Andrés de Santa Cruz
Encyclopedia
Andrés de Santa Cruz y Calahumana (December 5, 1792, Huarina
, Bolivia – September 25, 1865, Beauvoir, France) was President of Peru (1827) and Bolivia
(1829-1839). He also served as Supreme Protector
of the short-lived Peru-Bolivian Confederation
(1836-1839), a political entity created mainly by his personal endeavors.
to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
. His father was José Santa Cruz y Villavicencio, a Spaniard
, and his mother Juana Basilia Calahumana, an Indian
and cacique
of the town of Huarina. In later years, Andrés de Santa Cruz would claim that through his mother, he descended directly from Inca rulers
. He began his studies in his hometown at the San Francisco Convent
, and continued them at the San Antonio Abad Seminary
in the city of Cuzco
. In 1809 he left the seminary and returned to La Paz.
in the Dragones de Apolobamba Regiment
of the Spanish Army. As such, he participated in the battles of Guaqui (July 20, 1811), Vilcapugio
(October 1, 1813) and Ayohuma
(November 14, 1813). The latter resulted in the defeat of the Argentine
Independentist forces attempting to liberate the Upper Peru
(modern day Bolivia
) from Spanish rule. Santa Cruz also took part in the Spanish colonial campaigns to suppress the insurrection of Mateo Pumacahua
(1814-1815), further demonstrating his loyalty to the Spanish Crown
. His luck ran out at the Battle of La Tablada (April 15, 1817), where he was captured and taken as prisoner of war
to Buenos Aires
. He managed to escape, first to Rio de Janeiro
and then to Lima. As a reward, he was named Commander
of Chorrillos
.
on the Peruvian coast, Santa Cruz was commander
of militia
forces in the region of Huarochirí. In that position, he fought against the independetist in the Battle of Pasco (December 6, 1820), but the royalist
s were defeated and Santa Cruz captured. Taken to San Martin's
headquarters
at Huaura, he decided to switch sides and joined the Patriot Army (January 8, 1821). Santa Cruz ascended rapidly, reaching the rank
of Colonel
later that year and that of Brigade General
in 1822 for leading Peruvian troops at the Battle of Pichincha
(24 May 1822).
He revolted against the Peruvian Congress
on February 26, 1823, and forced it to elect José de la Riva Agüero
as President. As commander
of a Peruvian Army
expedition, Santa Cruz occupied the port of Arica
and defeated a royalist army at the Battle of Zepita (August 27, 1823). Failing to exploit his victory, he retreated hastily.
When Simón Bolívar
assumed the presidency of Peru
(February 17, 1824), Santa Cruz joined his army and was named Chief of Staff of the Peruvian Division
. In that condition, he participated of the Battle of Junín
(August 6, 1824). Afterwards, he was named Prefect of Ayacucho
, and then Chief of Staff of the Patriot Army during the campaign for the liberation of Bolivia
. As a reward for his actions, Santa Cruz received the title
s of Marshal and Prefect of Chuquisaca
on April 1825.
Named President of the Government Council in Lima
, he was in charge of the Peruvian Executive
after Bolívar returned to Gran Colombia
on September 4, 1826, until the collapse of the Bolivarian regime in Peru on January 27, 1827. Santa Cruz temporarily assumed the post of President until June 9, 1827, when José La Mar was elected by Congress
.
to Chile
, but he was recalled to Bolivia
where he had been proclaimed as President
. Sworn in on May 24, 1829, he found a country afflicted by endemic internal disorders and very near to bankruptcy. Measures undertaken to resolve these problems included purging conspirators
, reforming and strengthening the Army
, reforming the bureaucracy
, reforming public finance
s, issuing new currency
, issuing a new Constitution
, issuing a new Civil Code
based on the Napoleonic Code
and establishing Cobija as a free port
. The authoritarian regime
imposed by Santa Cruz brought stability to Bolivia
at a time when most countries in Latin America
faced widespread unrest
. Furthermore, it formed a solid base from which to pursue his main project, the Peru-Bolivian Confederation
.
As President of Bolivia
, Santa Cruz instigated several failed plots to achieve a political union with Peru
, taking advantage of that country's chronic political unrest. His best opportunity came in 1835 when the Peruvian President Luis José de Orbegoso
requested his assistance to fight the rebel army of Felipe Santiago Salaverry
. Santa Cruz defeated Peruvian caudillo
Agustín Gamarra
at the Battle of Yanacocha (August 13, 1835) and Salaverry at the Battle of Uchumayo (February 4, 1836) after which he had Salaverry summarily executed
.
