Nuclear decommissioning
Encyclopedia
Nuclear power plant
A nuclear power plant is a thermal power station in which the heat source is one or more nuclear reactors. As in a conventional thermal power station the heat is used to generate steam which drives a steam turbine connected to a generator which produces electricity.Nuclear power plants are usually...
and decontamination of the site to a state no longer requiring protection from radiation for the general public. The main difference from the dismantling of other power plants is the presence of radioactive material that requires special precautions.
Generally speaking, nuclear plants were designed for a life of about 30 years. Newer plants are designed for a 40 to 60-year operating life.
Decommissioning involves many administrative and technical actions. It includes all clean-up of radioactivity and progressive demolition of the plant. Once a facility is decommissioned, there should no longer be any danger of a radioactive accident or to any persons visiting it. After a facility has been completely decommissioned it is released from regulatory control, and the licensee of the plant no longer has responsibility for its nuclear safety.
Decommissioning options
The International Atomic Energy AgencyInternational Atomic Energy Agency
The International Atomic Energy Agency is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons. The IAEA was established as an autonomous organization on 29 July 1957...
has defined three options for decommissioning, the definitions of which have been internationally adopted:
- Immediate Dismantling (or Early Site Release/Decon in the US): This option allows for the facility to be removed from regulatory control relatively soon after shutdown or termination of regulated activities. Usually, the final dismantling or decontamination activities begin within a few months or years, depending on the facility. Following removal from regulatory control, the site is then available for re-use.
- Safe Enclosure (or Safestor(e) SAFSTORSAFSTORFor nuclear power plants governed by the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, SAFSTOR is one of the options for nuclear decommissioning of a shut down plant. During SAFSTOR the de-fuelled plant is monitored for up to sixty years before complete decontamination and dismantling of the site,...
): This option postpones the final removal of controls for a longer period, usually in the order of 40 to 60 years. The facility is placed into a safe storage configuration until the eventual dismantling and decontamination activities occur. - EntombmentNuclear entombmentEntombment of a nuclear reactor is a method of nuclear decommissioning in which radioactive contaminants are encased in a structurally long-lived material, such as concrete, that will last for a period of time to ensure the remaining radioactivity is no longer of significant concern...
: This option entails placing the facility into a condition that will allow the remaining on-site radioactive material to remain on-site without the requirement of ever removing it totally. This option usually involves reducing the size of the area where the radioactive material is located and then encasing the facility in a long-lived structure such as concrete, that will last for a period of time to ensure the remaining radioactivity is no longer of concern.
Experience
A wide range of nuclear facilities has been decommissioned so far. This includes nuclear power plantNuclear power plant
A nuclear power plant is a thermal power station in which the heat source is one or more nuclear reactors. As in a conventional thermal power station the heat is used to generate steam which drives a steam turbine connected to a generator which produces electricity.Nuclear power plants are usually...
s (NPPs), research reactor
Research reactor
Research reactors are nuclear reactors that serve primarily as a neutron source. They are also called non-power reactors, in contrast to power reactors that are used for electricity production, heat generation, or maritime propulsion.-Purpose:...
s, isotope
Isotope
Isotopes are variants of atoms of a particular chemical element, which have differing numbers of neutrons. Atoms of a particular element by definition must contain the same number of protons but may have a distinct number of neutrons which differs from atom to atom, without changing the designation...
production plants, particle accelerator
Particle accelerator
A particle accelerator is a device that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to high speeds and to contain them in well-defined beams. An ordinary CRT television set is a simple form of accelerator. There are two basic types: electrostatic and oscillating field accelerators.In...
s, and uranium mines. The number of decommissioned power plants is small. There are companies specialized in nuclear decommissioning; the practice of decommissioning has turned into a profitable business. Decommissionning is very expensive. The current estimate by the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
's Nuclear Decommissioning Authority
Nuclear Decommissioning Authority
The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority is a non-departmental public body of the United Kingdom formed by the Energy Act 2004. It came into existence in late 2004, and took on its main functions on 1 April 2005...
is that it will cost at least £70 billion to decommission the 19 existing United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
nuclear sites; this takes no account of what will happen in the future. Also, due to the radioactivity in the reactor structure, decommissioning is a slow process which takes place in stages. The plans of the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority
Nuclear Decommissioning Authority
The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority is a non-departmental public body of the United Kingdom formed by the Energy Act 2004. It came into existence in late 2004, and took on its main functions on 1 April 2005...
for decommissioning reactors have an average 50 year time frame. The long time frame makes reliable cost estimates extremely difficult. Excessive cost overruns are not uncommon even for projects done in a much shorter time frame.
