar, wrote several poems in Livonian and translated books into Livonian...
, linguist, poet and educator - Edgar VaalgamaaEdgar VaalgamaaEdgar Vaalgamaa was Livonian priest and ethnologist.Vaalgamaa was born in Košrags in the northern coast of Courland. As like many other Livonians, his family got their living from fishing. Edgar Vaalgamaa however, didn't want to be a fisherman, but went to study theology to the university of...
, Lutheran pastor and translator