Oil shale industry is an industry of mining

Mining

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, from an ore body, vein or seam. The term also includes the removal of soil. Materials recovered by mining include base metals, precious metals, iron, uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil shale, rock...

 and processing of oil shale

Oil shale

Oil shale, an organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock, contains significant amounts of kerogen from which liquid hydrocarbons called shale oil can be produced...

—a fine-grained sedimentary rock

Sedimentary rock

Sedimentary rock are types of rock that are formed by the deposition of material at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral and/or organic particles to settle and accumulate or minerals to precipitate from a solution....

, containing significant amounts of kerogen

Kerogen

Kerogen is a mixture of organic chemical compounds that make up a portion of the organic matter in sedimentary rocks. It is insoluble in normal organic solvents because of the huge molecular weight of its component compounds. The soluble portion is known as bitumen. When heated to the right...

 (a solid mixture of organic chemical compound

Chemical compound

A chemical compound is a pure chemical substance consisting of two or more different chemical elements that can be separated into simpler substances by chemical reactions. Chemical compounds have a unique and defined chemical structure; they consist of a fixed ratio of atoms that are held together...

s), from which liquid hydrocarbon

Hydrocarbon

In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional groups, called hydrocarbyls....

s can be manufactured. The industry has developed in Brazil

Brazil

Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...

, China, Estonia

Estonia

Estonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipsi and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea lies...

 and to some extent in Germany, Israel

Israel

The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...

 and Russia. Several other countries are currently conducting research on their oil shale reserves

Oil shale reserves

Oil shale reserves refers to oil shale resources that are recoverable under given economic restraints and technological abilities. Oil shale deposits range from small presently non-economic occurrences to large presently commercially exploitable reserves...

 and production methods to improve efficiency and recovery. However, Australia

Energy policy of Australia

Energy policy of Australia describes the energy policy in the politics of Australia. Energy in Australia describes energy and electricity production, consumption and export/import in Australia...

 has halted their pilot projects due to environmental concerns. Estonia accounts for about 70 % of the world's oil shale production.

Oil shale has been used for industrial purposes since the early 17th century, when it was mined for its minerals. Since the late 19th century, shale oil

Shale oil

Shale oil, known also as kerogen oil or oil-shale oil, is an unconventional oil produced from oil shale by pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution. These processes convert the organic matter within the rock into synthetic oil and gas...

 has also been used for its oil content and as a low grade fuel for power generation. However, barring countries having significant oil shale deposits, its use for power generation is not particularly widespread. Similarly, oil shale is a source for production of synthetic crude

Synthetic crude

Synthetic crude is the output from a bitumen/extra heavy oil upgrader facility used in connection with oil sand production. It may also refer to shale oil, an output from an oil shale pyrolysis. The properties of the synthetic crude depend on the processes used in the upgrading. Typically, it is...

 oil and it is seen as a solution towards increasing domestic production of oil in countries that are reliant on imports.

History

Oil shale has been used since ancient times. Modern industrial oil shale mining began in 1837 at the Autun mines in France, followed by Scotland, Germany and several other countries. The oil shale industry started growing just before World War I

World War I

World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...

 because of the mass production of automobiles and trucks and the supposed shortage of gasoline for transportation needs. In 1924, the Tallinn

Tallinn

Tallinn is the capital and largest city of Estonia. It occupies an area of with a population of 414,940. It is situated on the northern coast of the country, on the banks of the Gulf of Finland, south of Helsinki, east of Stockholm and west of Saint Petersburg. Tallinn's Old Town is in the list...

 Power Plant was the first power plant in the world to switch to oil shale firing.

Following the end of World War II

World War II

World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...

, the oil shale industry declined due to the discovery of large supplies of easily accessible and cheaper crude oil. Oil shale production however, continued to grow in Estonia, Russia and China.

Following the 1973 oil crisis

1973 oil crisis

The 1973 oil crisis started in October 1973, when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries or the OAPEC proclaimed an oil embargo. This was "in response to the U.S. decision to re-supply the Israeli military" during the Yom Kippur war. It lasted until March 1974. With the...

