Peru-Bolivian Confederation
Encyclopedia
The Peru–Bolivian Confederation (or Confederacy) was a short-lived confederate state that existed in South America
between 1836 and 1839. Its first and only head of state
, titled Supreme Protector, was the Bolivian president
, Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz
.
The Confederation
was a loose union between the states of Peru
(by this time divided into a Republic of North Peru and a Republic of South Peru, which included the capital Tacna
) and Bolivia
. Since its inception the confederation was seen as threat by influential politicians in the neighboring countries, and its support for Chilean and Argentine dissidents in exile caused Argentina and Chile to wage war separately against the confederation. The Confederation collapsed after being defeated by a combined Chile
an and Peruvian dissident force in what is now known as the War of the Confederation
.
In 2011, new Peruvian president Ollanta Humala
spoke
of the possibility, while on a visit to Bolivia, of the resurrection of this confederation.
, now Bolivia, was an integral territory of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru
from its creation. In 1776 it was administratively severed and became a province of the newly created Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
. Still, for geographical and historical reasons, it always remained closer to Lima
than to its administrative capital, Buenos Aires
, in present-day Argentina
. The Peru–Bolivian Confederation was the only effective attempt to unite them.
This territory achieved independence in 1826. At this point in time a union with Peru was widely supported. Nonetheless Simón Bolívar
, who had liberated the territory and destroyed the last remnants of the Spanish army
, did not approve of the union, and urged the creation of a separate and independent state. Thus the new Republic of Bolivia (named in his honor) was born, with Bolívar as its first president. Political unrest and turmoil forced Bolívar to return to Colombia very soon thereafter, leaving Antonio José de Sucre
in charge. Nevertheless, the plan for reuniting Peru and Bolivia didn't fade away.
was elected president of Bolivia
in 1826, but political pressure from Peru and internal turmoil made it impossible for him to organize the new state. The very next year, an armed uprising in Chuquisaca
was quickly used by Peru as an excuse to invade Bolivia. General Agustin Gamarra
marched with an army of nearly 5,000 Peruvian soldiers. He had two clear orders: force the Colombia
n army to withdraw and promote the creation of a new constitution
for that country.
The Peruvian Army entered La Paz, Bolivia on May 28, 1828. Under these circumstances, Sucre was forced to resign in September, leaving the country forever. Marshal Andres de Santa Cruz
was elected president of Bolivia in 1829 to replace him, a position that he would hold for the next ten years. Both Gamarra and Santa Cruz agreed that the separation of Peru and Bolivia was a mistake that should be corrected. Their plan for a federation
, or at least a confederation
, was accepted by the legislative branches of both countries, but they personally disagreed on other issues. Gamarra was in favor of a Peruvian-led Union, while Santa Cruz wanted to give more political power to Bolivia.
was already his own project of federation to unite most of the former Spanish colonies. Furious about the news in Bolivia, he resolved to declare war against Peru on June 3, 1828. Marshal Sucre
was appointed commander of the Colombian army
but was soon afterwards murdered. After Bolívar's death in 1830, the Colombian troops withdrew, and the war came to an end.
During the war, and with the Peruvian army holding off the Colombian offensive, Gamarra deposed Peruvian President José de la Mar
and proclaimed himself the new head of state, titled president. A parliament was assembled, and with a majority of the members in favor of his government, he was able to legalize his position. His rule was difficult, since armed revolts all around the country challenged his authority.
, who rebelled and overthrew him in 1835. Orbegoso, however, did not lose the support of southern Peru and called in to his help the president of Bolivia. It was the opportunity that Marshal Santa Cruz, himself a former president of Peru, was waiting for. The Bolivian army promptly proceeded to invade Peru.
With Bolivian help, General Orbegoso quickly regained his leadership throughout the country and had Salaverry executed. As a reward for the support he had received from Santa Cruz, he agreed to the formation of the new Peru–Bolivian Confederation. Santa Cruz assumed the supreme protectorship of the confederation and Orbegoso maintained only the presidency of the newly created Nor-Peruvian state.
In Peru, he began by having an assembly proclaim on March 17, 1836 the Republic of South Peru, followed on August 11, 1836 by a similar proclamation of the Republic of North Peru. In each case he became the new state's supreme protector (see protector (title)
for similar titles), a president with full powers.