North America
| Country: | Location: | Reactor type: | Operative life: | Decommissioning phase: |
Dismantling costs: |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Canada (Québec Quebec Quebec or is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level.... ) |
Gentilly Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station is a Canadian nuclear power station located near Bécancour, Quebec. The facility derives its name from the Gentilly suburb of the city of Bécancour, in which it is located... -1 |
CANDU-BWR 250 MWe |
180 days (between 1966 and 1973) |
"Static state" since 1986 | stage two: US $ 25 Million |
|
| Canada (Ontario Ontario Ontario is a province of Canada, located in east-central Canada. It is Canada's most populous province and second largest in total area. It is home to the nation's most populous city, Toronto, and the nation's capital, Ottawa.... ) |
Pickering NGS Pickering Nuclear Generating Station Pickering Nuclear Generating Station is a Canadian nuclear power station located on the north shore of Lake Ontario in Pickering, Ontario. The facility derives its name from the City of Pickering in which it is located.... Units A2 and A3 |
CANDU-PWR Pressurized water reactor Pressurized water reactors constitute a large majority of all western nuclear power plants and are one of three types of light water reactor , the other types being boiling water reactors and supercritical water reactors... 8 x 542 MWe |
30 years (from 1974 to 2004) |
Two units currently in "cold standby" Decommissioning in 2012? |
(calculated: $ 270–430/kWe ?) |
|
| USA | Fort St. Vrain Fort St. Vrain Generating Station Fort Saint Vrain Generating Station is a natural gas powered electricity generating facility located near the town of Platteville in northern Colorado in the United States. It currently has a capacity of just under 1000MW and is owned and operated by Xcel Energy, the successor to the plant's... |
HTGR (helium Helium Helium is the chemical element with atomic number 2 and an atomic weight of 4.002602, which is represented by the symbol He. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas that heads the noble gas group in the periodic table... -graphite Graphite The mineral graphite is one of the allotropes of carbon. It was named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789 from the Ancient Greek γράφω , "to draw/write", for its use in pencils, where it is commonly called lead . Unlike diamond , graphite is an electrical conductor, a semimetal... ) 380 MWe |
12 years (1977–1989) |
Immediate Decon | $ 195 Million | |
| USA | Rancho Seco | Multiunit: PWR Pressurized water reactor Pressurized water reactors constitute a large majority of all western nuclear power plants and are one of three types of light water reactor , the other types being boiling water reactors and supercritical water reactors... 913 MWe |
12 years (Closed after a referedum nel 1989) |
SAFSTOR SAFSTOR For nuclear power plants governed by the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, SAFSTOR is one of the options for nuclear decommissioning of a shut down plant. During SAFSTOR the de-fuelled plant is monitored for up to sixty years before complete decontamination and dismantling of the site,... : 5–10 years completion 2018 |
? ($ 200–500/kWe) |
|
| USA | Three Mile Island 2 | Multiunit: 913 MWe PWR |
INCIDENT: core fusion (in 1979) |
Post-Defuelling Phase 2 (1979) |
$ 805 Million (estimated) |
|
| USA | Shippingport | (The first BWR) 60 MWe |
25 years (closed in 1989) |
Decon completed dismantled in 5 years (first small experimental reactor) |
$ 98.4 Million | |
| USA | Piqua(Ohio) Piqua Nuclear Generating Station The Piqua Nuclear Power Facility was a nuclear power plant which operated just outside the southern city limits of Piqua, Ohio in the United States. The plant contained a 45.5-megawatt organically cooled and moderated nuclear reactor... |
OCM (Organically Cooled/Moderated) reactor 46 MWe |
2 years (closed in 1966) |
ENTOMB (coolant design inadequate for neutron flux) |
unk | |
| USA | Trojan Trojan Nuclear Power Plant Trojan Nuclear Power Plant was a pressurized water reactor nuclear power plant located southeast of Rainier, Oregon, United States, and the only commercial nuclear power plant to be built in Oregon. After sixteen years of service it was closed by its operator, Portland General Electric , almost... |
PWR Pressurized water reactor Pressurized water reactors constitute a large majority of all western nuclear power plants and are one of three types of light water reactor , the other types being boiling water reactors and supercritical water reactors... 1.180 MWe |
16 years (Closed in 1993 because nearby to seismic fault) |
SAFSTOR: (cooling tower demolished in 2006) |
? | |
| USA | Yankee Rowe | PWR Pressurized water reactor Pressurized water reactors constitute a large majority of all western nuclear power plants and are one of three types of light water reactor , the other types being boiling water reactors and supercritical water reactors... 185 MWe |
31 years (1960–1991) |
DECON COMPLETED - Demolished (greenfield open to visitors) |
$608 million with $8 million per year upkeep | |
| USA | Maine Yankee | PWR Pressurized water reactor Pressurized water reactors constitute a large majority of all western nuclear power plants and are one of three types of light water reactor , the other types being boiling water reactors and supercritical water reactors... 860 MWe |
24 years (closed in 1996) |
DECON COMPLETED - Demolished in 2004 (greenfield open to visitors) |
$ 635 Million | |
| USA | Connecticut Yankee | PWR Pressurized water reactor Pressurized water reactors constitute a large majority of all western nuclear power plants and are one of three types of light water reactor , the other types being boiling water reactors and supercritical water reactors... 590 MWe |
28 years (closed in 1996) |
Decon - demolished in 2007 (greenfield open to visitors) |
$ 820 Million | |
| USA | Exelon - Zion Zion Nuclear Power Station Zion Nuclear Power Station was the third dual-reactor nuclear power plant in the Commonwealth Edison network and served Chicago and the northern quarter of Illinois. The plant was built in 1973, and the first unit started producing power in December, 1973. The second unit came online in September... 1 & 2 |