, the oil shale industry was restarted in several countries, but in the 1980s, when oil prices fell

1980s oil glut

The 1980s oil glut was a serious surplus of crude oil caused by falling demand following the 1970s Energy Crisis. The world price of oil, which had peaked in 1980 at over US$35 per barrel , fell in 1986 from $27 to below $10...

, many industries faced closure. The global oil shale industry has grown again from the mid-1990s. In 2003, the oil shale development program was initiated in the United States, and in 2005, the commercial leasing program for oil shale and tar sands was introduced.

As of May 2007, Estonia is actively engaged in exploitation of oil shale on a significant scale and accounts for 70 % of the world's processed oil shale. Estonia is unique in that its oil shale deposit account for just 17 % of total deposits in European Union

European Union

The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...

 but it generates 90 % of its power from oil shale. Oil shale industry in Estonia employs 7,500 people, which is about 1 % of national employment, accounting for 4 % of its gross domestic product.

Mining

Oil shale is mined either by traditional underground mining or surface mining

Surface mining

Surface mining , is a type of mining in which soil and rock overlying the mineral deposit are removed...

 techniques. There are several mining methods available, but the common aim of all these methods is to fragment the oil shale deposits in order to enable the transport of shale fragments to a power plant or retorting facility. The main methods of surface mining

Surface mining

Surface mining , is a type of mining in which soil and rock overlying the mineral deposit are removed...

 are open pit mining and strip mining. An important method of sub-surface mining is the room-and-pillar method

Room and pillar

Room and pillar is a mining system in which the mined material is extracted across a horizontal plane while leaving "pillars" of untouched material to support the roof overburden leaving open areas or "rooms" underground...

. In this method, the material is extracted across a horizontal plane while leaving "pillars" of untouched material to support the roof. These pillars reduce the likelihood of a collapse. Oil shale can also be obtained as a by-product of coal mining

Coal mining

The goal of coal mining is to obtain coal from the ground. Coal is valued for its energy content, and since the 1880s has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore and for cement production. In the United States,...

.

The largest oil shale mine in the world is the Estonia Mine, operated by Eesti Energia Kaevandused. In 2005, Estonia mined 14.8 million tonnes of oil shale. During the same period, mining permits were issued for almost 24 million tonnes, with applications being received for mining an additional 26 million tonnes. In 2008, the Estonian Parliament

Riigikogu

The Riigikogu is the unicameral parliament of Estonia. All important state-related questions pass through the Riigikogu...

 approved the "National Development Plan for the Use of Oil Shale 2008-2015", which limits the annual extraction of oil shale to 20 million tonnes.

Power generation

Oil shale can be used as a fuel in thermal power plants, wherein oil shale is burnt like coal

Coal

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure...

 to drive the steam turbines. As of 2008, there are oil shale-fired power plants in Estonia with a generating capacity of 2,967 megawatts (MW), Israel (12.5 MW), China (12 MW), and Germany (9.9 MW).
Also Romania

Romania

Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...

 and Russia have run oil shale-fired power plants, but have shut them down or switched to other fuels like natural gas. Jordan

Jordan

Jordan , officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan , Al-Mamlaka al-Urduniyya al-Hashemiyya) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing...

 and Egypt

Egypt

Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...

 have announced their plans to construct oil shale-fired power plants, while Canada and Turkey

Turkey

Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...

 plan to burn oil shale at the power plants along with coal.

Thermal power plants which use oil shale as a fuel mostly employ two types of combustion methods. The traditional method is Pulverized combustion (PC) which is used in the older units of oil shale-fired power plants in Estonia, while the more advanced method is Fluidized bed combustion

Fluidized bed combustion

Fluidized bed combustion is a combustion technology used in power plants. Fluidized beds suspend solid fuels on upward-blowing jets of air during the combustion process. The result is a turbulent mixing of gas and solids. The tumbling action, much like a bubbling fluid, provides more effective...