At the instigation of Santa Cruz, a Congress of the Peruvian southern departments
(Arequipa
, Ayacucho
, Cuzco
and Puno
) gathered at Sicuani and declared the establishment of the Republic of South Peru (March 17, 1836). A similar assembly
at Huaura of the northern departments
(Amazonas
, Junín
, La Libertad
and Lima
) founded the Republic of North Peru (August 11, 1836). Both recognized Santa Cruz as Supreme Protector
with extensive powers, which enabled him to create the Peru-Bolivian Confederation
on October 28, 1836. He summoned to the city of Tacna
representatives of both legislature
s together with those of the Bolivian Congress
assembled at Tapacarí to establish a Constitution
for the new State
. Under his direction, they signed a pact on May 1, 1837 which named him Supreme Protector
for a ten-year period.
Invested with considerable powers, Santa Cruz endeavoured to establish in Peru the same type of authoritarian order
he had imposed in Bolivia. He issued a Civil Code
, a Penal Code, a Trade
Regulation
, a Customs Regulation
and reorganized tax
collection procedures allowing an increase in state revenue
s while restraining expenditures. The Confederation generated resistances among several groups in both countries, who resented the dilution of national identities
. An important number of Peruvian politicians opposed to the idea of the Confederation fled to Chile
, where they received support from the powerful Minister
Diego Portales
. Together they amassed a military expedition against Santa Cruz, led by Admiral
Manuel Blanco Encalada
, but they were encircled by Santa Cruz and had to surrender by the Treaty of Paucarpata, signed on November 17, 1837. The Chilean Government organized a second expedition, which defeated the Supreme Protector
at the Battle of Yungay
(January 20, 1839) and forced the dissolution of the Confederation.
(February 20, 1839), Santa Cruz fled to Ecuador
from where he plotted unsuccessfully to regain power. On October 13, 1843 he disembarked at Camarones in the Peruvian province of Tarapacá
but was captured while trying to reach Bolivia
. Delivered to the Chilean Government, he was imprisoned at Chillán
from 1844 until 1846 when he was freed. He was named ambassador
to several European countries by Manuel Belzú
(1848-1855) and then ran for president of Bolivia but was defeated by General
Jorge Córdova
. After staying for a while in Argentina, he returned to France
where he lived the rest of his life at Versailles
. He died at Beauvoir, near Nantes
on September 25, 1865. One hundred years later, in 1965, the remains of the old Marshal were repatriated from France by the military government of the day and reinterred ceremoniously beside the Presidential Palace in Bolivia.
Huarina
Huarina is a location in the La Paz Department in Bolivia. It is the seat of the Huarina Municipality, one of the four municipalities of the Omasuyos Province.-External links:* – Official site...
, Bolivia – September 25, 1865, Beauvoir, France) was President of Peru (1827) and Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
(1829-1839). He also served as Supreme Protector
Protector (title)
Protector, sometimes spelled protecter, is used as a title or part of various historical titles of heads of state and others in authority...
of the short-lived Peru-Bolivian Confederation
Peru-Bolivian Confederation
The Peru–Bolivian Confederation was a short-lived confederate state that existed in South America between 1836 and 1839. Its first and only head of state, titled Supreme Protector, was the Bolivian president, Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz....
(1836-1839), a political entity created mainly by his personal endeavors.
Early life and education
Santa Cruz was born on December 5, 1792 in the city of La Paz, which at that time had been recently transferred from the Viceroyalty of PeruViceroyalty of Peru
Created in 1542, the Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima...
to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, , was the last and most short-lived Viceroyalty of the Spanish Empire in America.The Viceroyalty was established in 1776 out of several former Viceroyalty of Perú dependencies that mainly extended over the Río de la Plata basin, roughly the present day...
. His father was José Santa Cruz y Villavicencio, a Spaniard
Spanish people
The Spanish are citizens of the Kingdom of Spain. Within Spain, there are also a number of vigorous nationalisms and regionalisms, reflecting the country's complex history....
