Philodendron
Encyclopedia
Philodendron is a large genus
of flowering plant
s in the Araceae
family
, consisting of close to 900 or more species according to TROPICOS (a service of the Missouri Botanical Garden). Other sources quote different numbers of species. According to S.J. Mayo there are about 350-400 formally recognized species whereas according to Croat there are about 700. Whichever the exact number of species, the genus is the second largest member of the arum family. Taxonomically the genus Philodendron is still poorly known, with many undescribed species. Many are grown as ornamental and indoor plants. The name derives from the Greek words philo or "love" and dendron or "tree".
and the West Indies. Most occur in humid tropical forests, but can also be found in swamps and on river banks, roadsides and rock outcrops. They are also found throughout a diverse range of elevations from sea level to over 2000 meters. Species of this genus are often found clambering over other plants, or climbing the trunks of trees with the aid of aerial roots. Philodendrons usually distinguish themselves in their environment by their large numbers compared to other plants, making them a highly noticeable component of the ecosystems they're found in. They are found in great numbers in road clearings.
Philodendrons can also be found in Australia
, some Pacific islands
, Africa
and Asia
, although they aren't indigenous
to these regions. Rather, they were introduced or accidentally escaped.
, Philodendrons have an extremely diverse array of methods by which they grow. The habits of growth can be epiphytic
, hemiepiphytic
, or terrestrial
although very few Philodendrons grow terrestrially
. Others can show a combination of these growth habits depending on the environment. Hemiepiphytic
Philodendrons can be classified into two types: primary and secondary hemiepiphyte
s. The primary hemiepiphytic
Philodendrons start life high up in the canopy where the seed initially sprouts. The plant then grows as an epiphyte
. Once it has reached a sufficient size and age, it will begin producing aerial roots that grow toward the forest floor. Once the roots have reached the forest floor, nutrients can be obtained directly from the soil. In this manner, the plant's strategy is to obtain light early in its life at the expense of nutrients. Some primary epiphytic species have a symbiotic relationship with ants. In these species the ants' nest is grown amongst the plant's roots, which help keep the nest together. Philodendrons have extrafloral nectaries, glands that secrete nectar that attracts the ants. The Philodendron in turn obtains nutrients from the surrounding ant nest, and the aggressive nature of the ants serves to protect the plant from other insects who would eat it. Secondary hemiepiphyte
s start life on the ground or on part of a tree trunk very close to the ground where the seed sprouts. These Philodendrons have their roots in the ground early in their lives. They then begin climbing up a tree and eventually may become completely epithytic, doing away with their subterranean roots. Secondary hemiepiphyte
s don't always start their lives close to a tree. For these Philodendrons, what happens is that the plant will grow with long internodes along the ground until a tree is found. They find a suitable tree by means of growing towards darker areas such as the dark shadow of a tree. This trait is called scototropism. After a tree has been found, the scototropic behavior stops and the Philodendron switches to a phototropic
growth habit and the internodes shorten and thicken. Usually, however, Philodendrons germinate on trees.
The leaves are usually large and imposing, often lobed or deeply cut, and may be more or less pinnate
. They can also be oval, spear-shaped, or many other possible leaf variations. The leaves are borne alternately on the stem. An interesting quality of Philodendrons is that they don't have a single type of leaf on the same plant. Instead they have juvenile leaves and adult leaves, which can be drastically different from one another. The leaves of seedling Philodendrons are usually heart-shaped. Early in the life of the plant but after it has matured past the seedling stage, the leaves will have acquired the typical juvenile leaf's shape and size. Later in the Philodendron's life, it starts producing adult leaves, a process called metamorphosis
. Most Philodendrons go through metamorphosis gradually; there is no immediate distinct difference between juvenile and adult leaves. Aside from being typically much bigger than the juvenile leaves, the shape of adult leaves can be significantly different. In fact there has been considerable taxonomic difficulty in the past due to differences between the juvenile and adult leaves causing juvenile and adult plants to mistakenly be classified as different species. The mechanism that triggers the transformation to adult leaves can vary considerably. One possible trigger is the height of the plant. Primary hemiepiphyte
s start off on the dark forest floor and climb their way up a tree, displaying their juvenile type leaves along the way. Once they reach a sufficient height, they begin developing adult type leaves. The smaller juvenile leaves are used for the darker forest floor where light is in scarce supply, but once they reach a sufficient height in the canopy the light is bright enough that the bigger adult leaves can serve a useful purpose. Another possible trigger occurs in secondary hemiepiphyte
s. These Philodendrons typically send their aerial roots downward. Once their roots have reached the ground below, the plant will begin taking up nutrients from the soil, of which it had been previously deprived. As a result, the plant will quickly morph into its adult leaves and gain in size dramatically. Another interesting quality of Philodendron leaves is that they are often quite different in shape and size even between two plants of the same species. As a result of all these different possible leaf shapes it is often difficult to differentiate natural variations from morphogenesis
.
and persistent types. A deciduous
cataphyll curls away from the leaf once it has formed, eventually turning brown and drying out, and finally falling off the plant, leaving a scar on the stem where it was attached. Deciduous
cataphylls are typically found on vining Philodendrons, whereas persistent cataphylls are typical of epiphytic Philodendrons or appressed climbers. In the latter, the cataphylls are prevented from falling off in a timely manner due to the short internodes of the plant. The cataphylls will remain attached, drying out and becoming nothing more than fibers attached at the nodes. In some Philodendrons the cataphylls build up over time and eventually form a wet mass at the nodes. This may serve the purpose of keeping emerging roots moist and of providing some form of lubrication to new leaves.
into these two categories. Aerial roots that are used for attaching to trees tend to be shorter, more numerous, and sometimes have a layer of root hairs attached. Aerial roots that serve the purpose of collecting water and nutrients tend to be thicker and longer. These feeder roots tend to attach flush with the substrate that the Philodendron is attached to and make their way directly downwards in search of soil. In general, feeder roots tend to show both positive hydrotropic
and negative heliotropic behavior. Characteristic of roots in Philodendrons is the presence of sclerotic hypodermis, which are cylindrical tubes inside the epidermis
that can be one to five cells long. The cells that line the sclerotic hypodermis are elongated and tend to be hardened. Underneath the epidermis
is a unique layer of cells in a pattern of long cells followed by short cells.