After the preceding period of significant political unrest, the Peru–Bolivian Confederation was proclaimed on October 28, 1836. Marshal Santa Cruz became its supreme protector, as well as supreme protector of each of the Peruvian states and president of the Bolivian Republic. The new confederation was thus composed of three states: North-Peru, South-Peru and Bolivia, and its capital was the city of Tacna, in southern Peru. The creation of this new nation was very well received in the south of Peru, since this area was able to benefit fully from the lifting of the previous commercial restrictions, but was bitterly resented by the elite of Lima and the north of Peru, which had traditionally benefited from a close commercial relationship with Chile.
.
See also: Subdivisions of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation
However, the Confederation generated resistance among several groups in both countries, which resented the dilution of national identities, and also among neighbouring countries. An important number of Peruvian politicians opposed to the idea of the Confederation fled to Chile, where they received support, and this led to the War of the Confederation
.
The creation of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation by Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz caused great alarm in the neighbouring countries. The potential power of this confederation aroused the opposition of Argentina and, above all, Chile, due not only to its great territorial expanse but also to the perceived threat that such a rich state signified for the area. Diego Portales
, arguably the most important Chilean statesman of the 19th century, who at the time was the power behind president José Joaquín Prieto
, was very concerned that the new Confederation would break the regional balance of power and even be a threat to Chilean independence, and so became immediately its enemy.
But that was just one of the reasons behind the war. On a deeper level, both countries were in a heated competition for the control of the commercial routes on the Pacific; and for the Chileans specially, whose relations with independent Peru had already been strained by economic problems centering on rivalry between their ports of Callao
and Valparaíso
. For the north-Peruvians also, the Confederation was viewed as a most serious threat to their economic interests.
The direct conflict between the Confederation and Chile started with a tariff disagreement, and continued when former Chilean president General Ramón Freire managed to obtain a small subsidy from the Confederation government to equip a frigate and try to wrestle power from the Prieto administration. After the failure of the expedition, the Chilean government became openly hostile towards the Confederation.
Instead of immediately going to war, Marshal Santa Cruz tried to negotiate with Chile. The Chilean Congress sent Mariano Egaña
as plenipotentiary to negotiate a treaty based on several points: the payments of the outstanding international debts owed by Peru to Chile, the limitation of the outstanding armies, commercial agreements, indemnization to Chile for the Freire expedition, and the dissolution of the Confederation. Santa Cruz agreed to everything but the dissolution. Chile responded by declaring war on December 28, 1836.
, France
and the United States
), while Chile's allies, Argentina
and Ecuador
, had decided to remain neutral in the conflict.
Nonetheless, the continued interference of Santa Cruz in Argentina's internal affairs moved this country also to declare war, on May 9, 1837. Even though Chile and Argentina were acting against the same perceived threat, both countries went to war separately and were going to act separately during the whole course of it. In 1837 Felipe Braun
, one of Santa Cruz's most capable generals and high decorated veteran of the war of independence, defeated an Argentine army sent to topple Santa Cruz. To aggravate further the Chilean position, Chilean public opinion was totally opposed to a war they did not understand.
The Chilean government, in order to bolster its standing, immediately imposed martial law, asking for (and obtaining) extraordinary legislative powers from Congress. Early in 1837 a Court Martial Law was approved, and all citizens became subject to court martial for the duration of the war. The opposition to the Prieto administration immediately accused Portales of tyranny, and started a heated press campaign against him personally and the unpopular war in general.
Political and public opposition to the war immediately affected the army, fresh from the purges of the civil war of 1830. On June 4, 1837, Colonel José Antonio Vidaurre
, commander of the Maipo regiment, captured and imprisoned Portales while he was reviewing troops at the army barracks in Quillota
. He immediately proceeded to attack Valparaíso on the mistaken belief that public opinion opposed to the war would support him and topple the government. Admiral Manuel Blanco Encalada
, in charge of the defense of Valparaíso, defeated him right outside the port. Captain Santiago Florín, who was in charge of Portales, had him shot when he heard of the news, on June 6, 1837. Most of the conspirators were subsequently captured and executed. This murder was perceived as having been orchestrated by Marshal Santa Cruz and turned the tide of public opinion. The war became a holy cause and Portales its martyr.
he had imposed in Bolivia. He issued a Civil Code
, a Penal Code, a Trade Regulation and a Customs Regulation, and reorganized tax collection procedures to allow an increase in state revenues while restraining expenditures.