, and his mother Juana Basilia Calahumana, an Indian
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
and cacique
Cacique
Cacique is a title derived from the Taíno word for the pre-Columbian chiefs or leaders of tribes in the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles...
of the town of Huarina. In later years, Andrés de Santa Cruz would claim that through his mother, he descended directly from Inca rulers
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire , was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century...
. He began his studies in his hometown at the San Francisco Convent
Convent
A convent is either a community of priests, religious brothers, religious sisters, or nuns, or the building used by the community, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church and in the Anglican Communion...
, and continued them at the San Antonio Abad Seminary
Seminary
A seminary, theological college, or divinity school is an institution of secondary or post-secondary education for educating students in theology, generally to prepare them for ordination as clergy or for other ministry...
in the city of Cuzco
Cusco
Cusco , often spelled Cuzco , is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cuzco Province. In 2007, the city had a population of 358,935 which was triple the figure of 20 years ago...
. In 1809 he left the seminary and returned to La Paz.
Military career
After Santa Cruz's return home, his father enrolled him as an alférezEnsign (rank)
Ensign is a junior rank of a commissioned officer in the armed forces of some countries, normally in the infantry or navy. As the junior officer in an infantry regiment was traditionally the carrier of the ensign flag, the rank itself acquired the name....
in the Dragones de Apolobamba Regiment
Regiment
A regiment is a major tactical military unit, composed of variable numbers of batteries, squadrons or battalions, commanded by a colonel or lieutenant colonel...
of the Spanish Army. As such, he participated in the battles of Guaqui (July 20, 1811), Vilcapugio
Battle of Vilcapugio
The Battle of Vilcapugio was an action fought on October 1, 1813 during the second Campaign of Upper Peru in the Argentine War of Independence, where the republican forces led by General Manuel Belgrano were defeated by a pro-Spanish royalist army, led by Joaquin de la Pezuela.The campaign was...
(October 1, 1813) and Ayohuma
Battle of Ayohuma
The Battle of Ayohuma was an action fought on 14 November 1813, during the second Upper Peru Campaign of the Argentine War of Independence...
(November 14, 1813). The latter resulted in the defeat of the Argentine
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
Independentist forces attempting to liberate the Upper Peru
Upper Peru
Upper Peru was the region in the Viceroyalty of Peru, and after 1776, the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, comprising the governorships of Potosí, La Paz, Cochabamba, Los Chiquitos, Moxos and Charcas...
(modern day Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
) from Spanish rule. Santa Cruz also took part in the Spanish colonial campaigns to suppress the insurrection of Mateo Pumacahua
Mateo Pumacahua
Mateo García Pumacahua was a Peruvian revolutionary in the War of Independence.-Biography:Pumacahua was the cacique of Chinchero, brigadier of the militia of the Viceroyalty of Peru, and interim president of the Audiencia of Cuzco...
(1814-1815), further demonstrating his loyalty to the Spanish Crown
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
. His luck ran out at the Battle of La Tablada (April 15, 1817), where he was captured and taken as prisoner of war
Prisoner of war
A prisoner of war or enemy prisoner of war is a person, whether civilian or combatant, who is held in custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict...
to Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires is the capital and largest city of Argentina, and the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after São Paulo. It is located on the western shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent...
. He managed to escape, first to Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro , commonly referred to simply as Rio, is the capital city of the State of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, and the third largest metropolitan area and agglomeration in South America, boasting approximately 6.3 million people within the city proper, making it the 6th...
and then to Lima. As a reward, he was named Commander
Commander
Commander is a naval rank which is also sometimes used as a military title depending on the individual customs of a given military service. Commander is also used as a rank or title in some organizations outside of the armed forces, particularly in police and law enforcement.-Commander as a naval...
of Chorrillos
Chorrillos
Chorrillos is a district of the Lima Province in Peru and part of the city of Lima. It gets its name from the Spanish word for "trickle of water"...
.