, sheaths, lower surfaces of the leaves, and spathes. The nectaries produce a sweet sticky substance that the ants like to eat and which provides an incentive for them to build their nests amongst the roots of the given Philodendron. In some cases the amount of nectar produced can be quite extensive, resulting in the surface becoming entirely covered with nectar.
crystals as raphides
. The risk of death, if even possible, is extremely low if ingested by an average adult although it is generally considered unhealthy to consume parts of Philodendrons. In general, the calcium oxalate crystals have a very mild effect on humans. Large quantities generally have to be consumed for symptoms to even appear. Possible symptoms include increased salivation, a sensation of burning of the mouth, swelling of the tongue
, stomatitis
, dysphagia
, an inability to speak, and edema
. Cases of mild dermatitis
due to contact with the leaves have also been reported, with symptoms including vesiculation and erythema
. The chemical derivatives of alkenyl resorcinol is believed to be responsible for the dermatitis in some people. Contact with Philodendron oils or fluids with the eyes have also been known to result in conjunctivitis
. Fatal poisonings are extremely rare; there has been one recorded case of an infant eating small quantities of a Philodendron resulting in hospitalization and death. This one case study however was found to be inconsistent with the findings from a second study by Mrvos et al. In this study 127 cases of children ingesting philodendrons were studied, and they found that only one child showed symptoms; a 10 month old who had minor upper lip swelling when he chewed on a philodendron leaf. The study also found that the symptoms could subside without treatment and that previously reported cases of severe complications were exaggerated.
As to the toxicity of Philodendrons in cats the evidence is conflicting. In one study conducted by M. J. Greer, 72 cases of cat poisonings were examined, of which 37 resulted in the death of the cat. The symptoms of the poisoned cats included excitability, spasm
s, seizures, renal failure
, and encephalitis
. However, in a study conducted by Sellers et al., three cats were tube fed Philodendron cordatum
and showed no signs of acute poisoning. In this study two adult cats and one kitten
were fed a puréed leaf and water mixture, observed afterward, then euthanized, and finally a necropsy was performed. Dosage
s of 2.8, 5.6, and 9.1 g/kg were used, with the highest dosage
administered being considerably more than any house cat could consume. The results showed none of the symptoms found in past epidemiological studies and appeared normal. Necropsies showed nothing that would suggest toxicity. It has been suggested that past epidemiological studies may be wrong since it's possible that sick cats may be inclined to eat plants to alleviate their illness. If this were the case then such studies would be incorrectly attributing the sickness of the cats to the Philodendrons. It has also been suggested that the forced feeding study may have failed to show signs of Philodendron toxicity because the tube feeding bypassed the mouth and hence minimized the typical signs of irritation.
Some Philodendrons are, however, known to be toxic to mice
and rats
. In a study conducted by Der Marderosian et al., 100 mg of Philodendron cordatum
leaves suspended in distilled water were fed to six mice. The results were that three of the mice died. The same experiment was done with 100 mg of Philodendron cordatum
stems on three mice and none of them died. Leaves and flowers of Philodendron sagittifolium were also orally administered in 100 mg doses to the mice. Three mice were used for each of the leaves and flowers. The results were that none of the mice died. A similar experiment was done on rats with the leaves and stems of Philodendron cordatum
, but instead of oral administration of the dose it was injected intraperitoneally using 3g of plant extract
from either the leaves or stems. Six rats were injected with the leaf extract and five of them died. Eight rats were injected with the stem extract and two of them died.
which consists of a leaf-like hood called a spathe within which is enclosed a tube-like structure called a spadix
. Depending on the species of Philodendron, a single inflorescence
can be produced or a cluster of up to 11 inflorescences can be produced at a single time on short peduncles
. The spathe tends to be waxy and its usually bicolored. In some Philodendrons the base of the spathe is of a contrasting color with the upper part, and in others the inner and outer surface of the spathe differ in coloration. The paler color tends to be either white or green, and the darker usually red or crimson. Pelargonidin
is the predominant pigment
causing the red coloration in the spathes. The upper portion of the spathe is called the limb or blade, while the lower portion of the spathe is called the convolute tube or chamber due to its tubular structure at the base. The spadix
is more often than not white and shorter than the spathe. On the spadix
are found fertile female, fertile male, and sterile male flowers. The fertile male and female flowers are separated on the spadix
by a sterile zone or staminodal region composed of sterile male flowers. This barrier of sterile male flowers ensures that fertile male flowers don't fertilize the female flowers. The arrangement tends to be vertical, with fertile male flowers at the top of the spadix followed by sterile male flowers, and fertile female flowers very close to the bottom in the region known as the spathe tube or chamber. In some Philodendrons there is an additional region of sterile male flowers at the very top of the spadix. The fertile female flowers are often not receptive to fertilization when the fertile males are producing pollen
which again prevents self-pollination
. The pollen itself is thread-like and appears to project out from the region where the fertile male flowers are located.