The first Chilean military expedition against Santa Cruz, led by Vice Admiral
Manuel Blanco Encalada
, failed and had to submit to the signature of the Treaty of Paucarpata, on November 17, 1837. The Chilean government then organized a second expedition, which defeated the Supreme Protector at the Battle of Yungay
on January 20, 1839 and forced the dissolution of the Confederation. On August 25, 1839 General Agustín Gamarra, after assuming the presidency of Peru, officially declared the dissolution of the Confederation and of the merging of the Nor and Sud-Peruvian Republics into one to be called again Peru, separate from Bolivia.
The Confederate defeat led to the exile of Santa Cruz, first to Guayaquil
, in Ecuador, then to Chile, and finally to Europe, where he died.
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
between 1836 and 1839. Its first and only head of state
Head of State
A head of state is the individual that serves as the chief public representative of a monarchy, republic, federation, commonwealth or other kind of state. His or her role generally includes legitimizing the state and exercising the political powers, functions, and duties granted to the head of...
, titled Supreme Protector, was the Bolivian president
President of Bolivia
The President of Bolivia is head of state and head of government of Bolivia. According to the current Constitution, the president is elected by popular vote to a five year term, renewable once...
, Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz
Andrés de Santa Cruz
Andrés de Santa Cruz y Calahumana was President of Peru and Bolivia...
.
The Confederation
Confederation
A confederation in modern political terms is a permanent union of political units for common action in relation to other units. Usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution, confederations tend to be established for dealing with critical issues such as defense, foreign...
was a loose union between the states of Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
(by this time divided into a Republic of North Peru and a Republic of South Peru, which included the capital Tacna
Tacna
- Rail :Tacna is served by a cross-border standard gauge railway to Arica, Chile.It is also the location of the National Railway Museum of Peru.-Air:Tacna is served by the Crnl. FAP...
) and Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
. Since its inception the confederation was seen as threat by influential politicians in the neighboring countries, and its support for Chilean and Argentine dissidents in exile caused Argentina and Chile to wage war separately against the confederation. The Confederation collapsed after being defeated by a combined Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
an and Peruvian dissident force in what is now known as the War of the Confederation
War of the Confederation
The War of the Confederation , was a conflict between the Peru-Bolivian Confederation on one side and Chile, Peruvian dissidents and Argentina, on the other, fought mostly in the actual territory of Peru and which ended with a Confederate defeat and the dissolution of the...
.
In 2011, new Peruvian president Ollanta Humala
Ollanta Humala
Ollanta Moisés Humala Tasso is a Peruvian politician and the President of Peru. Humala, who previously served as an army officer, lost the presidential election in 2006 but won the 2011 presidential election in a run-off vote...
spoke
Foreign policy of Ollanta Humala
The foreign policy of Ollanta Humala concerns the policy initiatives made towards other states by the current President of Peru, in difference to past, or future, Peruvian foreign policy as represented by his Foreign Minister Rafael Roncagliolo...
of the possibility, while on a visit to Bolivia, of the resurrection of this confederation.
Background
During colonial times, the territory comprising the Audiencia de Charcas, also known as Alto PerúUpper Peru
Upper Peru was the region in the Viceroyalty of Peru, and after 1776, the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, comprising the governorships of Potosí, La Paz, Cochabamba, Los Chiquitos, Moxos and Charcas...
, now Bolivia, was an integral territory of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru
Viceroyalty of Peru
Created in 1542, the Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima...
from its creation. In 1776 it was administratively severed and became a province of the newly created Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, , was the last and most short-lived Viceroyalty of the Spanish Empire in America.The Viceroyalty was established in 1776 out of several former Viceroyalty of Perú dependencies that mainly extended over the Río de la Plata basin, roughly the present day...
. Still, for geographical and historical reasons, it always remained closer to Lima
Lima
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the central part of the country, on a desert coast overlooking the Pacific Ocean. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms a contiguous urban area known as the Lima...
than to its administrative capital, Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires is the capital and largest city of Argentina, and the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after São Paulo. It is located on the western shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent...
, in present-day Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
. The Peru–Bolivian Confederation was the only effective attempt to unite them.