War of Independence
At the time of the landing of the rebel army of José de San MartínJosé de San Martín
José Francisco de San Martín, known simply as Don José de San Martín , was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from Spain.Born in Yapeyú, Corrientes , he left his mother country at the...
on the Peruvian coast, Santa Cruz was commander
Commander
Commander is a naval rank which is also sometimes used as a military title depending on the individual customs of a given military service. Commander is also used as a rank or title in some organizations outside of the armed forces, particularly in police and law enforcement.-Commander as a naval...
of militia
Militia
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
forces in the region of Huarochirí. In that position, he fought against the independetist in the Battle of Pasco (December 6, 1820), but the royalist
Royalist
A royalist supports a particular monarch as head of state for a particular kingdom, or of a particular dynastic claim. In the abstract, this position is royalism. It is distinct from monarchism, which advocates a monarchical system of government, but not necessarily a particular monarch...
s were defeated and Santa Cruz captured. Taken to San Martin's
José de San Martín
José Francisco de San Martín, known simply as Don José de San Martín , was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from Spain.Born in Yapeyú, Corrientes , he left his mother country at the...
headquarters
Headquarters
Headquarters denotes the location where most, if not all, of the important functions of an organization are coordinated. In the United States, the corporate headquarters represents the entity at the center or the top of a corporation taking full responsibility managing all business activities...
at Huaura, he decided to switch sides and joined the Patriot Army (January 8, 1821). Santa Cruz ascended rapidly, reaching the rank
Military rank
Military rank is a system of hierarchical relationships in armed forces or civil institutions organized along military lines. Usually, uniforms denote the bearer's rank by particular insignia affixed to the uniforms...
of Colonel
Colonel
Colonel , abbreviated Col or COL, is a military rank of a senior commissioned officer. It or a corresponding rank exists in most armies and in many air forces; the naval equivalent rank is generally "Captain". It is also used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures...
later that year and that of Brigade General
Brigadier General
Brigadier general is a senior rank in the armed forces. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of colonel and major general. When appointed to a field command, a brigadier general is typically in command of a brigade consisting of around 4,000...
in 1822 for leading Peruvian troops at the Battle of Pichincha
Battle of Pichincha
The Battle of Pichincha took place on 24 May 1822, on the slopes of the Pichincha volcano, 3,500 meters above sea-level, right next to the city of Quito, in modern Ecuador....
(24 May 1822).
He revolted against the Peruvian Congress
Congress of Peru
The Congress of the Republic of Peru or the National Congress of Peru is the unicameral body that assumes legislative power in Peru.Congress consists of 130 members of congress , who are elected for five year periods in office on a proportional representation basis...
on February 26, 1823, and forced it to elect José de la Riva Agüero
José de la Riva Agüero
José Mariano de la Riva Agüero y Sánchez Boquete Marquess De Montealegre de Aulestia was a Peruvian soldier, politician, historian and twice President of Peru....
as President. As commander
Commander
Commander is a naval rank which is also sometimes used as a military title depending on the individual customs of a given military service. Commander is also used as a rank or title in some organizations outside of the armed forces, particularly in police and law enforcement.-Commander as a naval...
of a Peruvian Army
Peruvian Army
The Peruvian Army is the branch of the Peruvian Armed Forces tasked with safeguarding the independence, sovereignty and integrity of national territory on land through military force. Additional missions include assistance in safeguarding internal security, conducting disaster relief operations...
expedition, Santa Cruz occupied the port of Arica
Arica
Arica is a city in northern Chile. "Arica" may also refer to:Places* Arica and Parinacota Region, Chile* Arica Airport , Chile* Arica, Amazonas, town in Colombia* Rio Aricá-açu, tributary of the Cuiabá River south of Cuiabá, BrazilOther...
and defeated a royalist army at the Battle of Zepita (August 27, 1823). Failing to exploit his victory, he retreated hastily.
When Simón Bolívar
Simón Bolívar
Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios Ponte y Yeiter, commonly known as Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan military and political leader...
assumed the presidency of Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
(February 17, 1824), Santa Cruz joined his army and was named Chief of Staff of the Peruvian Division
Division (military)
A division is a large military unit or formation usually consisting of between 10,000 and 20,000 soldiers. In most armies, a division is composed of several regiments or brigades, and in turn several divisions typically make up a corps...
. In that condition, he participated of the Battle of Junín
Battle of Junín
The Battle of Junín was a military engagement of the Peruvian War of Independence, fought in the highlands of the Junín Region on August 6, 1824. The preceding February the royalists had regained control of Lima, and having regrouped in Trujillo, Simón Bolívar in June led his rebel forces south to...
(August 6, 1824). Afterwards, he was named Prefect of Ayacucho
Ayacucho Region
Ayacucho is a region of Peru, located in the south-central Andes of the country. Its capital is the city of Ayacucho. The region was one of the hardest hit by terrorism during the 1980s during the guerrilla war waged by Shining Path known as the internal conflict in Peru.A referendum was held on...