Sexual reproduction
is achieved by means of beetles, with many Philodendron species requiring the presence of a specific beetle species to achieve pollination. The reverse is not always the case, as many beetle species will pollinate more than one Philodendron species. These same beetles could also pollinate other genera outside of Philodendron as well as outside of the family Araceae
. The beetles that do the pollinating are males and members of the subfamily Rutelinae and Dynastinae, and to date the only beetles that have been seen to pollinate the inflorescence are in the genera Cyclocephala or Erioscelis. There are other smaller types of beetles in the genus Neelia that visit the inflorescences as well but they are not believed to be involved in pollinating Philodendron. In order to attract the beetles the sterile male flowers give off pheromones that attracts the male beetles usually at dusk
. This process is called female anthesis and is followed by male anthesis in which the pollen is produced. Female anthesis typically lasts up to 2 days and includes the gradual opening of the spathe to allow the beetles to enter. There has been some evidence to suggest that the timing of opening of the spathe is dependent on light levels. Where cloudy darker days result in the spathe opening up earlier than on clear days. During female anthesis the spadix
will project forward at roughly 45 degrees relative to the spathe. The spathe serves the purpose of providing a safe breeding area for the beetles. As such the male beetles are often followed by female beetles with the intent of mating with the male beetles within the spathe. The Philodendrons benefit from this symbiotic relationship because the male beetles will eventually leave the spathe covered in pollen and repeat the process at another Philodendron; pollinating it in the process and thus providing Philodendrons a means of sexual reproduction
. The benefit to the beetles is a little less obvious. In addition to gaining a safe location to mate, the male beetles may benefit from having a central location because it allows them to broadcast to females that they are willing and able to mate. Females who see a male beetle headed for a Philodendron flower know that he does so with intention of mating and females who are sexually receptive and need to mate know that they can find males if they follow the pheromones produced by the Philodendron flowers. As a result, the male beetles benefit from this relationship with the Philodendrons because they don't have to produce pheromones to attract females since the Philodendrons do it for them. Additionally, male beetles benefit from the fact that they are ensured of mating with only sexually receptive females, something that is not necessarily certain if the beetle is flying through the rainforest in search of females. In doing so, the Philodendron provides male beetles a means of finding female beetles that proves to be more efficient than what it could achieve on its own. Interestingly, there is some evidence to suggest that the pheromones produced by the Philodendrons are similar to those produced by female beetles when they wish to attract males to mate, although as of yet this isn't conclusive. Also, the pheromones produced has a sweet fruity smell in many species and no noticeable smell for others. In addition to the reproductive benefits provided to the male beetles the Philodendrons provide food in two forms. Pollen from the fertile male flowers are edible and are eaten by the beetles throughout the night. Secondly, the sterile male flowers themselves are consumed by the beetles and are rich in lipids.
The male beetles will stay overnight in the spathe, eating and mating throughout the night due to the benefits provided by the spathe and spadix. Typically, 5 to 12 beetles will be within the spathe throughout the night. However, rarely cases of 200 beetles at a time have been observed and almost always the beetles are of the same species. Another interesting feature of this symbiotic relationship that is less well understood, is the series of events in which the spadix begins to heat up prior to the spathe opening up for the beetles. This process is known as thermogenesis
. By the time the spathe is open and the beetles have arrived the spadix is usually quite hot; up to around 46°C in some species, but usually around 35°C. The thermogenesis
coincides with the arrival of the beetles and the temperature appears to increase in their presence. An additional characteristic is that the maximum temperature reached by the spadix remains about 20°C higher than the outside ambient temperature. The time dependence of the temperature can vary from species to species. In some species the temperature of the spadix will peak on the arrival of the beetles then decrease and finally increase reaching a maximum once again when the Philodendron is ready for the beetles to leave. Other species however, only show a maximum temperature on the arrival of the beetles which remains roughly constant for about a day and then steadily decreases. It has also been observed that a few species will show three peaks in temperature during the flowering. The increased temperature serves the purpose of increasing the metabolism of the beetles causing them to move about more within the spathe and increasing the likelihood that they will be sufficiently coated with pollen. A sticky resin is also produced in drops attached to the spadix which help to keep the pollen attached to the beetles. This resin producing quality is unique to Philodendron and Monstera
as that other genera of Araceae
don't produce it on their spadix. The resin is also found on the stems, leaves, and roots of Philodendrons. Its color can be red, orange, yellow, or colorless when it is first produced. Yet, over time it will turn brown as it is exposed to air. There is also some evidence to suggest that the thermogenesis triggers the beetles to mate. It also appears to serve the purpose of propagating the pheromones into the air. The reason for the spadix
being held at 45 degrees relative to the spathe has been suggested to be for the purpose of maximizing the heats ability to waft the pheromones into the air. For a long time the means by which thermogenesis worked wasn't understood, but it is now known to occur by means of rapidly oxidizing stored carbohydrates and lipids. The part of the spadix that heats up is the sterile zone. As the sterile zone heats up carbohydrates are burned, but once the spadix has reached its maximum temperature lipids are being oxidized. The burning of lipids is a particularly interesting feature found in Philodendrons since previously it was believed that only animals were capable of oxidizing lipids. It should be noted that the lipids aren't first converted to carbohydrates but rather are directly oxidized. This is an example of convergent evolution
where two unrelated lifeforms exhibit the same trait. For Philodendrons however the oxidation of lipids is done for the purpose of generating heat whereas in animals it is often done for the purpose of generating ATP
. The thermogenic reaction is triggered when concentrations of acetosalicitic acid form in the sterile zone. The acetosalicitic acid sets off the mitochondria in the cells that make up the sterile zone to switch to an electron transport chain
called the cyanide resistant pathway which results in the production of heat. Philodendrons consume oxygen
during thermogenesis
. The rate at which oxygen is used is remarkably high being close to that of hummingbirds and sphinx moths. It has also been observed that the spadix generates infrared radiation. As the beetles home in on the inflorescence they first move in a zig-zag pattern until they get reasonably close at which time they switch to a straight line path. It has been suggested that the beetles are using scent to find the inflorescence when they are far away, but once they reach a certain distance they find it by means of the infrared radiation. This would account for the two different types of paths the beetles follow as they attempt to find a Philodendron inflorescence.