PWR Pressurized water reactor Pressurized water reactors constitute a large majority of all western nuclear power plants and are one of three types of light water reactor , the other types being boiling water reactors and supercritical water reactors... - Westinghouse Westinghouse Electric Company Westinghouse Electric Company LLC is a nuclear power company, offering a wide range of nuclear products and services to utilities throughout the world, including nuclear fuel, service and maintenance, instrumentation and control and advanced nuclear plant designs... 2 x 1040 MWe |
25 years (1973–1998) (Incident in proceedings, abandoned because of the excessive cost of vaporizers substitution) |
SAFSTOR-EnergySolutions (opening of the site to visitors for 2018) |
$ 900–1,100 Million (2007 dollars) |
|
| USA | Pacific Gas & Electric - Humboldt Bay Nuclear Power Plant Humboldt Bay Nuclear Power Plant The Humboldt Bay Nuclear Power Plant is a 63 MWe boiling water reactor, owned by Pacific Gas and Electric Company that operated from August 1963 to July 1976 just south of Eureka, California. Concern about previously undiscovered seismic faults combined with more stringent requirements required... - Unit 3 |
BWR Boiling water reactor The boiling water reactor is a type of light water nuclear reactor used for the generation of electrical power. It is the second most common type of electricity-generating nuclear reactor after the pressurized water reactor , also a type of light water nuclear reactor... 1 x 63 MWe |
13 years (1963–1976) (Shut down due to seismic retrofit) |
On July 2, 1976, Humboldt Bay Power Plant (HBPP) Unit 3 was shut down for annual refueling and to conduct seismic modifications. In 1983, updated economic analyses indicated that restarting Unit 3 would probably not be cost-effective, and in June 1983, PG&E Pacific Gas and Electric Company The Pacific Gas and Electric Company , commonly known as PG&E, is the utility that provides natural gas and electricity to most of the northern two-thirds of California, from Bakersfield almost to the Oregon border... announced its intention to decommission the unit. On July 16, 1985, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Nuclear Regulatory Commission The Nuclear Regulatory Commission is an independent agency of the United States government that was established by the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 from the United States Atomic Energy Commission, and was first opened January 19, 1975... (NRC) issued Amendment No. 19 to the HBPP Unit 3 Operating License to change the status to possess-but-not-operate, and the plant was placed into a SAFSTOR SAFSTOR For nuclear power plants governed by the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, SAFSTOR is one of the options for nuclear decommissioning of a shut down plant. During SAFSTOR the de-fuelled plant is monitored for up to sixty years before complete decontamination and dismantling of the site,... status. |
Unknown - Closure date: 12/31/2015 | |
Asia
Several nuclear reactors dismantled in Asia, type, power and decommissioning cost per kilowatt of electric power (source: World Nuclear Association article).| Country: | Location: | Reactor type: | Operative Life: | Decommissioning Phase: |
Dismantling Cost: |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| China | Beijing Beijing Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's... (CIAE) |
HWWR Heavy water reactor A pressurised heavy water reactor is a nuclear power reactor, commonly using unenriched natural uranium as its fuel, that uses heavy water as its coolant and moderator. The heavy water coolant is kept under pressure in order to raise its boiling point, allowing it to be heated to higher... 10 MWe (multipurpose) (Heavy Water Experimental Reactor for the production of plutonium Plutonium Plutonium is a transuranic radioactive chemical element with the chemical symbol Pu and atomic number 94. It is an actinide metal of silvery-gray appearance that tarnishes when exposed to air, forming a dull coating when oxidized. The element normally exhibits six allotropes and four oxidation... and tritium Tritium Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen. The nucleus of tritium contains one proton and two neutrons, whereas the nucleus of protium contains one proton and no neutrons... ) |
49 years (1958–2007) |
Safestore & Decon in 20 years (until 2027) |
proposed: $ 6 Million for dismantling $ 5 Million for fuel remotion |
| North Korea | Yongbyon Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center The Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center is North Korea's major nuclear facility, operating its first nuclear reactors. It is located in the county of Nyŏngbyŏn in North Pyongan province, about 90 km north of Pyongyang... |
Magnox Magnox Magnox is a now obsolete type of nuclear power reactor which was designed and is still in use in the United Kingdom, and was exported to other countries, both as a power plant, and, when operated accordingly, as a producer of plutonium for nuclear weapons... -type (reactor for the production of nuclear weapons through PUREX PUREX PUREX is an acronym standing for Plutonium - URanium EXtraction — de facto standard aqueous nuclear reprocessing method for the recovery of uranium and plutonium from used nuclear fuel. It is based on liquid-liquid extraction ion-exchange.The PUREX process was invented by Herbert H. Anderson and... treatment) |
20 years (1985–2005) Deactivated after a treaty |
SAFESTORE: Cooling tower dismantled |
? |
| Japan | Tokai-1 Tokai Nuclear Power Plant The was Japan's first nuclear power plant. It was built in the early 1960s to the British Magnox design, and generated power from 1966 until it was decommissioned in 1998. A second nuclear plant, built at the site in the 1970s, was the first in Japan to produce over 1000 MW of electricity, and... |
Magnox Magnox Magnox is a now obsolete type of nuclear power reactor which was designed and is still in use in the United Kingdom, and was exported to other countries, both as a power plant, and, when operated accordingly, as a producer of plutonium for nuclear weapons... (GCR) 160 MWe |
32 years (1966–1988) |
Safestore: 10 years then DECON until 2018 |
estimanted cost: Yen Japanese yen The is the official currency of Japan. It is the third most traded currency in the foreign exchange market after the United States dollar and the euro. It is also widely used as a reserve currency after the U.S. dollar, the euro and the pound sterling... 93 Billion (Euro 660 Million of 2003) |
| India , |