, and then Chief of Staff of the Patriot Army during the campaign for the liberation of Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
. As a reward for his actions, Santa Cruz received the title
Title
A title is a prefix or suffix added to someone's name to signify either veneration, an official position or a professional or academic qualification. In some languages, titles may even be inserted between a first and last name...
s of Marshal and Prefect of Chuquisaca
Chuquisaca Department
Chuquisaca is a department of Bolivia located in the center south. It borders on the departments of Cochabamba, Tarija, Potosí, and Santa Cruz. The departmental capital is Sucre, which is also the constitutional capital of Bolivia.-Geography:...
on April 1825.
Named President of the Government Council in Lima
Lima
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the central part of the country, on a desert coast overlooking the Pacific Ocean. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms a contiguous urban area known as the Lima...
, he was in charge of the Peruvian Executive
Executive (government)
Executive branch of Government is the part of government that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the idea of the separation of powers.In many countries, the term...
after Bolívar returned to Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia
Gran Colombia is a name used today for the state that encompassed much of northern South America and part of southern Central America from 1819 to 1831. This short-lived republic included the territories of present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, northern Peru and northwest Brazil. The...
on September 4, 1826, until the collapse of the Bolivarian regime in Peru on January 27, 1827. Santa Cruz temporarily assumed the post of President until June 9, 1827, when José La Mar was elected by Congress
Congress of Peru
The Congress of the Republic of Peru or the National Congress of Peru is the unicameral body that assumes legislative power in Peru.Congress consists of 130 members of congress , who are elected for five year periods in office on a proportional representation basis...
.
President of Bolivia
Removed from power, Santa Cruz was named Peruvian ambassadorAmbassador
An ambassador is the highest ranking diplomat who represents a nation and is usually accredited to a foreign sovereign or government, or to an international organization....
to Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
, but he was recalled to Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
where he had been proclaimed as President
President of Bolivia
The President of Bolivia is head of state and head of government of Bolivia. According to the current Constitution, the president is elected by popular vote to a five year term, renewable once...
. Sworn in on May 24, 1829, he found a country afflicted by endemic internal disorders and very near to bankruptcy. Measures undertaken to resolve these problems included purging conspirators
Conspiracy (political)
In a political sense, conspiracy refers to a group of persons united in the goal of usurping or overthrowing an established political power. Typically, the final goal is to gain power through a revolutionary coup d'état or through assassination....
, reforming and strengthening the Army
Military of Bolivia
- Army :The Bolivian Army has around 55,500 men. There are six military regions in the army. The Army is organized into ten divisions...
, reforming the bureaucracy
Bureaucracy
A bureaucracy is an organization of non-elected officials of a governmental or organization who implement the rules, laws, and functions of their institution, and are occasionally characterized by officialism and red tape.-Weberian bureaucracy:...
, reforming public finance
Public finance
Public finance is the revenue and expenditure of public authoritiesThe purview of public finance is considered to be threefold: governmental effects on efficient allocation of resources, distribution of income, and macroeconomic stabilization.-Overview:The proper role of government provides a...
s, issuing new currency
Currency
In economics, currency refers to a generally accepted medium of exchange. These are usually the coins and banknotes of a particular government, which comprise the physical aspects of a nation's money supply...
, issuing a new Constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
, issuing a new Civil Code
Civil code
A civil code is a systematic collection of laws designed to comprehensively deal with the core areas of private law. A jurisdiction that has a civil code generally also has a code of civil procedure...
based on the Napoleonic Code
Napoleonic code
The Napoleonic Code — or Code Napoléon — is the French civil code, established under Napoléon I in 1804. The code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs go to the most qualified...
and establishing Cobija as a free port
Free port
A free port or free zone , sometimes also called a bonded area is a port, port area or other area with relaxed jurisdiction with respect to the country of location...
. The authoritarian regime
Authoritarianism
Authoritarianism is a form of social organization characterized by submission to authority. It is usually opposed to individualism and democracy...
imposed by Santa Cruz brought stability to Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
at a time when most countries in Latin America
Latin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
faced widespread unrest
Unrest
Unrest is a sociological phenomenon, for instance:* Industrial unrest* Labor unrest* Rebellion* Riot-Notable historical unrests:* 19th century Luddites* 1978–79 Winter of Discontent...