Once female anthesis is nearing its end and the female flowers have been pollinated the spathe will be fully open and male anthesis begins. In the beginning of male anthesis the fertile male flowers complete the process of producing the pollen and the female flowers become unreceptive to further pollination. Additionally, the spadix
moves from its 45 degree position and presses up flush to the spathe. Towards the end of male anthesis the spathe begins to close from the bottom working its way up and forcing the beetles to move up and across the upper region of the spathe where the fertile male flowers are located. In doing so the Philodendron controls when the beetles come and when they leave and forces them to rub against the top of the spadix where the pollen is located as they exit. Thus ensuring that they are well coated with pollen. One would expect that the beetles would stay indefinitely if they could due to the very favorable conditions that the inflorescence provides for the beetles. After male anthesis the male beetles will go off and find another Philodendron that is undergoing female anthesis and as a result will pollinate the female flowers with the pollen it had collected from its previous night of mating.
. The berries develop later in the season where the time of development varies from species to species. It can take from a few weeks to a year for the berries to develop although most Philodendron take a few months. The spathe will enlarge to hold the maturing berries. Once the fruit are mature the spathe will begin to open again, but this time it will break off at the base and fall to the forest floor. Additionally, the berries are edible even though they contain the calcium oxalate
crystals, having a taste akin to bananas.
The color of the berries can vary a bit depending on the species, but most produce a white berry with slight tones of green. Some produce orange berries and others yellow berries though. Still others will produce berries that start off white, but then change to another color with time. Philodendron that produce orange berries tend to be members of the section Calostigma. Contained within the berries are the seeds which are extremely small compared to other members of the Araceae family. The berries of Philodendron often give off odors for the purpose of attracting animals to eat and disperse them. For example, Philodendron alliodorum berries are known to emit an odor similar to that of garlic
. The animals that distribute the seeds depends on the species of Philodendron, but some of the possible dispersers include bat
s and monkeys. There is also evidence that insects are also responsible for dispersing seeds as that beetles and wasps have been seen feeding on Philodendron berries.
Another insect that seeks out Philodendrons are chalcid wasps. They are known to lay their eggs in the ovaries of many Philodendron species. The result is what is known as a galled inflorescence.
Hybridizing Philodendron is extremely easy if flowering plants are available because they have very few barriers that prevent hybrids. However, there are some aspects to making crosses that can make Philodendron hybridization more difficult. Philodendron often flower at different times and the time that the spathe opens up varies from plant to plant. The pollen has a short shelf life along with the inflorescence itself which means that a large collection of Philodendron is necessary if hybridization is to be done successfully. The shelf life of the pollen can be extended by storing it in film canisters in a refrigerator
. If this is done the pollen can last for a couple weeks. Artificial pollination is usually achieved by first mixing the pollen with water. A window is then cut into the spathe and the water-pollen mixture is rubbed on the fertile female flowers. The entire spathe is then covered in a plastic bag so that the water-pollen mixture doesn't dry out and is removed a few days later. If the inflorescence hasn't been successfully fertilized it will fall off usually within one to two weeks, but sometimes as long as a month.
and Philodendron are known to be used by Trigona bees in the construction of their nests. Subsequently native Indians from South America
take the resin from the bees' nests and use it to make their blowgun
s air and watertight.
Even though Philodendron contain calcium oxalate
crystals the berries of some species are eaten by the locals. For example, in the case of Philodendron bipinnatifidum the white sweet berries are known to be used in such a fashion. Additionally, the aerial roots are also used for rope
in this particular species.
The leaves of Philodendron are also known to be eaten by Venezuelan Red Howler
monkeys making up 3.1% of all the leaves they eat.
Also, in the making of a particular recipe for curare
by the Amazonian Taiwanos, the leaves and stems of an unknown Philodendron species is used. The leaves and stems are mixed with the bark of Vochysia ferruginea and with some parts of a species in the genus Strychnos
.
Yet another use of Philodendron is for the purpose of catching fish
. A tribe in the Colombia
n Amazon are known to use Philodendron craspedodromum to add poison to the water, temporarily stunning the fish, which rise up to the surface where they can be easily scooped up. To add the poison to the water, the leaves are cut into pieces and tied together to form bundles, which are allowed to ferment
for a few days. The bundles are crushed and added to the water into which the poison will dissipate. Although the toxicity of Philodendron craspedodromum is not fully known, it is possible that the active ingredients in the poisoning of the fish are coumarins which are formed during the fermentation process.
Some Philodendron are also used for ceremonial purposes. Among the Kubeo tribe, native to Colombia
, Philodendron insigne is used by witch doctor
s when they are treating ill patients. They use the juice of the spathe to stain their hands red since many such tribes view the color red as a sign of power.
. Plumier collected approximately six species from the islands of Martinique
, Hispaniola
, and St. Thomas
. Since then there has been many exploration attempts to collect new species by others. These include those by N.J. Jacquin who collected new species in the West Indies, Colombia
, and Venezuela
. At this time in history the names of the Philodendrons they were discovering were being published with the genus name Arum since most aroids were considered to belong to this same genus. The genus Philodendron had not yet been created. Throughout the late 17th century, 18th century, and early 19th century many plants were removed from the genus Arum and placed into newly created genera in an attempt to improve the classification. It wasn't until Heinrich Wilhelm Schott
addressed the problem of providing improved taxonomy that the genus Philodendron was created and described. This was done in 1829 and the genus was first spelled as 'Philodendrum'. Then in 1832, Schott published a system for classifying plants in the family Araceae
titled Meletemata Botanica in which he provided a method of classifying Philodendrons based on flowering characteristics. In 1856, Schott published a revision of his previous work titled Synopsis aroidearum and then subsequently in 1860 published his final work Prodromus Systematis Aroidearum in which he provided even more details about the classification of Philodendron and described 135 species.
and Homalomena
. The genus Philodendron is subdivided into several sections and subsections:
Section Baursia
, section Philopsammos, section Philodendron (subsections Achyropodium, Canniphyllium, Macrolonchium, Philodendron, Platypodium, Psoropodium and Solenosterigma), section Calostigma (subsections Bulaoana, Eucardium, Glossophyllum, Macrobelium and Oligocarpidium), section Tritomophyllum, section Schizophyllum, section Polytomium, section Macrogynium and section Camptogynium.