(FBC), which is used by Holcim

Holcim

Holcim is a Swiss-based global company supplying cement and aggregates . The company also supplies ready-mix concrete and asphalt including associated construction services.-Holcim Group:...

 cement factory in Dotternhausen, Germany, and in PAMA power plant at Mishor Rotem in Israel. The main FBC technologies are Bubbling fluidized bed combustion (BFBC) and Circulating fluidized bed combustion (CFBC).

There are more than 60 power plants around the world, which are using CFBC technology for combustion of coal and lignite

Lignite

Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, or Rosebud coal by Northern Pacific Railroad,is a soft brown fuel with characteristics that put it somewhere between coal and peat...

, but only two new units at Narva Power Plants

Narva Power Plants

The Narva Power Plants are a power generation complex in Narva in Estonia, near the border with Leningrad Oblast, Russia. The complex consists of the world's two largest oil shale-fired thermal power plants, Eesti Power Plant and Balti Power Plant . In 2007, Narva Power Plants generated about...

 in Estonia, and one at Huadian Power Plant in China use CFBC technology for combustion of oil shale. The most advanced and efficient oil shale combustion technology is Pressurized fluidized-bed combustion (PFBC). However, this technology is still premature and is in its nascent stage.

Oil extraction

, the major shale oil producers are Estonia, Brazil and China, while Australia, USA, Canada and Jordan have planned to setup or restart shale oil production. In 2005, the global oil shale production was 684,000 tonnes. Although the largest shale oil producer in 2005 was Estonia, it is expected that as of 2007, China has overtaken the position of the largest producer in the world.

Although there are several oil shale retorting technologies, only four technologies are currently in commercial use. These are Kiviter

Kiviter process

-History:The Kiviter process is based on the earlier vertical retort technology . This technology underwent a long process of development...

, Galoter

Galoter process

The Galoter process is a shale oil extraction technology for a production of shale oil, a type of synthetic crude oil. In this process, the oil shale is decomposed into shale oil, oil shale gas, and spent residue...

, Fushun

Fushun process

The Fushun process is an above-ground retorting technology for shale oil extraction. It is named after the main production site of Fushun, Liaoning province in northeastern China.-History:...

, and Petrosix

Petrosix

Petrosix is currently the world’s largest surface oil shale pyrolysis retort with an diameter vertical shaft kiln, operational since 1992. It is located in São Mateus do Sul, Brazil, and it is owned and operated by the Brazil energy company Petrobras. Petrosix means also the Petrosix process, an...

. The two main methods of extracting oil from shale are ex-situ and in-situ. In ex-situ method, the oil shale is mined and transported to the retort facility in order to extract the oil. The in-situ method converts the kerogen while it is still in the form of an oil shale deposit, and then extracts it via a well, where it rises up as normal petroleum.

Companies with shale oil production projects (operational or in the developmental phase)