Tarapur Tarapur Atomic Power Station Tarapur Atomic Power Station is located in Tarapur, Maharashtra . It was initially constructed with two boiling water reactor units of 160 MW each by Bechtel and GE under the 1963 123 Agreement between India, the United States, and the International Atomic Energy Agency. Units 1 and 2 were... -1,2 (Maharashtra Maharashtra Maharashtra is a state located in India. It is the second most populous after Uttar Pradesh and third largest state by area in India... ) |
2x BWR 160 MWe | 40 years ? (1969–2009?) |
NOT deactivated | ? |
| India | Rawatbhata Atomic Power Station-1,2 (Rajasthan Rajasthan Rājasthān the land of Rajasthanis, , is the largest state of the Republic of India by area. It is located in the northwest of India. It encompasses most of the area of the large, inhospitable Great Indian Desert , which has an edge paralleling the Sutlej-Indus river valley along its border with... ) |
1x PHWR 100 MWe 1x PHWR 200 MWe (similar to CANDU) |
40 years ? (1970–2011?) |
NOT deactivated | ? |
| Iraq | Osiraq/Tammuz-1 |
BWR 40 MWe Nuclear reactor with weapons-grade plutonium Plutonium Plutonium is a transuranic radioactive chemical element with the chemical symbol Pu and atomic number 94. It is an actinide metal of silvery-gray appearance that tarnishes when exposed to air, forming a dull coating when oxidized. The element normally exhibits six allotropes and four oxidation... production capability |
(Destroyed Operation Opera Operation Babylon was a surprise Israeli air strike carried out on June 7, 1981, that destroyed a nuclear reactor under construction 17 kilometers southeast of Baghdad, Iraq.... by Israeli Air Force in 1981) |
Not radioactive: Never refurbished with uranium |
? |
Western Europe
Several nuclear reactors dismantled in Western Europe, type, power and decommissioning cost per kilowatt of power: European Union Website about Nuclear Decommissioning, World Nuclear Association (reactor building companies), United Kingdom.| Country: | Location: | Reactor type: | Operative Life: | Decommissioning phase: |
Dismantling cost: |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Austria (Nuclear Free Country) |
Zwentendorf NPP Zwentendorf Zwentendorf an der Donau is a small market municipality in Lower Austria, Austria, with 3,280 inhabitants. It is located at , in the Tullnerfeld on the southern bank of the Danube. The place attained celebrity as the site of the only Austrian nuclear power station, which was established here, but... Google Maps |
PWR Pressurized water reactor Pressurized water reactors constitute a large majority of all western nuclear power plants and are one of three types of light water reactor , the other types being boiling water reactors and supercritical water reactors... 723 MWe |
Never activated, after referendum in 1978 | ? | ? |
| Belgium | Mol | PWR Pressurized water reactor Pressurized water reactors constitute a large majority of all western nuclear power plants and are one of three types of light water reactor , the other types being boiling water reactors and supercritical water reactors... (BR-3) |
25 years (1962–1987) |
DECON COMPLETED - pilot project (underwater cutting and remote operated tools) |
? |
| France | Brennilis Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant The Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant is a decommissioned site located in the Monts d'Arrée in the commune of Brennilis in Finistère, France.-History:... |
HWGCR 70 MWe | 12 years (1967–1979) |
Phase 3 | Euro 480 Million (20 times the forecasted amount) |
| France | Bugey-1 | UNGG Gas cooled, graphite moderator |
1972-1994 | postponed | ? |
| France | Chinon 1,2,3 | Gas-graphite Graphite The mineral graphite is one of the allotropes of carbon. It was named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789 from the Ancient Greek γράφω , "to draw/write", for its use in pencils, where it is commonly called lead . Unlike diamond , graphite is an electrical conductor, a semimetal... |
(1973–1990) |
postponed | ? |
| France | Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant The Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Station is located in the commune of Saint-Laurent-Nouan in Loir-et-Cher on the Loire River – 28 km downstream from Blois and 30 km upstream from Orléans.... |
Gas-graphite Graphite The mineral graphite is one of the allotropes of carbon. It was named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789 from the Ancient Greek γράφω , "to draw/write", for its use in pencils, where it is commonly called lead . Unlike diamond , graphite is an electrical conductor, a semimetal... |
1969-1992 | postponed | ? |
| France | Superphénix Superphénix Superphénix or SPX was a nuclear power station on the Rhône River at Creys-Malville in France, close to the border with Switzerland. A fast breeder reactor, it halted electricity production in 1996 and was closed as a commercial plant in 1997.... at Creys-Malville Malville Malville is a commune in the Loire-Atlantique department in western France.... |
Fast breeder nuclear reactor (sodium Sodium Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal and is a member of the alkali metals; its only stable isotope is 23Na. It is an abundant element that exists in numerous minerals, most commonly as sodium chloride... -cooled) |
11 years (1985–1996) |
postponed | estimated for the future: $ 4000/kWe ? |
| United Kingdom | Berkeley Berkeley nuclear power station Berkeley nuclear power station is a disused Magnox power station situated on the bank of the River Severn in Gloucestershire, England.-History:The construction of the power station, which was undertaken by a consortium of AEI and John Thompson began in 1956.... |
Magnox Magnox Magnox is a now obsolete type of nuclear power reactor which was designed and is still in use in the United Kingdom, and was exported to other countries, both as a power plant, and, when operated accordingly, as a producer of plutonium for nuclear weapons... (2 x 138 MWe) |
27 years (1962–1989) |
Safestore: 30 years (internal demolition) |
$ 2600/kWe |
| United Kingdom | Sellafield Sellafield Sellafield is a nuclear reprocessing site, close to the village of Seascale on the coast of the Irish Sea in Cumbria, England. The site is served by Sellafield railway station. Sellafield is an off-shoot from the original nuclear reactor site at Windscale which is currently undergoing... -Windscale |
Windscale Advanced Gas Reactor Advanced gas-cooled reactor An advanced gas-cooled reactor is a type of nuclear reactor. These are the second generation of British gas-cooled reactors, using graphite as the neutron moderator and carbon dioxide as coolant... WAGR (32 MWe) |