Typically the inflorescence is of great importance in determining the species of a given Philodendron since it tends to be less variable than the leaves of the plant. It has been suggested however that the genus Philodendron could be classified further by means of differentiating them based on the pattern of thermogenesis observed although this isn't currently in use.
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
of flowering plant
Flowering plant
The flowering plants , also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants like the gymnosperms and can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of synapomorphies...
s in the Araceae
Araceae
Araceae are a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. The spadix is usually accompanied by, and sometimes partially enclosed in, a spathe or leaf-like bract. Also known as the Arum family, members are often colloquially...
family
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
, consisting of close to 900 or more species according to TROPICOS (a service of the Missouri Botanical Garden). Other sources quote different numbers of species. According to S.J. Mayo there are about 350-400 formally recognized species whereas according to Croat there are about 700. Whichever the exact number of species, the genus is the second largest member of the arum family. Taxonomically the genus Philodendron is still poorly known, with many undescribed species. Many are grown as ornamental and indoor plants. The name derives from the Greek words philo or "love" and dendron or "tree".
Distribution
Philodendron species can be found in many diverse habitats in the tropical AmericasAmericas
The Americas, or America , are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World. In English, the plural form the Americas is often used to refer to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, while the singular form America is primarily...
and the West Indies. Most occur in humid tropical forests, but can also be found in swamps and on river banks, roadsides and rock outcrops. They are also found throughout a diverse range of elevations from sea level to over 2000 meters. Species of this genus are often found clambering over other plants, or climbing the trunks of trees with the aid of aerial roots. Philodendrons usually distinguish themselves in their environment by their large numbers compared to other plants, making them a highly noticeable component of the ecosystems they're found in. They are found in great numbers in road clearings.
Philodendrons can also be found in Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, some Pacific islands
Pacific Islands
The Pacific Islands comprise 20,000 to 30,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean. The islands are also sometimes collectively called Oceania, although Oceania is sometimes defined as also including Australasia and the Malay Archipelago....
, Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
and Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
, although they aren't indigenous
Indigenous (ecology)
In biogeography, a species is defined as native to a given region or ecosystem if its presence in that region is the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention. Every natural organism has its own natural range of distribution in which it is regarded as native...
to these regions. Rather, they were introduced or accidentally escaped.
Growth Habit
Compared to other genera of the family AraceaeAraceae
Araceae are a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. The spadix is usually accompanied by, and sometimes partially enclosed in, a spathe or leaf-like bract. Also known as the Arum family, members are often colloquially...
, Philodendrons have an extremely diverse array of methods by which they grow. The habits of growth can be epiphytic
Epiphyte
An epiphyte is a plant that grows upon another plant non-parasitically or sometimes upon some other object , derives its moisture and nutrients from the air and rain and sometimes from debris accumulating around it, and is found in the temperate zone and in the...
, hemiepiphytic
Hemiepiphyte
A hemiepiphyte is a plant which begins its life as an epiphyte but which later grows roots down into the ground. The seeds of hemiepiphytes germinate in the canopy and initially live epiphytically...
, or terrestrial
Terrestrial plant
A terrestrial plant is one that grows on land. Other types of plants are aquatic , epiphytic , lithophytes and aerial ....
although very few Philodendrons grow terrestrially
Terrestrial plant
A terrestrial plant is one that grows on land. Other types of plants are aquatic , epiphytic , lithophytes and aerial ....
. Others can show a combination of these growth habits depending on the environment. Hemiepiphytic
Hemiepiphyte
A hemiepiphyte is a plant which begins its life as an epiphyte but which later grows roots down into the ground. The seeds of hemiepiphytes germinate in the canopy and initially live epiphytically...
Philodendrons can be classified into two types: primary and secondary hemiepiphyte
Hemiepiphyte
A hemiepiphyte is a plant which begins its life as an epiphyte but which later grows roots down into the ground. The seeds of hemiepiphytes germinate in the canopy and initially live epiphytically...
s. The primary hemiepiphytic
Hemiepiphyte
A hemiepiphyte is a plant which begins its life as an epiphyte but which later grows roots down into the ground. The seeds of hemiepiphytes germinate in the canopy and initially live epiphytically...
Philodendrons start life high up in the canopy where the seed initially sprouts. The plant then grows as an epiphyte
Epiphyte
An epiphyte is a plant that grows upon another plant non-parasitically or sometimes upon some other object , derives its moisture and nutrients from the air and rain and sometimes from debris accumulating around it, and is found in the temperate zone and in the...