Company	Location	Method	Status	Annual Production
Ambre Energy Ambre Energy Ambre Energy Limited is an Australian coal and oil shale company. It has offices in Brisbane and Salt Lake City.-History:Ambre Energy was founded in June 2005 by Edek Choros, a geologist and mining engineer...	Utah Utah Utah is a state in the Western United States. It was the 45th state to join the Union, on January 4, 1896. Approximately 80% of Utah's 2,763,885 people live along the Wasatch Front, centering on Salt Lake City. This leaves vast expanses of the state nearly uninhabited, making the population the... , USA	Conduction through a wall (Oil-Tech process)	Pilot project
American Shale Oil Corporation American Shale Oil The American Shale Oil, LLC , formerly known as EGL Oil Shale, LLC, is a developer of in-situ shale oil extraction technology. It is owned 50% each by Genie Oil and Gas, an affiliate of IDT Corporation, and Total S.A..-History:...	Colorado, USA	True in-situ process (The EGL Oil Shale Process)	Testing
Chevron Shale Oil Company Chevron Corporation Chevron Corporation is an American multinational energy corporation headquartered in San Ramon, California, United States and active in more than 180 countries. It is engaged in every aspect of the oil, gas, and geothermal energy industries, including exploration and production; refining,...	Colorado, USA	Modified in-situ process (CRUSH process Chevron CRUSH Chevron CRUSH is an in situ shale oil extraction technology to convert kerogen in oil shale to shale oil. The name stands for Chevron's Technology for the Recovery and Upgrading of Oil from Shale. It is developed jointly by Chevron Corporation and the Los Alamos National Laboratory.-History:The... )	Testing
Eesti Energia Eesti Energia Eesti Energia AS is a state-owned energy company in Estonia with its headquarters in Tallinn. The company operates in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland and Jordan. In Estonia the company operates under the name Eesti Energia, while using the brand name Enefit for international operations...	Narva Narva Narva is the third largest city in Estonia. It is located at the eastern extreme point of Estonia, by the Russian border, on the Narva River which drains Lake Peipus.-Early history:... , Estonia	Hot recycled solids (Galoter process Galoter process The Galoter process is a shale oil extraction technology for a production of shale oil, a type of synthetic crude oil. In this process, the oil shale is decomposed into shale oil, oil shale gas, and spent residue... ) Hot recycled solids (Enefit process Galoter process The Galoter process is a shale oil extraction technology for a production of shale oil, a type of synthetic crude oil. In this process, the oil shale is decomposed into shale oil, oil shale gas, and spent residue... )	Operational Construction	1.1 million barrels (2010)
Enefit American Oil	Utah, USA	Hot recycled solids (Enefit process Galoter process The Galoter process is a shale oil extraction technology for a production of shale oil, a type of synthetic crude oil. In this process, the oil shale is decomposed into shale oil, oil shale gas, and spent residue... ) Externally generated hot gas (Petrosix process Petrosix Petrosix is currently the world’s largest surface oil shale pyrolysis retort with an diameter vertical shaft kiln, operational since 1992. It is located in São Mateus do Sul, Brazil, and it is owned and operated by the Brazil energy company Petrobras. Petrosix means also the Petrosix process, an... )	Studying Studied
ExxonMobil ExxonMobil Exxon Mobil Corporation or ExxonMobil, is an American multinational oil and gas corporation. It is a direct descendant of John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil company, and was formed on November 30, 1999, by the merger of Exxon and Mobil. Its headquarters are in Irving, Texas...	Colorado, USA	Modified in-situ process; reactive fluids (ExxonMobil Electrofrac ExxonMobil Electrofrac ExxonMobil Electrofrac is an in situ shale oil extraction technology to convert kerogen in oil shale to shale oil. It is developed by ExxonMobil.-Technology:ExxonMobil Electrofrac uses a series of hydraulic fractures created in the oil shale formation... )	Testing
Fushun Mining Group Fushun Mining Group The Fushun Mining Group is a large state-owned coal and oil shale company located in Fushun, Liaoning Province, China. The corporation consists of 35 companies with more than 40,000 employees. The main business includes: coal mining, oil shale processing, machinery and others...	Fushun Fushun Fushun is a city in Liaoning, China, about 45 km east from Shenyang, with a population about 2,138 090 inhabitants at the 2010 census and an area of 11,271 km2, including 713 km2 of the city proper. Fushun is situated on the Hun He . It was formerly called Fouchouen in French... , China	Internal combustion (Fushun process Fushun process The Fushun process is an above-ground retorting technology for shale oil extraction. It is named after the main production site of Fushun, Liaoning province in northeastern China.-History:... ) Hot solids recycle (Alberta Taciuk Process Alberta Taciuk Process The Alberta Taciuk process is an above-ground dry thermal retorting technology for extracting oil from oil sands, oil shale and other organics-bearing materials, including oil contaminated soils, sludges and wastes... )	Operational Commissioning	2.2 million barrels
Hom Tov A.F.S.K. Hom Tov A.F.S.K. Hom Tov is a spin-off of the A.F.S.K. Industries Group located in Haifa, Israel. In 2006, the company claimed that it had patented technology for converting oil shale to shale oil.-History:...	Mishor Rotem, Israel	Conduction through a wall (Hom Tov co-pyrolysis process)	Testing
Independent Energy Partners Independent Energy Partners Independent Energy Partners, Inc. is an American oil shale company Based in Denver, Colorado. It is a developer of the Geothermic Fuels Cells Process, an in-situ shale oil extraction process.-History:...	Colorado, USA	True in-situ process (fuel cell process)	Testing