18 years (1963–1981) |
Remotion of reactor in 2009 - pilot project (cutting with remote controlled robots, UV lasers) , |
More than $2600/kWe (WNI estimates) So far € 117 Million |
| West Germany | Gundremmingen Gundremmingen Nuclear Power Plant The Gundremmingen Nuclear Power Plant is the highest-output nuclear power station in Germany, producing 2 × 1344 megawatts. It is located in Gundremmingen, district of Günzburg, Bavaria and is operated by Kernkraftwerk Gundremmingen GmbH, a joint operation of RWE Power AG, based in Essen and E.ON... -A |
BWR 250 MWe |
11 years |
Immediate dismantling - pilot project (underwater cutting) |
(~ $ 300–550/kWe) |
| Italy | Caorso NPP | BWR 840 MWe |
3 years ( 1978 - Closed in 1987 after referendum in 1986 ) |
Safstore: 30 years (demolizione interna) |
euro 450 Million (dismantling) + 300 M fuel reprocessing |
| Italy | Garigliano NPP Garigliano Nuclear Power Plant Garigliano Nuclear Power Plant was a nuclear power plant located at Sessa Aurunca , in southern Italy. It was named after the river Garigliano.... (Caserta Caserta Caserta is the capital of the province of Caserta in the Campania region of Italy. It is an important agricultural, commercial and industrial comune and city. Caserta is located on the edge of the Campanian plain at the foot of the Campanian Subapennine mountain range... ) |
BWR 150 MWe |
? years (Closed on March 1, 1982) |
Safstore: 30 years (internal demolition) |
$/kWe |
| Italy | Latina NPP (Foce Verde Latina Latina is the feminine form of the term Latino.Latina may also refer to:*Province of Latina, a province in Latium , Italy**Latina, Lazio, the capital of the province of Latina**Latina Nuclear Power Plant*Latina , a district of Madrid... ) |
Magnox Magnox Magnox is a now obsolete type of nuclear power reactor which was designed and is still in use in the United Kingdom, and was exported to other countries, both as a power plant, and, when operated accordingly, as a producer of plutonium for nuclear weapons... 210 MWe Gas-graphite |
24 years ( 1962 - Closed in 1986 after referendum ) |
Safstore: 30 years (internal demolition) |
$/kWe |
| Italy | Trino Vercellese NPP Enrico Fermi Nuclear Power Plant (Italy) Enrico Fermi Nuclear Power Plant was a nuclear power plant at Trino , in north-west Italy.... |
PWR Pressurized water reactor Pressurized water reactors constitute a large majority of all western nuclear power plants and are one of three types of light water reactor , the other types being boiling water reactors and supercritical water reactors... Westinghouse Westinghouse Electric Company Westinghouse Electric Company LLC is a nuclear power company, offering a wide range of nuclear products and services to utilities throughout the world, including nuclear fuel, service and maintenance, instrumentation and control and advanced nuclear plant designs... , 270 MWe |
? years ( Closed in 1986 after referendum ) |
Safstore: 30 years (internal demolition) |
$/kWe |
| Nederlands | Dodewaard NPP Dodewaard nuclear power plant Dodewaard nuclear power plant was a nuclear power plant with a boiling water reactor in the Dutch town of Dodewaard. The plant halted energy production in 1997.-History:... |
BWR Westinghouse Westinghouse Electric Company Westinghouse Electric Company LLC is a nuclear power company, offering a wide range of nuclear products and services to utilities throughout the world, including nuclear fuel, service and maintenance, instrumentation and control and advanced nuclear plant designs... , 58 MWe |
28 years (1969–1997) |
Defuelling completed - Safstore for 40 years |
$/kWe |
| Slovenia Slovenia Slovenia , officially the Republic of Slovenia , is a country in Central and Southeastern Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. Slovenia borders Italy to the west, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north, and also has a small portion of... (former-Yugoslavia Yugoslavia Yugoslavia refers to three political entities that existed successively on the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century.... ) |
Krsko NPP Krško Nuclear Power Plant The Krško Nuclear Power Plant is located in Krško, Slovenia. The plant was connected to the power grid on October 2, 1981 and went into commercial operation on January 15, 1983... |
PWR Pressurized water reactor Pressurized water reactors constitute a large majority of all western nuclear power plants and are one of three types of light water reactor , the other types being boiling water reactors and supercritical water reactors... (Westinghouse) 696 MWe |
40? years (1981–2021?) |
Will be deactivated in 2022 | ? |
| Spain | Vandellós NPP Vandellòs Nuclear Power Plant The Vandellòs Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power station in Vandellòs located close to the Coll de Balaguer pass in Catalonia, Spain.... -1 |
UNGG 480 MWe (gas-graphite) |
18 years Incident: fire in a turbogenerator (1989) |
Safestore: 30 years (internal demolition) |
Phases 1 and 2: Euro 93 Million |
| Switzerland | DIORIT Nuclear power in Switzerland Switzerland has four nuclear power plants, with five reactors in operation as of 2008. These plants produced 26.3 TWh in 2007... |
MWe Gas-graphite (experimental) |
|
Safestore: ? years (internal demolition) |
? |
| Switzerland | LUCENS Lucens reactor The Lucens reactor at Lucens, Vaud, Switzerland, was a small pilot nuclear reactor destroyed by an accident in 1969.In 1962 the construction of a Swiss-designed pilot nuclear power plant began. The heavy-water moderated, carbon dioxide gas-cooled, reactor was built in an underground cavern and... |
8,3 MWe CO2-heavy water (experimental) |
(1962–1969) Incident: fire in 1969 |
Entombment for ? years Safestore & Decon: 24 years (internal demolition) |
? |
| Switzerland | SAPHIR Nuclear power in Switzerland Switzerland has four nuclear power plants, with five reactors in operation as of 2008. These plants produced 26.3 TWh in 2007... |
0,01-0,1 MWe (Light water pool) |
39 years (1955–1994) (Experimental demonstrator) |
(In public display since inauguration open to visitors: "Cherenkov's light") |
? |
- Repository for radioactive waste MorslebenRepository for radioactive waste MorslebenThe repository for radioactive waste Morsleben is a deep geological repository for radioactive waste in the rock salt mine Bartensleben in Morsleben, district Börde in the federal state Saxony-Anhalt.-History:...