. Once it has reached a sufficient size and age, it will begin producing aerial roots that grow toward the forest floor. Once the roots have reached the forest floor, nutrients can be obtained directly from the soil. In this manner, the plant's strategy is to obtain light early in its life at the expense of nutrients. Some primary epiphytic species have a symbiotic relationship with ants. In these species the ants' nest is grown amongst the plant's roots, which help keep the nest together. Philodendrons have extrafloral nectaries, glands that secrete nectar that attracts the ants. The Philodendron in turn obtains nutrients from the surrounding ant nest, and the aggressive nature of the ants serves to protect the plant from other insects who would eat it. Secondary hemiepiphyte
Hemiepiphyte
A hemiepiphyte is a plant which begins its life as an epiphyte but which later grows roots down into the ground. The seeds of hemiepiphytes germinate in the canopy and initially live epiphytically...
s start life on the ground or on part of a tree trunk very close to the ground where the seed sprouts. These Philodendrons have their roots in the ground early in their lives. They then begin climbing up a tree and eventually may become completely epithytic, doing away with their subterranean roots. Secondary hemiepiphyte
Hemiepiphyte
A hemiepiphyte is a plant which begins its life as an epiphyte but which later grows roots down into the ground. The seeds of hemiepiphytes germinate in the canopy and initially live epiphytically...
s don't always start their lives close to a tree. For these Philodendrons, what happens is that the plant will grow with long internodes along the ground until a tree is found. They find a suitable tree by means of growing towards darker areas such as the dark shadow of a tree. This trait is called scototropism. After a tree has been found, the scototropic behavior stops and the Philodendron switches to a phototropic
Phototropism
Phototropism is directional growth in which the direction of growth is determined by the direction of the light source. In other words, it is the growth and response to a light stimulus. Phototropism is most often observed in plants, but can also occur in other organisms such as fungi...
growth habit and the internodes shorten and thicken. Usually, however, Philodendrons germinate on trees.
Leaves
Pinnate
Pinnate is a term used to describe feather-like or multi-divided features arising from both sides of a common axis in plant or animal structures, and comes from the Latin word pinna meaning "feather", "wing", or "fin". A similar term is pectinate, which refers to a comb-like arrangement of parts...
. They can also be oval, spear-shaped, or many other possible leaf variations. The leaves are borne alternately on the stem. An interesting quality of Philodendrons is that they don't have a single type of leaf on the same plant. Instead they have juvenile leaves and adult leaves, which can be drastically different from one another. The leaves of seedling Philodendrons are usually heart-shaped. Early in the life of the plant but after it has matured past the seedling stage, the leaves will have acquired the typical juvenile leaf's shape and size. Later in the Philodendron's life, it starts producing adult leaves, a process called metamorphosis
Metamorphosis
Metamorphosis is a biological process by which an animal physically develops after birth or hatching, involving a conspicuous and relatively abrupt change in the animal's body structure through cell growth and differentiation...
. Most Philodendrons go through metamorphosis gradually; there is no immediate distinct difference between juvenile and adult leaves. Aside from being typically much bigger than the juvenile leaves, the shape of adult leaves can be significantly different. In fact there has been considerable taxonomic difficulty in the past due to differences between the juvenile and adult leaves causing juvenile and adult plants to mistakenly be classified as different species. The mechanism that triggers the transformation to adult leaves can vary considerably. One possible trigger is the height of the plant. Primary hemiepiphyte
Hemiepiphyte
A hemiepiphyte is a plant which begins its life as an epiphyte but which later grows roots down into the ground. The seeds of hemiepiphytes germinate in the canopy and initially live epiphytically...
s start off on the dark forest floor and climb their way up a tree, displaying their juvenile type leaves along the way. Once they reach a sufficient height, they begin developing adult type leaves. The smaller juvenile leaves are used for the darker forest floor where light is in scarce supply, but once they reach a sufficient height in the canopy the light is bright enough that the bigger adult leaves can serve a useful purpose. Another possible trigger occurs in secondary hemiepiphyte
Hemiepiphyte
A hemiepiphyte is a plant which begins its life as an epiphyte but which later grows roots down into the ground. The seeds of hemiepiphytes germinate in the canopy and initially live epiphytically...
s. These Philodendrons typically send their aerial roots downward. Once their roots have reached the ground below, the plant will begin taking up nutrients from the soil, of which it had been previously deprived. As a result, the plant will quickly morph into its adult leaves and gain in size dramatically. Another interesting quality of Philodendron leaves is that they are often quite different in shape and size even between two plants of the same species. As a result of all these different possible leaf shapes it is often difficult to differentiate natural variations from morphogenesis
Morphogenesis
Morphogenesis , is the biological process that causes an organism to develop its shape...
.
Cataphylls
Philodendrons also produce cataphylls, which are modified leaves that surround and protect the newly forming leaves. Cataphylls are usually green, leaf-like, and rigid while they are protecting the leaf. In some species they can even be rather succulent. Once the leaf has been fully formed, the cataphyll usually remains attached where the stem and base of the leaf meet. In Philodendrons, cataphylls typically fall into two categories: deciduousDeciduous
Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and is typically used in reference to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally, and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe...
and persistent types. A deciduous
Deciduous
Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and is typically used in reference to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally, and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe...
cataphyll curls away from the leaf once it has formed, eventually turning brown and drying out, and finally falling off the plant, leaving a scar on the stem where it was attached. Deciduous
Deciduous
Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and is typically used in reference to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally, and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe...
cataphylls are typically found on vining Philodendrons, whereas persistent cataphylls are typical of epiphytic Philodendrons or appressed climbers. In the latter, the cataphylls are prevented from falling off in a timely manner due to the short internodes of the plant. The cataphylls will remain attached, drying out and becoming nothing more than fibers attached at the nodes. In some Philodendrons the cataphylls build up over time and eventually form a wet mass at the nodes. This may serve the purpose of keeping emerging roots moist and of providing some form of lubrication to new leaves.