Kiviõli Keemiatööstus	Kiviõli Kiviõli Kiviõli is an industrial town in Ida-Viru County, Estonia with a population of 7000 . The main industry is oil shale mining, which gives the town its name... , Estonia	Internal combustion (Kiviter process Kiviter process -History:The Kiviter process is based on the earlier vertical retort technology . This technology underwent a long process of development... )	Operational	0.3 million barrels
Mountain West Energy Mountain West Energy Mountain West Energy, LLC is an American unconventional oil recovery technology research and development company based in Orem, Utah. It is a developer of the In-situ Vapor Extraction Technology, an in-situ shale oil extraction technology...	Utah, USA	True in-situ process (IGE process)	Testing
Petrobras Petrobras Petróleo Brasileiro or Petrobras is a semi-public Brazilian multinational energy corporation headquartered in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is the largest company in Latin America by market capitalization and revenue, and the largest company headquartered in the Southern Hemisphere by market...	São Mateus do Sul São Mateus do Sul São Mateus do Sul is a town and municipality in the state of Paraná in the Southern Region of Brazil.-References:... , Paraná Paraná (state) Paraná is one of the states of Brazil, located in the South of the country, bordered on the north by São Paulo state, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Santa Catarina state and the Misiones Province of Argentina, and on the west by Mato Grosso do Sul and the republic of Paraguay,... , Brazil Brazil Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...	Externally generated hot gas (Petrosix Petrosix Petrosix is currently the world’s largest surface oil shale pyrolysis retort with an diameter vertical shaft kiln, operational since 1992. It is located in São Mateus do Sul, Brazil, and it is owned and operated by the Brazil energy company Petrobras. Petrosix means also the Petrosix process, an...  process)	Operational	2.2 million barrels (2010)
Queensland Energy Resources Queensland Energy Resources Queensland Energy Resources Limited is an Australian oil shale mining and shale oil extraction company with the headquarter in Brisbane. It is the developer of the Stuart and McFarlane oil shale projects.-History:...	Stuart Deposit, Queensland Queensland Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean... , Australia Australia Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...	Hot solids recycle (Alberta Taciuk Process Alberta Taciuk Process The Alberta Taciuk process is an above-ground dry thermal retorting technology for extracting oil from oil sands, oil shale and other organics-bearing materials, including oil contaminated soils, sludges and wastes... ) Externally generated hot gas (Paraho Indirect process Paraho process The Paraho process is an above ground retorting technology for shale oil extraction. The name "Paraho" is delivered from the words "para homem", which means in Portuguese "for mankind".-History:... )	Demolished Construction
Red Leaf Resources Red Leaf Resources Red Leaf Resources, Inc, is a developer of the EcoShale In-Capsule Process, a shale oil extraction technology. It has its headquarters in Salt Lake City, Utah...	Utah, USA	Conduction through a wall (EcoShale In-Capsule Process)	Testing
Shale Technologies LLC Shale Technologies (company) Shale Technologies, LLC is an American privately held oil shale company with the headquarter in Rifle, Colorado. It is an owner of the proprietary information relating to the Paraho oil shale retorting technologies . The Paraho Direct is an American version of a vertical shaft retort similar to...	Rifle, Colorado Rifle, Colorado The City of Rifle is a Home Rule Municipality in Garfield County, Colorado, United States. The population was 6,769 at the 2000 census. Rifle is a regional center of the cattle ranching industry located along Interstate 70 and the Colorado River just east of the Roan Cliffs, which dominate the... , USA	Internal combustion (Paraho Direct process Paraho process The Paraho process is an above ground retorting technology for shale oil extraction. The name "Paraho" is delivered from the words "para homem", which means in Portuguese "for mankind".-History:... )	Pilot project
Shell Frontier Oil and Gas Shell Oil Company Shell Oil Company is the United States-based subsidiary of Royal Dutch Shell, a multinational oil company of Anglo Dutch origins, which is amongst the largest oil companies in the world. Approximately 22,000 Shell employees are based in the U.S. The head office in the U.S. is in Houston, Texas...	Colorado Colorado Colorado is a U.S. state that encompasses much of the Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains... , USA	True in-situ process (ICP)	Pilot project
VKG Oil Viru Keemia Grupp Viru Keemia Grupp is an Estonian holding group of oil shale industry, power generation, and public utility companies.-Operations:VKG's two main areas of operations are shale oil extraction, and electricity and heat production and distribution....	Kohtla-Järve Kohtla-Järve Kohtla-Järve is a city and municipality in north-eastern Estonia, founded in 1924 and incorporated as a town in 1946. The city is highly industrial, and is both a processor of oil shales and is a large producer of various petroleum products. The city is also very diverse ethnically: it contains... , Estonia Estonia Estonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipsi and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea lies...	Internal combustion (Kiviter process Kiviter process -History:The Kiviter process is based on the earlier vertical retort technology . This technology underwent a long process of development... ) Hot solids recycle (Galoter process Galoter process The Galoter process is a shale oil extraction technology for a production of shale oil, a type of synthetic crude oil. In this process, the oil shale is decomposed into shale oil, oil shale gas, and spent residue... )	Operational Operational	1.6 million barrels (2010).