: 2.2 billion euroEuroThe euro is the official currency of the eurozone: 17 of the 27 member states of the European Union. It is also the currency used by the Institutions of the European Union. The eurozone consists of Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,...
.
Eastern Europe and former Soviet Union
Several nuclear reactors dismantled in the nations born from the former Soviet UnionSoviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
: (Belarus
Belarus
Belarus , officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno , Gomel ,...
, Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
and others) and rectors dismantled in countries formerly belonging to "Warsaw Pact
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance , or more commonly referred to as the Warsaw Pact, was a mutual defense treaty subscribed to by eight communist states in Eastern Europe...
" and/or to "Comecon
Comecon
The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance , 1949–1991, was an economic organisation under hegemony of Soviet Union comprising the countries of the Eastern Bloc along with a number of communist states elsewhere in the world...
", type, electric power and decommissioning cost per kilowatt of power: World Nuclear Association, OSTI (Russia & USA).
| Country: | Location: | Reactor typr: | Operative life: | Decommissioning phase: |
Dismantling cost: |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bulgaria | Kozloduy NPP Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant The Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant in Bulgaria situated north of Sofia and east of Kozloduy, a town on the Danube river, near the border with Romania. It is the country's only nuclear power plant and the largest in the region... -1,2,3,4 |
PWR Pressurized water reactor Pressurized water reactors constitute a large majority of all western nuclear power plants and are one of three types of light water reactor , the other types being boiling water reactors and supercritical water reactors... VVER-440 VVER The VVER, or WWER, is a series of pressurised water reactors originally developed by the Soviet Union, and now Russia, by OKB Gidropress. Power output ranges from 440 MWe to 1200 MWe with the latest Russian development of the design... (4 x 408 MWe) |
Reactors 1,2 closed in 2003, reactors 3,4 closed in 2006 (Closing forced by European Union European Union The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958... ) |
De-fuelling | ? |
| East Germany German Democratic Republic The German Democratic Republic , informally called East Germany by West Germany and other countries, was a socialist state established in 1949 in the Soviet zone of occupied Germany, including East Berlin of the Allied-occupied capital city... |
Greifswald NPP Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant The Nuclear power station Greifswald , also known as nuclear power station Lubmin, was the largest nuclear power station in East Germany before closure shortly after the German reunification. The plants were of the VVER-440/V-230 type, which was the first generation of Soviet Union designed plants... -1, 2,3,4,5 |
VVER-440 VVER The VVER, or WWER, is a series of pressurised water reactors originally developed by the Soviet Union, and now Russia, by OKB Gidropress. Power output ranges from 440 MWe to 1200 MWe with the latest Russian development of the design... 5 x 408 MWe |
|
Immediate dismantling (underwater cutting) |
(~ $ 330/kWe) |
| East Germany | Rheinsberg NPP Rheinsberg Nuclear Power Plant Rheinsberg Nuclear Power Station was the second nuclear reactor in East Germany after the Rossendorf Research Reactor, and the first nuclear power reactor in East Germany. It was built close to the city of Rheinsberg on the Stechlinsee... -1 |
VVER-210 VVER The VVER, or WWER, is a series of pressurised water reactors originally developed by the Soviet Union, and now Russia, by OKB Gidropress. Power output ranges from 440 MWe to 1200 MWe with the latest Russian development of the design... 70–80 MWe |
24 years (1966–1990) |
In dismantling since 1996 Safstor (underwater cutting) |
(~ $ 330/kWe) |
| East Germany | Stendal NPP Stendal Nuclear Power Plant The Nuclear power station Stendal was a nuclear power station under construction in East Germany, near the city Arneburg, Stendal in Bezirk Magdeburg, today Saxony-Anhalt.... -1,2,3,4 |
VVER-1000 VVER The VVER, or WWER, is a series of pressurised water reactors originally developed by the Soviet Union, and now Russia, by OKB Gidropress. Power output ranges from 440 MWe to 1200 MWe with the latest Russian development of the design... (4 x 1000 MWe) |
Never activated (1st reactor 85% completed) |
NOT radioactive (Cooling towers demolished with explosives) |
(?) (Structure in exhibition inside an industrial park) |
| Russia | Mayak Mayak Mayak Production Association refers to an industrial complex that is one of the biggest nuclear facilities in the Russian Federation. It housed plutonium production reactors and a reprocessing plant... (Chelyabinsk Chelyabinsk Chelyabinsk is a city and the administrative center of Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, located in the northwestern side of the oblast, south of Yekaterinburg, just to the east of the Ural Mountains, on the Miass River. Population: -History:... -65) |
PUREX PUREX PUREX is an acronym standing for Plutonium - URanium EXtraction — de facto standard aqueous nuclear reprocessing method for the recovery of uranium and plutonium from used nuclear fuel. It is based on liquid-liquid extraction ion-exchange.The PUREX process was invented by Herbert H. Anderson and... plant for uranium enrichment Enriched uranium Enriched uranium is a kind of uranium in which the percent composition of uranium-235 has been increased through the process of isotope separation. Natural uranium is 99.284% 238U isotope, with 235U only constituting about 0.711% of its weight... |
Several severe incidents (1946–1956) |
? | ? |