. Furthermore, it formed a solid base from which to pursue his main project, the Peru-Bolivian Confederation
Peru-Bolivian Confederation
The Peru–Bolivian Confederation was a short-lived confederate state that existed in South America between 1836 and 1839. Its first and only head of state, titled Supreme Protector, was the Bolivian president, Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz....
.
Peru-Bolivian Confederation
President of Bolivia
The President of Bolivia is head of state and head of government of Bolivia. According to the current Constitution, the president is elected by popular vote to a five year term, renewable once...
, Santa Cruz instigated several failed plots to achieve a political union with Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
, taking advantage of that country's chronic political unrest. His best opportunity came in 1835 when the Peruvian President Luis José de Orbegoso
Luis José de Orbegoso
Luis José de Orbegoso y Moncada count De Olmos , an aristocratic Peruvian soldier and politician, was President of Peru from 1833 to 1836...
requested his assistance to fight the rebel army of Felipe Santiago Salaverry
Felipe Santiago Salaverry
Felipe Santiago de Salaverry was a Peruvian soldier, politician and, from 1835 to 1836, President of Peru.He studied in the College of San Carlos in Lima...
. Santa Cruz defeated Peruvian caudillo
Caudillo
Caudillo is a Spanish word for "leader" and usually describes a political-military leader at the head of an authoritarian power. The term translates into English as leader or chief, or more pejoratively as warlord, dictator or strongman. Caudillo was the term used to refer to the charismatic...
Agustín Gamarra
Agustín Gamarra
Agustín Gamarra Messia was a Peruvian soldier and politician, becoming twice President of Peru from 1829 to 1833 and from 1838 to 1841....
at the Battle of Yanacocha (August 13, 1835) and Salaverry at the Battle of Uchumayo (February 4, 1836) after which he had Salaverry summarily executed
Summary execution
A summary execution is a variety of execution in which a person is killed on the spot without trial or after a show trial. Summary executions have been practiced by the police, military, and paramilitary organizations and are associated with guerrilla warfare, counter-insurgency, terrorism, and...
.
At the instigation of Santa Cruz, a Congress of the Peruvian southern departments
Department (subnational entity)
Department is the name given to the administrative and political subdivisions of many countries.As a territorial unit, "department" was first used by the French Revolutionary governments, apparently to emphasize that each territory was simply an administrative sub-division of the united sovereign...
(Arequipa
Arequipa Region
Arequipa is a region in southwestern Peru. It is bordered by the Ica, Ayacucho, Apurímac and Cusco regions on the north; the Puno Region on the east; the Moquegua Region on the south; and the Pacific Ocean on the west...
, Ayacucho
Ayacucho Region
Ayacucho is a region of Peru, located in the south-central Andes of the country. Its capital is the city of Ayacucho. The region was one of the hardest hit by terrorism during the 1980s during the guerrilla war waged by Shining Path known as the internal conflict in Peru.A referendum was held on...
, Cuzco
Cusco Region
Cusco is a region in Peru. It is bordered by the Ucayali Region on the north; the Madre de Dios and Puno regions on the east; the Arequipa Region on the south; and the Apurímac, Ayacucho and Junín regions on the west...
and Puno
Puno Region
Puno is a region in southeastern Peru. It is bordered by Bolivia on the east, the Madre de Dios Region on the north, the Cusco and Arequipa regions on the west, the Moquegua Region on the southwest, and the Tacna Region on the south...
) gathered at Sicuani and declared the establishment of the Republic of South Peru (March 17, 1836). A similar assembly
Deliberative assembly
A deliberative assembly is an organization comprising members who use parliamentary procedure to make decisions. In a speech to the electorate at Bristol in 1774, Edmund Burke described the English Parliament as a "deliberative assembly," and the expression became the basic term for a body of...
at Huaura of the northern departments
Department (subnational entity)
Department is the name given to the administrative and political subdivisions of many countries.As a territorial unit, "department" was first used by the French Revolutionary governments, apparently to emphasize that each territory was simply an administrative sub-division of the united sovereign...
(Amazonas
Amazonas Region
Amazonas is a department of northern Peru bordered by Ecuador on the north and west, Cajamarca Department on the west, La Libertad Department on the south, and Loreto Department and San Martín Department on the east. Its capital is the city of Chachapoyas....