This territory achieved independence in 1826. At this point in time a union with Peru was widely supported. Nonetheless Simón Bolívar
Simón Bolívar
Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios Ponte y Yeiter, commonly known as Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan military and political leader...
, who had liberated the territory and destroyed the last remnants of the Spanish army
Spanish Army
The Spanish Army is the terrestrial army of the Spanish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is one of the oldest active armies - dating back to the 15th century.-Introduction:...
, did not approve of the union, and urged the creation of a separate and independent state. Thus the new Republic of Bolivia (named in his honor) was born, with Bolívar as its first president. Political unrest and turmoil forced Bolívar to return to Colombia very soon thereafter, leaving Antonio José de Sucre
Antonio José de Sucre
Antonio José de Sucre y Alcalá , known as the "Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho" , was a Venezuelan independence leader. Sucre was one of Simón Bolívar's closest friends, generals and statesmen.-Ancestry:...
in charge. Nevertheless, the plan for reuniting Peru and Bolivia didn't fade away.
Chaos in Bolivia
Marshal SucreAntonio José de Sucre
Antonio José de Sucre y Alcalá , known as the "Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho" , was a Venezuelan independence leader. Sucre was one of Simón Bolívar's closest friends, generals and statesmen.-Ancestry:...
was elected president of Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
in 1826, but political pressure from Peru and internal turmoil made it impossible for him to organize the new state. The very next year, an armed uprising in Chuquisaca
Sucre
Sucre, also known historically as Charcas, La Plata and Chuquisaca is the constitutional capital of Bolivia and the capital of the department of Chuquisaca. Located in the south-central part of the country, Sucre lies at an elevation of 2750m...
was quickly used by Peru as an excuse to invade Bolivia. General Agustin Gamarra
Agustín Gamarra
Agustín Gamarra Messia was a Peruvian soldier and politician, becoming twice President of Peru from 1829 to 1833 and from 1838 to 1841....
marched with an army of nearly 5,000 Peruvian soldiers. He had two clear orders: force the Colombia
Colombia
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia , is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the...
n army to withdraw and promote the creation of a new constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
for that country.
The Peruvian Army entered La Paz, Bolivia on May 28, 1828. Under these circumstances, Sucre was forced to resign in September, leaving the country forever. Marshal Andres de Santa Cruz
Andrés de Santa Cruz
Andrés de Santa Cruz y Calahumana was President of Peru and Bolivia...
was elected president of Bolivia in 1829 to replace him, a position that he would hold for the next ten years. Both Gamarra and Santa Cruz agreed that the separation of Peru and Bolivia was a mistake that should be corrected. Their plan for a federation
Federation
A federation , also known as a federal state, is a type of sovereign state characterized by a union of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central government...
, or at least a confederation
Confederation
A confederation in modern political terms is a permanent union of political units for common action in relation to other units. Usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution, confederations tend to be established for dealing with critical issues such as defense, foreign...
, was accepted by the legislative branches of both countries, but they personally disagreed on other issues. Gamarra was in favor of a Peruvian-led Union, while Santa Cruz wanted to give more political power to Bolivia.
War with Gran Colombia
Bolívar did not agree with either Gamarra or Santa Cruz, since Gran ColombiaGran Colombia
Gran Colombia is a name used today for the state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to 1831. This short-lived republic included the territories of present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, northern Peru and northwest Brazil. The...
was already his own project of federation to unite most of the former Spanish colonies. Furious about the news in Bolivia, he resolved to declare war against Peru on June 3, 1828. Marshal Sucre
Antonio José de Sucre
Antonio José de Sucre y Alcalá , known as the "Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho" , was a Venezuelan independence leader. Sucre was one of Simón Bolívar's closest friends, generals and statesmen.-Ancestry:...
was appointed commander of the Colombian army
Colombian Army
The National Army of Colombia is the land military force of the government of Colombia and the largest service of the Colombian Armed Forces...
but was soon afterwards murdered. After Bolívar's death in 1830, the Colombian troops withdrew, and the war came to an end.
During the war, and with the Peruvian army holding off the Colombian offensive, Gamarra deposed Peruvian President José de la Mar
José de la Mar
José de la Mar was a South American military leader.He was born in Cuenca in what today is Ecuador. He spent his early childhood in Spain, where he started his military career...
and proclaimed himself the new head of state, titled president. A parliament was assembled, and with a majority of the members in favor of his government, he was able to legalize his position. His rule was difficult, since armed revolts all around the country challenged his authority.