Other industrial uses

Oil shale is used for cement

Cement

In the most general sense of the word, a cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term opus caementicium to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed...

 production by Kunda Nordic Cement in Estonia, by Holcim in Germany, and by Fushun

Fushun

Fushun is a city in Liaoning, China, about 45 km east from Shenyang, with a population about 2,138 090 inhabitants at the 2010 census and an area of 11,271 km2, including 713 km2 of the city proper. Fushun is situated on the Hun He . It was formerly called Fouchouen in French...

 cement factory in China. Oil shale can also be used for production of different chemical products, construction materials, and pharmaceutical products. However, use of oil shale for production of these products is still very rare and in experimental stages only.

Some oil shales are suitable source for sulfur, ammonia, alumina, soda ash, and nahcolite which occur as shale oil extraction byproducts. Some oil shales can also be used for uranium and other rare chemical element production. During 1946–1952, a marine variety of Dictyonema

Basidiolichen

Basidiolichens are lichenized members of the Basidiomycota, a much smaller group of lichens than the far more common ascolichens in the Ascomycota. In arctic, alpine, and temperate forests, the most common basidiolichens are in the agaric genus Lichenomphalia and the clavarioid genus Multiclavula...

 shale was used for uranium

Uranium

Uranium is a silvery-white metallic chemical element in the actinide series of the periodic table, with atomic number 92. It is assigned the chemical symbol U. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons...

 production in Sillamäe

Sillamäe

Sillamäe is a town in Ida-Viru County in the northern part of Estonia, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland. It has a population of 16,183 and covers an area of 10.54 km²...

, Estonia, and during 1950–1989 alum shale was used in Sweden for the same purpose. Oil shale gas

Oil shale gas

Oil shale gas is a synthetic gas mixture produced by oil shale pyrolysis. Although often referred to as shale gas, it differs from the natural gas produced from shale, which is also known as shale gas.-Process:...

 can also be used as a substitute for natural gas. After World War II

World War II

World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...

, Estonian-produced oil shale gas was used in Leningrad

Leningrad

Leningrad is the former name of Saint Petersburg, Russia.Leningrad may also refer to:- Places :* Leningrad Oblast, a federal subject of Russia, around Saint Petersburg* Leningrad, Tajikistan, capital of Muminobod district in Khatlon Province...

 and the cities in North Estonia. However, at the current price level of natural gas, this is not economically feasible.

Economics

During the early 20th century, the crude-oil industry expanded. Since then, the various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when the cost of shale-oil production in a given region comes in below the price of crude oil or its other substitutes.
According to a survey conducted by the RAND Corporation, the cost of producing a barrel of shale oil at a hypothetical surface retorting complex in the United States (comprising a mine, retorting plant, upgrading plant

Upgrader

An upgrader is a facility that upgrades bitumen into synthetic crude oil. Upgrader plants are typically located close to oil sands production, for example, the Athabasca oil sands in Alberta, Canada or the Orinoco tar sands in Venezuela....