Roots
Philodendrons have both aerial and subterranean roots. The aerial roots occur in many shapes and sizes and originate from most of the plant's nodes or occasionally from an internode. The size and number of aerial roots per node depends on the presence of a suitable substrate for the roots to attach themselves. Aerial roots serve two primary purposes. They allow the Philodendron to attach itself to a tree or other plant, and they allow it to collect water and nutrients. As such, the roots are divided morphologicallyMorphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
into these two categories. Aerial roots that are used for attaching to trees tend to be shorter, more numerous, and sometimes have a layer of root hairs attached. Aerial roots that serve the purpose of collecting water and nutrients tend to be thicker and longer. These feeder roots tend to attach flush with the substrate that the Philodendron is attached to and make their way directly downwards in search of soil. In general, feeder roots tend to show both positive hydrotropic
Hydrotropism
Hydrotropism is a plant's growth response in which the direction of growth is determined by a stimulus or gradient in water concentration...
and negative heliotropic behavior. Characteristic of roots in Philodendrons is the presence of sclerotic hypodermis, which are cylindrical tubes inside the epidermis
Epidermis (botany)
The epidermis is a single-layered group of cells that covers plants' leaves, flowers, roots and stems. It forms a boundary between the plant and the external environment. The epidermis serves several functions, it protects against water loss, regulates gas exchange, secretes metabolic compounds,...
that can be one to five cells long. The cells that line the sclerotic hypodermis are elongated and tend to be hardened. Underneath the epidermis
Epidermis (botany)
The epidermis is a single-layered group of cells that covers plants' leaves, flowers, roots and stems. It forms a boundary between the plant and the external environment. The epidermis serves several functions, it protects against water loss, regulates gas exchange, secretes metabolic compounds,...
is a unique layer of cells in a pattern of long cells followed by short cells.
Extrafloral Nectaries
Some Philodendrons have extrafloral nectaries (nectar-producing glands found outside of the flowers). The nectar attracts ants, with which the plant enjoys a protective symbiotic relationship. Nectaries can be found in a variety of locations on the plant, including the stalksPlant stem
A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant. The stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes, the nodes hold buds which grow into one or more leaves, inflorescence , conifer cones, roots, other stems etc. The internodes distance one node from another...
, sheaths, lower surfaces of the leaves, and spathes. The nectaries produce a sweet sticky substance that the ants like to eat and which provides an incentive for them to build their nests amongst the roots of the given Philodendron. In some cases the amount of nectar produced can be quite extensive, resulting in the surface becoming entirely covered with nectar.
Toxicity
Philodendrons can contain as much as 0.7% of oxalates in the form of calcium oxalateCalcium oxalate
Calcium oxalate is a chemical compound that forms needle-shaped crystals, known in plants as raphides. A major constituent of human kidney stones, the chemical is also found in beerstone, a scale that forms on containers used in breweries...
crystals as raphides
Raphides
Raphides are needle-shaped crystals of calcium oxalate as the monohydrate or calcium carbonate as aragonite, found in more than 200 families of plants.Both ends are needle-like, but raphides tend to be more blunt at one end and more tapering at the other....
. The risk of death, if even possible, is extremely low if ingested by an average adult although it is generally considered unhealthy to consume parts of Philodendrons. In general, the calcium oxalate crystals have a very mild effect on humans. Large quantities generally have to be consumed for symptoms to even appear. Possible symptoms include increased salivation, a sensation of burning of the mouth, swelling of the tongue
Tongue
The tongue is a muscular hydrostat on the floors of the mouths of most vertebrates which manipulates food for mastication. It is the primary organ of taste , as much of the upper surface of the tongue is covered in papillae and taste buds. It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva, and is richly...
, stomatitis
Stomatitis
Stomatitis is an inflammation of the mucous lining of any of the structures in the mouth, which may involve the cheeks, gums, tongue, lips, throat, and roof or floor of the mouth...
, dysphagia
Dysphagia
Dysphagia is the medical term for the symptom of difficulty in swallowing. Although classified under "symptoms and signs" in ICD-10, the term is sometimes used as a condition in its own right. Sufferers are sometimes unaware of their dysphagia....
, an inability to speak, and edema
Edema
Edema or oedema ; both words from the Greek , oídēma "swelling"), formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy, is an abnormal accumulation of fluid beneath the skin or in one or more cavities of the body that produces swelling...
. Cases of mild dermatitis
Dermatitis
-Etymology:Dermatitis derives from Greek derma "skin" + -itis "inflammation" and genetic disorder.-Terminology:There are several different types of dermatitis. The different kinds usually have in common an allergic reaction to specific allergens. The term may describe eczema, which is also called...
due to contact with the leaves have also been reported, with symptoms including vesiculation and erythema
Erythema
Erythema is redness of the skin, caused by hyperemia of the capillaries in the lower layers of the skin. It occurs with any skin injury, infection, or inflammation...
. The chemical derivatives of alkenyl resorcinol is believed to be responsible for the dermatitis in some people. Contact with Philodendron oils or fluids with the eyes have also been known to result in conjunctivitis
Conjunctivitis
Conjunctivitis refers to inflammation of the conjunctiva...
. Fatal poisonings are extremely rare; there has been one recorded case of an infant eating small quantities of a Philodendron resulting in hospitalization and death. This one case study however was found to be inconsistent with the findings from a second study by Mrvos et al. In this study 127 cases of children ingesting philodendrons were studied, and they found that only one child showed symptoms; a 10 month old who had minor upper lip swelling when he chewed on a philodendron leaf. The study also found that the symptoms could subside without treatment and that previously reported cases of severe complications were exaggerated.
As to the toxicity of Philodendrons in cats the evidence is conflicting. In one study conducted by M. J. Greer, 72 cases of cat poisonings were examined, of which 37 resulted in the death of the cat. The symptoms of the poisoned cats included excitability, spasm
Spasm
In medicine a spasm is a sudden, involuntary contraction of a muscle, a group of muscles, or a hollow organ, or a similarly sudden contraction of an orifice. It is sometimes accompanied by a sudden burst of pain, but is usually harmless and ceases after a few minutes...
s, seizures, renal failure
Renal failure
Renal failure or kidney failure describes a medical condition in which the kidneys fail to adequately filter toxins and waste products from the blood...