Chaos in Peru
A new parliament was formed in 1833, but this time it was hostile towards Gamarra. Since his term as president was already over and there was no time to call for elections, it was resolved to turn the presidency over to General Luis Orbegoso. Gamarra did not recognize the new government, and prepared himself to challenge Orbegoso. However, popular opinion and most of the army rallied against him, and he was frustrated in his effort to seize power again.Bolivian Aid
General Orbegoso also had to deal with General Felipe SalaverryFelipe Santiago Salaverry
Felipe Santiago de Salaverry was a Peruvian soldier, politician and, from 1835 to 1836, President of Peru.He studied in the College of San Carlos in Lima...
, who rebelled and overthrew him in 1835. Orbegoso, however, did not lose the support of southern Peru and called in to his help the president of Bolivia. It was the opportunity that Marshal Santa Cruz, himself a former president of Peru, was waiting for. The Bolivian army promptly proceeded to invade Peru.
With Bolivian help, General Orbegoso quickly regained his leadership throughout the country and had Salaverry executed. As a reward for the support he had received from Santa Cruz, he agreed to the formation of the new Peru–Bolivian Confederation. Santa Cruz assumed the supreme protectorship of the confederation and Orbegoso maintained only the presidency of the newly created Nor-Peruvian state.
Formation
Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz promoted a project to reunite the two territories on the basis of a confederacy. The Peru–Bolivian Confederation was a plan that attempted to reunite the Alto Perú ("Upper Peru", now Bolivia) and Bajo Peru ("Lower Peru", now simply Peru) into a single political and economic entity. This integration was based not only on historical, cultural and ethnic reasons, but also on economic motives. The union was attempting to restore the ancient commercial routes and promote a policy of open markets.In Peru, he began by having an assembly proclaim on March 17, 1836 the Republic of South Peru, followed on August 11, 1836 by a similar proclamation of the Republic of North Peru. In each case he became the new state's supreme protector (see protector (title)
Protector (title)
Protector, sometimes spelled protecter, is used as a title or part of various historical titles of heads of state and others in authority...
for similar titles), a president with full powers.
After the preceding period of significant political unrest, the Peru–Bolivian Confederation was proclaimed on October 28, 1836. Marshal Santa Cruz became its supreme protector, as well as supreme protector of each of the Peruvian states and president of the Bolivian Republic. The new confederation was thus composed of three states: North-Peru, South-Peru and Bolivia, and its capital was the city of Tacna, in southern Peru. The creation of this new nation was very well received in the south of Peru, since this area was able to benefit fully from the lifting of the previous commercial restrictions, but was bitterly resented by the elite of Lima and the north of Peru, which had traditionally benefited from a close commercial relationship with Chile.
Structure of the Confederation
In each of the Confederation states there was, from 1837 until the dissolution, a provisional president under Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz, who was styled the supreme protector and was also president of BoliviaBolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
.
- BoliviaBoliviaBolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
- President: General José Miguel de Velasco
- North Peru (also known as Republic of the North of Peru, or North-Peruvian Republic)
- First President: General Luis Orbegoso (August 21, 1837 - July 30, 1838) He declared secession of the Nor-Peruvian Republic from the Peru-Bolivian Confederation on July 30, 1838 but continued as Provisional President until September 1, 1838.
- Second President: General José de la Riva AgüeroJosé de la Riva AgüeroJosé Mariano de la Riva Agüero y Sánchez Boquete Marquess De Montealegre de Aulestia was a Peruvian soldier, politician, historian and twice President of Peru....
(August 1, 1838 - January 24, 1839)
- South Peru (also known as Republic of the South of Peru, or South-Peruvian Republic)
- First President: General Ramón Herrera Rodado (b. 1799 - d. 1882) (September 17, 1837 - October 12, 1838)
- Second President: Juan Pío de Tristán y MoscosoPío de TristánJuan Pío de Tristán was a Peruvian general and politician...
(b. 1773 - d. 1859) (October 12, 1838 - February 23, 1839)
See also: Subdivisions of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation
Subdivisions of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation
The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was divided into departments....