, supporting utilities, and spent shale reclamation), would range between US$70–95 ($440–600/m³), adjusted to 2005 values. Assuming a gradual increase in output after the start of commercial production, the analysis projects a gradual reduction in processing costs to $30–40 per barrel ($190–250/m³) after achieving the milestone of 1 Goilbbl. Royal Dutch Shell

Royal Dutch Shell

Royal Dutch Shell plc , commonly known as Shell, is a global oil and gas company headquartered in The Hague, Netherlands and with its registered office in London, United Kingdom. It is the fifth-largest company in the world according to a composite measure by Forbes magazine and one of the six...

 has announced that its Shell ICP technology would realize a profit when crude oil prices are higher than $30 per barrel ($190/m³), while some technologies at full-scale production assert profitability at oil prices even lower than $20 per barrel ($130/m³).

To increase the efficiency of oil shale retorting and by this the viability of the shale oil production, researchers have proposed and tested several co-pyrolysis processes, in which other materials such as biomass

Biomass

Biomass, as a renewable energy source, is biological material from living, or recently living organisms. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly, or converted into other energy products such as biofuel....

, peat

Peat

Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter or histosol. Peat forms in wetland bogs, moors, muskegs, pocosins, mires, and peat swamp forests. Peat is harvested as an important source of fuel in certain parts of the world...

, waste bitumen, or rubber

Rubber

Natural rubber, also called India rubber or caoutchouc, is an elastomer that was originally derived from latex, a milky colloid produced by some plants. The plants would be ‘tapped’, that is, an incision made into the bark of the tree and the sticky, milk colored latex sap collected and refined...

 and plastic

Plastic

A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids used in the manufacture of industrial products. Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular mass, and may contain other substances to improve performance and/or reduce production costs...

 wastes are retorted along with the oil shale. Some modified technologies propose combining a fluidized bed retort with a circulated fluidized bed furnace for burning the by-products of pyrolysis (char and oil shale gas) and thereby improving oil yield, increasing throughput, and decreasing retorting time.

In a 1972 publication by the journal Pétrole Informations (ISSN 0755-561X), shale oil production was unfavorably compared to the coal liquefaction

Coal liquefaction

-Methods:The liquefaction processes are classified as direct conversion to liquids processes and indirect conversion to liquids processeses. Direct processes are carbonization and hydrogenation.-Pyrolysis and carbonization processes:...

. The article stated that coal liquefaction was less expensive, generated more oil, and created fewer environmental impacts than oil shale extraction. It cited a conversion ration of 650 litre of oil per one tonne

Tonne

The tonne, known as the metric ton in the US , often put pleonastically as "metric tonne" to avoid confusion with ton, is a metric system unit of mass equal to 1000 kilograms. The tonne is not an International System of Units unit, but is accepted for use with the SI...

 of coal, as against 150 litre of shale oil per one tonne of oil shale.

A critical measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source lies in the ratio of the energy produced from oil shale to the energy used in its mining and processing, a ratio known as "Energy Returned on Energy Invested" (EROEI

EROEI

In physics, energy economics and ecological energetics, energy returned on energy invested ; or energy return on investment , is the ratio of the amount of usable energy acquired from a particular energy resource to the amount of energy expended to obtain that energy resource...

). A 1984 study estimated the EROEI of the various known oil shale deposits as varying between 0.7–13.3 although known oil shale extraction development projects assert an EROI between 3 to 10. Royal Dutch Shell has reported an EROEI of three to four on its in situ development, Mahogany Research Project

Mahogany Research Project

The Shell's in situ conversion process is an in situ shale oil extraction technology to convert kerogen in oil shale to shale oil. It is developed by the Shell Oil Company.-History:...

.
The water needed in the oil shale retorting process offers an additional economic consideration: this may pose a problem in areas with water scarcity.