| Russia | Seversk Seversk Seversk is a closed city in Tomsk Oblast, Russia, located northwest of Tomsk on the right bank of the Tom River. Population: Founded in 1949, it was known as Pyaty Pochtovy until 1954 and as Tomsk-7 until 1992. Town status was granted to it in 1956.The current Chair of the City Duma and Mayor... (Tomsk-7) |
Three plutonium reactors Plant for uranium enrichment Enriched uranium Enriched uranium is a kind of uranium in which the percent composition of uranium-235 has been increased through the process of isotope separation. Natural uranium is 99.284% 238U isotope, with 235U only constituting about 0.711% of its weight... |
Two fast-breeder reactors closed (of three), after disarmaments agreements with USA in 2003. | ? | ? |
| Slovakia Slovakia The Slovak Republic is a landlocked state in Central Europe. It has a population of over five million and an area of about . Slovakia is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east and Hungary to the south... |
Mochovce NPP Mochovce Nuclear Power Plant The Mochovce Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant located between the towns of Nitra and Levice, on the site of the former village of Mochovce. Two up-rated 470 MW reactors are presently in operation, with two further reactors of the same type under construction... -1,2 (180 km east from Vienna Vienna Vienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre... ) |
VVER 440 VVER The VVER, or WWER, is a series of pressurised water reactors originally developed by the Soviet Union, and now Russia, by OKB Gidropress. Power output ranges from 440 MWe to 1200 MWe with the latest Russian development of the design... 2 X 440 MWe |
(1998–2028?) | ? | |
| Ukraine | Chernobyl NPP Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant or Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant is a decommissioned nuclear power station near the city of Pripyat, Ukraine, northwest of the city of Chernobyl, from the Ukraine–Belarus border, and about north of Kiev. Reactor 4 was the site of the Chernobyl disaster in... -4 (110 km from Kiev Kiev Kiev or Kyiv is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population as of the 2001 census was 2,611,300. However, higher numbers have been cited in the press.... ) |
RBMK-1000 RBMK RBMK is an initialism for the Russian reaktor bolshoy moshchnosti kanalniy which means "High Power Channel-type Reactor", and describes a class of graphite-moderated nuclear power reactor which was built in the Soviet Union. The RBMK reactor was the type involved in the Chernobyl disaster... 1000 MWe |
? years WORST NUCLEAR ACCIDENT IN ALL HISTORY: hydrogen explosion, then graphite fire (1986) See:Chernobyl disaster Chernobyl disaster The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine , which was under the direct jurisdiction of the central authorities in Moscow... |
ENTOMBMENT (armed concrete "sarcophagus Sarcophagus A sarcophagus is a funeral receptacle for a corpse, most commonly carved or cut from stone. The word "sarcophagus" comes from the Greek σαρξ sarx meaning "flesh", and φαγειν phagein meaning "to eat", hence sarkophagus means "flesh-eating"; from the phrase lithos sarkophagos... ") |
Past: ? Future: riding sarcophagus in steel |
Legal aspects
The decommission of a nuclear reactor can only take place after the appropriate licence has been granted pursuant to the relevant legislation. As part of the licensing procedure various documents, reports and expert opinions have to be written and delivered to the competent authority, e.g. safety report, technical documents, environmental impact study (EIS).In the European Union these documents are the basis for the environmental impact assessment
Environmental impact assessment
An environmental impact assessment is an assessment of the possible positive or negative impact that a proposed project may have on the environment, together consisting of the natural, social and economic aspects....
(EIA) according to Council Directive 85/337/EEC. A precondition for granting such a licence is an opinion by the European Commission according to Article 37 of the Euratom Treaty
Euratom Treaty
The Euratom Treaty, officially the Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community established the European Atomic Energy Community. It was signed on the 25 March 1957 at the same time as the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community .The Euratom treaty is less well known due to...
. Article 37 obliges every Member State of the European Union to communicate certain data relating to the release of radioactive substances to the Commission. This information must reveal whether and if so what radiological impacts decommissioning – planned disposal and accidental release – will have on the environment, i.e. water, soil or airspace, of the EU Member States. On the basis of these general data, the Commission must be in a position to assess the exposure of reference groups of the population in the nearest neighbouring states.
Cost of decommissioning
In USA many utilities estimates now average $325 million per reactor all-up (1998 $).In France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, decommissioning of Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant
Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant
The Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant is a decommissioned site located in the Monts d'Arrée in the commune of Brennilis in Finistère, France.-History:...
, a fairly small 70 MW power plant, already cost 480 million euros (20x the estimate costs) and is still pending after 20 years. Despite the huge investments in securing the dismantlement, radioactive elements such as Plutonium
Plutonium
Plutonium is a transuranic radioactive chemical element with the chemical symbol Pu and atomic number 94. It is an actinide metal of silvery-gray appearance that tarnishes when exposed to air, forming a dull coating when oxidized. The element normally exhibits six allotropes and four oxidation...