Conflicts and the international situation
War of the Confederation
The War of the Confederation , was a conflict between the Peru-Bolivian Confederation on one side and Chile, Peruvian dissidents and Argentina, on the other, fought mostly in the actual territory of Peru and which ended with a Confederate defeat and the dissolution of the...
.
The creation of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation by Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz caused great alarm in the neighbouring countries. The potential power of this confederation aroused the opposition of Argentina and, above all, Chile, due not only to its great territorial expanse but also to the perceived threat that such a rich state signified for the area. Diego Portales
Diego Portales
Diego José Pedro Víctor Portales Palazuelos was a Chilean statesman and entrepreneur. As a minister of president José Joaquín Prieto Diego Portales played a pivotal role in shaping the state and government politics in the 19th century, delivering with the Constitution of 1833 the framework of the...
, arguably the most important Chilean statesman of the 19th century, who at the time was the power behind president José Joaquín Prieto
José Joaquín Prieto
José Joaquín Prieto Vial was a Chilean military and political figure. He was twice President of Chile between 1831 and 1841. José Joaquín Prieto was of Spanish and Basque descent.-Early life:...
, was very concerned that the new Confederation would break the regional balance of power and even be a threat to Chilean independence, and so became immediately its enemy.
But that was just one of the reasons behind the war. On a deeper level, both countries were in a heated competition for the control of the commercial routes on the Pacific; and for the Chileans specially, whose relations with independent Peru had already been strained by economic problems centering on rivalry between their ports of Callao
Callao
Callao is the largest and most important port in Peru. The city is coterminous with the Constitutional Province of Callao, the only province of the Callao Region. Callao is located west of Lima, the country's capital, and is part of the Lima Metropolitan Area, a large metropolis that holds almost...
and Valparaíso
Valparaíso
Valparaíso is a city and commune of Chile, center of its third largest conurbation and one of the country's most important seaports and an increasing cultural center in the Southwest Pacific hemisphere. The city is the capital of the Valparaíso Province and the Valparaíso Region...
. For the north-Peruvians also, the Confederation was viewed as a most serious threat to their economic interests.
The direct conflict between the Confederation and Chile started with a tariff disagreement, and continued when former Chilean president General Ramón Freire managed to obtain a small subsidy from the Confederation government to equip a frigate and try to wrestle power from the Prieto administration. After the failure of the expedition, the Chilean government became openly hostile towards the Confederation.
Raid on Callao and Chilean declaration of war
After the Freire expedition, Portales decided to take the offensive and staged a surprise raid to prevent further interference by the Confederation government in Chilean internal affairs. He ordered a raid on the Confederate fleet that was stationed in the port of Callao. During a silent attack on the night of August 21, 1836, the Chileans managed to capture three confederate ships: the Santa Cruz, Arequipeño and Peruviana.Instead of immediately going to war, Marshal Santa Cruz tried to negotiate with Chile. The Chilean Congress sent Mariano Egaña
Mariano Egaña
Mariano Egaña Fabres was a Chilean lawyer, conservative politician and the main writer of the Chilean Constitution of 1833....
as plenipotentiary to negotiate a treaty based on several points: the payments of the outstanding international debts owed by Peru to Chile, the limitation of the outstanding armies, commercial agreements, indemnization to Chile for the Freire expedition, and the dissolution of the Confederation. Santa Cruz agreed to everything but the dissolution. Chile responded by declaring war on December 28, 1836.
International situation and Argentine declaration of war
The international situation was not favorable to the Chilean interests. Marshal Santa Cruz and the Confederation had been diplomatically recognized by the principal world powers with interests in the region (Great BritainGreat Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
and the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
), while Chile's allies, Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
and Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador , officially the Republic of Ecuador is a representative democratic republic in South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and by the Pacific Ocean to the west. It is one of only two countries in South America, along with Chile, that do not have a border...
, had decided to remain neutral in the conflict.
Nonetheless, the continued interference of Santa Cruz in Argentina's internal affairs moved this country also to declare war, on May 9, 1837. Even though Chile and Argentina were acting against the same perceived threat, both countries went to war separately and were going to act separately during the whole course of it. In 1837 Felipe Braun
Otto Philipp Braun
Otto Philipp Braun . Born 13 December 1798 in Kassel, Principality of Hessen-Kassel . Died on 24 July 1869 in Kassel, a province of the kingdom of Prussia. Braun was one of the most successful foreign volunteers participating in the independence war of South America...