, Junín
Junín Region
Junín is a region in the central highlands and westernmost Amazonia of Peru. Its capital is Huancayo.-Geography:The region has a very heterogeneous topography. The western cordillera located near the border with the Lima Region, has snowy and ice covered peaks. On the east, there are high glacier...
, La Libertad
La Libertad Region
La Libertad is a region in northwestern Peru. Formerly it was known as the 'Department of La Libertad" , a political division that generally corresponds to a state in the United States of America...
and Lima
Lima Region
Lima Region, also known as Lima Provincias, is one of twenty-five regions of Peru. Located in the central coast of the country, its regional seat is Huacho....
) founded the Republic of North Peru (August 11, 1836). Both recognized Santa Cruz as Supreme Protector
Protector (title)
Protector, sometimes spelled protecter, is used as a title or part of various historical titles of heads of state and others in authority...
with extensive powers, which enabled him to create the Peru-Bolivian Confederation
Peru-Bolivian Confederation
The Peru–Bolivian Confederation was a short-lived confederate state that existed in South America between 1836 and 1839. Its first and only head of state, titled Supreme Protector, was the Bolivian president, Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz....
on October 28, 1836. He summoned to the city of Tacna
Tacna
- Rail :Tacna is served by a cross-border standard gauge railway to Arica, Chile.It is also the location of the National Railway Museum of Peru.-Air:Tacna is served by the Crnl. FAP...
representatives of both legislature
Legislature
A legislature is a kind of deliberative assembly with the power to pass, amend, and repeal laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law. In addition to enacting laws, legislatures usually have exclusive authority to raise or lower taxes and adopt the budget and...
s together with those of the Bolivian Congress
National Congress of Bolivia
The Plurinational Legislative Assembly also known as the National Congress is the national legislature of Bolivia, based in the nation's de facto capital, La Paz....
assembled at Tapacarí to establish a Constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
for the new State
Sovereign state
A sovereign state, or simply, state, is a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither...
. Under his direction, they signed a pact on May 1, 1837 which named him Supreme Protector
Protector (title)
Protector, sometimes spelled protecter, is used as a title or part of various historical titles of heads of state and others in authority...
for a ten-year period.
Authoritarianism
Authoritarianism is a form of social organization characterized by submission to authority. It is usually opposed to individualism and democracy...
he had imposed in Bolivia. He issued a Civil Code
Civil code
A civil code is a systematic collection of laws designed to comprehensively deal with the core areas of private law. A jurisdiction that has a civil code generally also has a code of civil procedure...
, a Penal Code, a Trade
Trade
Trade is the transfer of ownership of goods and services from one person or entity to another. Trade is sometimes loosely called commerce or financial transaction or barter. A network that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and...
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation is administrative legislation that constitutes or constrains rights and allocates responsibilities. It can be distinguished from primary legislation on the one hand and judge-made law on the other...
, a Customs Regulation
Regulation
Regulation is administrative legislation that constitutes or constrains rights and allocates responsibilities. It can be distinguished from primary legislation on the one hand and judge-made law on the other...
and reorganized tax
Tax
To tax is to impose a financial charge or other levy upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state such that failure to pay is punishable by law. Taxes are also imposed by many subnational entities...
collection procedures allowing an increase in state revenue
Revenue
In business, revenue is income that a company receives from its normal business activities, usually from the sale of goods and services to customers. In many countries, such as the United Kingdom, revenue is referred to as turnover....
s while restraining expenditures. The Confederation generated resistances among several groups in both countries, who resented the dilution of national identities
Nation
A nation may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, and/or history. In this definition, a nation has no physical borders. However, it can also refer to people who share a common territory and government irrespective of their ethnic make-up...
. An important number of Peruvian politicians opposed to the idea of the Confederation fled to Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
, where they received support from the powerful Minister
Minister (government)
A minister is a politician who holds significant public office in a national or regional government. Senior ministers are members of the cabinet....
Diego Portales
Diego Portales
Diego José Pedro Víctor Portales Palazuelos was a Chilean statesman and entrepreneur. As a minister of president José Joaquín Prieto Diego Portales played a pivotal role in shaping the state and government politics in the 19th century, delivering with the Constitution of 1833 the framework of the...
. Together they amassed a military expedition against Santa Cruz, led by Admiral
Admiral
Admiral is the rank, or part of the name of the ranks, of the highest naval officers. It is usually considered a full admiral and above vice admiral and below admiral of the fleet . It is usually abbreviated to "Adm" or "ADM"...