, Cesium-137 and Cobalt
Cobalt
Cobalt is a chemical element with symbol Co and atomic number 27. It is found naturally only in chemically combined form. The free element, produced by reductive smelting, is a hard, lustrous, silver-gray metal....
-60 leaked out into the surrounding lake.
In the UK
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, decommissioning of the Windscale Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (WAGR), a 32 MW prototype power plant, cost 117 million euros.
In Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
, decommissioning of Niederaichbach
Niederaichbach
Niederaichbach is a municipality in the district of Landshut in Bavaria in Germany....
nuclear power plant, a 100 MW power plant, amounted to more than 143 million euros.
Decommissioning funds
In Europe there is considerable concern on the funds necessary to finance final decommissioning. In many countries either the funds do not appear sufficient to pay the financial decommissioning, and in other countries the funds are being used for activities other than decommissioning, putting the funds at risk, and distorting competition with parties who do not have nuclear decommissioning funds available.Currently (2008) the European Commission is looking into this issue.
Similar concerns exist in the United States, where the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission has located apparent decommissioning funding assurance shortfalls and requested 18 nuclear power plants to address that issue.
International collaboration
Organizations that promote the international sharing of information, knowledge, and experiences related to nuclear decommissioning include the International Atomic Energy AgencyInternational Atomic Energy Agency
The International Atomic Energy Agency is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons. The IAEA was established as an autonomous organization on 29 July 1957...
, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development's Nuclear Energy Agency
Nuclear Energy Agency
The Nuclear Energy Agency is an intergovernmental multinational agency that is organized under the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development...
and the European Atomic Energy Community
European Atomic Energy Community
The European Atomic Energy Community is an international organisation which is legally distinct from the European Union , but has the same membership, and is governed by the EU's institutions....
. In addition, an online system called the Deactivation and Decommissioning Knowledge Management Information Tool
D&D KM-IT
Decommissioning and Deactivation Knowledge Management Information Tool is a centralized web-based knowledge management information tool built for the D&D user community by the Applied Research Center at Florida International University in collaboration with the United States Department of...
was developed under the United States Department of Energy
United States Department of Energy
The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government concerned with the United States' policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material...
and made available to the international
International
----International mostly means something that involves more than one country. The term international as a word means involvement of, interaction between or encompassing more than one nation, or generally beyond national boundaries...
community to support the exchange of ideas and information. The goals of international collaboration in nuclear decommissioning
Nuclear decommissioning
Nuclear decommissioning is the dismantling of a nuclear power plant and decontamination of the site to a state no longer requiring protection from radiation for the general public...
are to reduce decommissioning costs and improve worker safety .
Ships, mobile reactors, military reactors
Many warships, and a few civil ships, have used nuclear reactors for propulsionNuclear marine propulsion
Nuclear marine propulsion is propulsion of a ship by a nuclear reactor. Naval nuclear propulsion is propulsion that specifically refers to naval warships...
. Former Soviet and American warships have been taken out of service and their power plants removed or scuttled. Dismantling of Russian submarines and ships
Dismantling of Russian Nuclear Ships and Submarines
-Russian Nuclear Ships and Submarine Units by Classes:Next to be added later*Ballistic missile nuclear submarines - SSBN**Project 658 Hotel**Project 667A Yankee**Project 667B Delta I**Project 667BD Delta II...
and American submarines and ships is ongoing. Marine power plants are generally smaller than land-based electrical generating stations.
See also
- Nuclear Decommissioning AuthorityNuclear Decommissioning AuthorityThe Nuclear Decommissioning Authority is a non-departmental public body of the United Kingdom formed by the Energy Act 2004. It came into existence in late 2004, and took on its main functions on 1 April 2005...
- Ship-Submarine recycling programShip-Submarine recycling programThe Ship/Submarine Recycling Program is the process the United States Navy uses to dispose of decommissioned nuclear vessels. SRP takes place only at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Bremerton, Washington, but the preparations can begin elsewhere....
- Nuclear entombmentNuclear entombmentEntombment of a nuclear reactor is a method of nuclear decommissioning in which radioactive contaminants are encased in a structurally long-lived material, such as concrete, that will last for a period of time to ensure the remaining radioactivity is no longer of significant concern...
- MarcouleMarcouleMarcoule Nuclear Site is a nuclear plant in the Chusclan and Codolet communes, near Bagnols-sur-Cèze in the Gard department of France, which is in the touristic, wine and agricultural Côtes-du-Rhône region...
(French nuclear site) - D&D KM-ITD&D KM-ITDecommissioning and Deactivation Knowledge Management Information Tool is a centralized web-based knowledge management information tool built for the D&D user community by the Applied Research Center at Florida International University in collaboration with the United States Department of...
(Deactivation and Decommissioning Knowledge Management Information Tool)
External links
Nuclear Decommissioning Report (www.ndreport.com) is the multi-media platform for the nuclear decommissioning industry.- decommissioning.info is a portal with information on nuclear decommissioning
- US Nuclear Regulatory Commission
- European website on decommissioning of nuclear installations
- Decommissioning Fund Methodologies for Nuclear Installations in the EU, rapport by the German Wuppertal InstituteWuppertal InstituteThe Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy is a German research institution that explores and develops models, strategies and instruments to support sustainable development at local, national and international level. Sustainability research at the Wuppertal Institute focuses on...
, commissioned by the European CommissionEuropean CommissionThe European Commission is the executive body of the European Union. The body is responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding the Union's treaties and the general day-to-day running of the Union....
. May 2007. - Master 'Nuclear Energy' - Decommissioning and Waste management