, one of Santa Cruz's most capable generals and high decorated veteran of the war of independence, defeated an Argentine army sent to topple Santa Cruz. To aggravate further the Chilean position, Chilean public opinion was totally opposed to a war they did not understand.
Assassination of Portales
Political and public opposition to the war immediately affected the army, fresh from the purges of the civil war of 1830. On June 4, 1837, Colonel José Antonio Vidaurre
Jose Antonio Vidaurre
Colonel José Antonio Vidaurre Garretón was a Chilean military officer who led a failed insurrection in 1837 that culminated in the assassination of minister Diego Portales....
, commander of the Maipo regiment, captured and imprisoned Portales while he was reviewing troops at the army barracks in Quillota
Quillota
Quillota is a city and commune located in the Aconcagua River valley of central Chile's Valparaíso Region. It is the capital and largest city of the Quillota Province where many inhabitants live in the surrounding farm areas of San Isidro, La Palma, Pocochay, and San Pedro...
. He immediately proceeded to attack Valparaíso on the mistaken belief that public opinion opposed to the war would support him and topple the government. Admiral Manuel Blanco Encalada
Manuel Blanco Encalada
Manuel José Blanco y Calvo de Encalada was a Vice-Admiral in the Chilean Navy, a political figure, and Chile's first President .-Biography:...
, in charge of the defense of Valparaíso, defeated him right outside the port. Captain Santiago Florín, who was in charge of Portales, had him shot when he heard of the news, on June 6, 1837. Most of the conspirators were subsequently captured and executed. This murder was perceived as having been orchestrated by Marshal Santa Cruz and turned the tide of public opinion. The war became a holy cause and Portales its martyr.
Chilean invasion and dissolution
Invested with considerable powers, Santa Cruz endeavoured to establish in Peru the same type of authoritarian orderAuthoritarianism
Authoritarianism is a form of social organization characterized by submission to authority. It is usually opposed to individualism and democracy...
he had imposed in Bolivia. He issued a Civil Code
Civil code
A civil code is a systematic collection of laws designed to comprehensively deal with the core areas of private law. A jurisdiction that has a civil code generally also has a code of civil procedure...
, a Penal Code, a Trade Regulation and a Customs Regulation, and reorganized tax collection procedures to allow an increase in state revenues while restraining expenditures.
The first Chilean military expedition against Santa Cruz, led by Vice Admiral
Vice Admiral
Vice admiral is a senior naval rank of a three-star flag officer, which is equivalent to lieutenant general in the other uniformed services. A vice admiral is typically senior to a rear admiral and junior to an admiral...
Manuel Blanco Encalada
Manuel Blanco Encalada
Manuel José Blanco y Calvo de Encalada was a Vice-Admiral in the Chilean Navy, a political figure, and Chile's first President .-Biography:...
, failed and had to submit to the signature of the Treaty of Paucarpata, on November 17, 1837. The Chilean government then organized a second expedition, which defeated the Supreme Protector at the Battle of Yungay
Battle of Yungay
The Battle of Yungay effectively destroyed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation created by Bolivian Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz in 1836...
on January 20, 1839 and forced the dissolution of the Confederation. On August 25, 1839 General Agustín Gamarra, after assuming the presidency of Peru, officially declared the dissolution of the Confederation and of the merging of the Nor and Sud-Peruvian Republics into one to be called again Peru, separate from Bolivia.
The Confederate defeat led to the exile of Santa Cruz, first to Guayaquil
Guayaquil
Guayaquil , officially Santiago de Guayaquil , is the largest and the most populous city in Ecuador,with about 2.3 million inhabitants in the city and nearly 3.1 million in the metropolitan area, as well as that nation's main port...
, in Ecuador, then to Chile, and finally to Europe, where he died.
See also
- War of the ConfederationWar of the ConfederationThe War of the Confederation , was a conflict between the Peru-Bolivian Confederation on one side and Chile, Peruvian dissidents and Argentina, on the other, fought mostly in the actual territory of Peru and which ended with a Confederate defeat and the dissolution of the...
- Republic of Great ColombiaGran ColombiaGran Colombia is a name used today for the state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to 1831. This short-lived republic included the territories of present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, northern Peru and northwest Brazil. The...
- Bolívar's Federation - United Provinces of Central America - another federal state on the American continent that underwent a similar fate.