Manuel Blanco Encalada
Manuel Blanco Encalada
Manuel José Blanco y Calvo de Encalada was a Vice-Admiral in the Chilean Navy, a political figure, and Chile's first President .-Biography:...
, but they were encircled by Santa Cruz and had to surrender by the Treaty of Paucarpata, signed on November 17, 1837. The Chilean Government organized a second expedition, which defeated the Supreme Protector
Protector (title)
Protector, sometimes spelled protecter, is used as a title or part of various historical titles of heads of state and others in authority...
at the Battle of Yungay
Battle of Yungay
The Battle of Yungay effectively destroyed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation created by Bolivian Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz in 1836...
(January 20, 1839) and forced the dissolution of the Confederation.
Later years
After resigning from his post as Supreme ProtectorProtector (title)
Protector, sometimes spelled protecter, is used as a title or part of various historical titles of heads of state and others in authority...
(February 20, 1839), Santa Cruz fled to Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador , officially the Republic of Ecuador is a representative democratic republic in South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and by the Pacific Ocean to the west. It is one of only two countries in South America, along with Chile, that do not have a border...
from where he plotted unsuccessfully to regain power. On October 13, 1843 he disembarked at Camarones in the Peruvian province of Tarapacá
Tarapacá Region
The I Tarapacá Region is one of Chile's 15 first order administrative divisions. It borders the Chilean Arica and Parinacota Region to the north, Bolivia's Oruro Department on the east, the Antofagasta Region on the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west. The port city of Iquique The I Tarapacá...
but was captured while trying to reach Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
. Delivered to the Chilean Government, he was imprisoned at Chillán
Chillán
Chillán is a city in the Biobío Region of Chile located about south of the country's capital, Santiago, near the geographical center of the country. It is the capital of Ñuble Province and, with a population of approximately 170,000 people , the most populated urban center of this province...
from 1844 until 1846 when he was freed. He was named ambassador
Ambassador
An ambassador is the highest ranking diplomat who represents a nation and is usually accredited to a foreign sovereign or government, or to an international organization....
to several European countries by Manuel Belzú
Manuel Isidoro Belzu
Manuel Isidoro Belzu Humerez was president of Bolivia from 1848 to 1855.-Early life and education:Born in La Paz, Bolivia to humble mestizo parents, Belzu was educated by Franciscan friars.-Early career:...
(1848-1855) and then ran for president of Bolivia but was defeated by General
General
A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....
Jorge Córdova
Jorge Córdova
Jorge Córdova was a military officer and constitutional president of Bolivia .A general, Córdova was longtime dictator Manuel Isidoro Belzu's son-in-law. As such, he was the main support to his despotic regime...
. After staying for a while in Argentina, he returned to France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
where he lived the rest of his life at Versailles
Versailles
Versailles , a city renowned for its château, the Palace of Versailles, was the de facto capital of the kingdom of France for over a century, from 1682 to 1789. It is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and remains an important administrative and judicial centre...
. He died at Beauvoir, near Nantes
Nantes
Nantes is a city in western France, located on the Loire River, from the Atlantic coast. The city is the 6th largest in France, while its metropolitan area ranks 8th with over 800,000 inhabitants....
on September 25, 1865. One hundred years later, in 1965, the remains of the old Marshal were repatriated from France by the military government of the day and reinterred ceremoniously beside the Presidential Palace in Bolivia.
See also
- History of BoliviaHistory of BoliviaThis is the history of Bolivia. See also the history of Latin America and the history of the Americas.Bolivia is a landlocked country in South America...
- History of PeruHistory of PeruThe history of Peru spans several millennia, extending back through several stages of cultural development in the mountain region and the coastal desert....
- Peru-Bolivian ConfederationPeru-Bolivian ConfederationThe Peru–Bolivian Confederation was a short-lived confederate state that existed in South America between 1836 and 1839. Its first and only head of state, titled Supreme Protector, was the Bolivian president, Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz....
- War of the ConfederationWar of the ConfederationThe War of the Confederation , was a conflict between the Peru-Bolivian Confederation on one side and Chile, Peruvian dissidents and Argentina, on the other, fought mostly in the actual territory of Peru and which ended with a Confederate defeat and the dissolution of the...