Environmental considerations

Oil shale mining involves a number of environmental impacts, more pronounced in surface mining than in underground mining. They include acid drainage induced by the sudden rapid exposure and subsequent oxidation of formerly buried materials, the introduction of metals into surface-water and groundwater, increased erosion

Erosion

Erosion is when materials are removed from the surface and changed into something else. It only works by hydraulic actions and transport of solids in the natural environment, and leads to the deposition of these materials elsewhere...

, sulfur-gas emissions, and air pollution caused by the production of particulates

Particulates

Particulates – also known as particulate matter , suspended particulate matter , fine particles, and soot – are tiny subdivisions of solid matter suspended in a gas or liquid. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and/or liquid droplets and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be...

 during processing, transport, and support activities.
In 2002, about 97% of air pollution, 86% of total waste and 23% of water pollution in Estonia came from the power industry, which uses oil shale as the main resource for its power production.

Oil shale extraction can damage the biological and recreational value of land and the ecosystem in the mining area. Combustion and thermal processing generate waste material. In addition, the atmospheric emissions from oil shale processing and combustion include carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...

, a greenhouse gas

Greenhouse gas

A greenhouse gas is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone...

. Environmentalists oppose production and usage of oil shale, as it creates even more greenhouse gases than conventional fossil fuels.
Section 526 of the Energy Independence And Security Act prohibits United States government agencies from buying oil produced by processes that produce more greenhouse gas emissions than would traditional petroleum.
Experimental in situ conversion processes and carbon capture and storage

Carbon capture and storage

Carbon capture and storage , alternatively referred to as carbon capture and sequestration, is a technology to prevent large quantities of from being released into the atmosphere from the use of fossil fuel in power generation and other industries. It is often regarded as a means of mitigating...

 technologies may reduce some of these concerns in the future, but at the same time they may cause other problems, including groundwater

Groundwater

Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock...

 pollution.

Concerns have been prominently raised over the oil shale industry's use of water, particularly in arid

Arid

A region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or even preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life...

 regions where water consumption is a sensitive issue.

In some cases, oil shale mining requires the lowering of groundwater levels below the level of the oil shale strata, which may affect the surrounding arable land

Arable land

In geography and agriculture, arable land is land that can be used for growing crops. It includes all land under temporary crops , temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens and land temporarily fallow...

 and forest. Above-ground retorting typically consumes between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale oil, depending on technology. Water is usually used for spent shale cooling and oil shale ash disposal. In situ processing, according to one estimate, uses about one-tenth as much water.

A 2008 programmatic environmental impact statement

Environmental impact statement

An environmental impact statement , under United States environmental law, is a document required by the National Environmental Policy Act for certain actions "significantly affecting the quality of the human environment". An EIS is a tool for decision making...

 issued by the United States Bureau of Land Management

Bureau of Land Management

The Bureau of Land Management is an agency within the United States Department of the Interior which administers America's public lands, totaling approximately , or one-eighth of the landmass of the country. The BLM also manages of subsurface mineral estate underlying federal, state and private...

 stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 gallon of waste water per 1 short ton (0.892854426455391 LT) of processed oil shale.

Environmental

Environmentalism

Environmentalism is a broad philosophy, ideology and social movement regarding concerns for environmental conservation and improvement of the health of the environment, particularly as the measure for this health seeks to incorporate the concerns of non-human elements...

 activists, including members of Greenpeace

Greenpeace

Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over forty countries and with an international coordinating body in Amsterdam, The Netherlands...

, have organized strong protests against the oil shale industry. In one result, Queensland Energy Resources

Queensland Energy Resources

Queensland Energy Resources Limited is an Australian oil shale mining and shale oil extraction company with the headquarter in Brisbane. It is the developer of the Stuart and McFarlane oil shale projects.-History:...

 put the proposed Stuart Oil Shale Project

Stuart Oil Shale Project

The Stuart Oil Shale Project was an oil shale development project in Australia near Gladstone, Queensland. It was Australia's first major attempt since the 1950s to restart commercial use of oil shale...

in Australia on hold in 2004.