, and encephalitis
Encephalitis
Encephalitis is an acute inflammation of the brain. Encephalitis with meningitis is known as meningoencephalitis. Symptoms include headache, fever, confusion, drowsiness, and fatigue...
. However, in a study conducted by Sellers et al., three cats were tube fed Philodendron cordatum
Philodendron cordatum
Philodendron hederaceum is a species of Philodendron commonly grown as a houseplant. Parts of the plant are known to contain calcium oxalate crystals in varying concentrations. Although the plant is known to be toxic to mice and rats, the current literature is conflicting with regards to its...
and showed no signs of acute poisoning. In this study two adult cats and one kitten
Kitten
A kitten is a juvenile domesticated cat.The young of big cats are called cubs rather than kittens. Either term may be used for the young of smaller wild felids such as ocelots, caracals, and lynx, but "kitten" is usually more common for these species....
were fed a puréed leaf and water mixture, observed afterward, then euthanized, and finally a necropsy was performed. Dosage
Dose (biochemistry)
A dose is a quantity of something that may impact an organism biologically; the greater the quantity, the larger the dose. In nutrition, the term is usually applied to how much of a specific nutrient is in a person's diet or in a particular food, meal, or dietary supplement...
s of 2.8, 5.6, and 9.1 g/kg were used, with the highest dosage
Dose (biochemistry)
A dose is a quantity of something that may impact an organism biologically; the greater the quantity, the larger the dose. In nutrition, the term is usually applied to how much of a specific nutrient is in a person's diet or in a particular food, meal, or dietary supplement...
administered being considerably more than any house cat could consume. The results showed none of the symptoms found in past epidemiological studies and appeared normal. Necropsies showed nothing that would suggest toxicity. It has been suggested that past epidemiological studies may be wrong since it's possible that sick cats may be inclined to eat plants to alleviate their illness. If this were the case then such studies would be incorrectly attributing the sickness of the cats to the Philodendrons. It has also been suggested that the forced feeding study may have failed to show signs of Philodendron toxicity because the tube feeding bypassed the mouth and hence minimized the typical signs of irritation.
Some Philodendrons are, however, known to be toxic to mice
MICE
-Fiction:*Mice , alien species in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy*The Mice -Acronyms:* "Meetings, Incentives, Conferencing, Exhibitions", facilities terminology for events...
and rats
RATS
RATS may refer to:* RATS , Regression Analysis of Time Series, a statistical package* Rough Auditing Tool for Security, a computer program...
. In a study conducted by Der Marderosian et al., 100 mg of Philodendron cordatum
Philodendron cordatum
Philodendron hederaceum is a species of Philodendron commonly grown as a houseplant. Parts of the plant are known to contain calcium oxalate crystals in varying concentrations. Although the plant is known to be toxic to mice and rats, the current literature is conflicting with regards to its...
leaves suspended in distilled water were fed to six mice. The results were that three of the mice died. The same experiment was done with 100 mg of Philodendron cordatum
Philodendron cordatum
Philodendron hederaceum is a species of Philodendron commonly grown as a houseplant. Parts of the plant are known to contain calcium oxalate crystals in varying concentrations. Although the plant is known to be toxic to mice and rats, the current literature is conflicting with regards to its...
stems on three mice and none of them died. Leaves and flowers of Philodendron sagittifolium were also orally administered in 100 mg doses to the mice. Three mice were used for each of the leaves and flowers. The results were that none of the mice died. A similar experiment was done on rats with the leaves and stems of Philodendron cordatum
Philodendron cordatum
Philodendron hederaceum is a species of Philodendron commonly grown as a houseplant. Parts of the plant are known to contain calcium oxalate crystals in varying concentrations. Although the plant is known to be toxic to mice and rats, the current literature is conflicting with regards to its...
, but instead of oral administration of the dose it was injected intraperitoneally using 3g of plant extract
Extract
An extract is a substance made by extracting a part of a raw material, often by using a solvent such as ethanol or water. Extracts may be sold as tinctures or in powder form....
from either the leaves or stems. Six rats were injected with the leaf extract and five of them died. Eight rats were injected with the stem extract and two of them died.
Sexual
When Philodendrons are ready to reproduce they will produce an inflorescenceInflorescence
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Strictly, it is the part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed and which is accordingly modified...
which consists of a leaf-like hood called a spathe within which is enclosed a tube-like structure called a spadix
Spadix
In botany, a spadix is a type of spike inflorescence having small flowers borne on a fleshy stem. Spadix are typical of the Family Araceae known as arums or aroids...
. Depending on the species of Philodendron, a single inflorescence
Inflorescence
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Strictly, it is the part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed and which is accordingly modified...
can be produced or a cluster of up to 11 inflorescences can be produced at a single time on short peduncles
Peduncle (botany)
In botany, a peduncle is a stem supporting an inflorescence, or after fecundation, an infructescence.The peduncle is a stem, usually green and without leaves, though sometimes colored or supporting small leaves...
. The spathe tends to be waxy and its usually bicolored. In some Philodendrons the base of the spathe is of a contrasting color with the upper part, and in others the inner and outer surface of the spathe differ in coloration. The paler color tends to be either white or green, and the darker usually red or crimson. Pelargonidin
Pelargonidin
Pelargonidin is an anthocyanidin, a type of plant pigment. Like all anthocyanins, it is an antioxidant. It produces a characteristic orange color, and can be found in red geraniums, and ripe raspberries and strawberries, as well as blueberries, blackberries, plums and cranberries and pomegranates....
is the predominant pigment
Pigment
A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, in which a material emits light.Many materials selectively absorb...
causing the red coloration in the spathes. The upper portion of the spathe is called the limb or blade, while the lower portion of the spathe is called the convolute tube or chamber due to its tubular structure at the base. The spadix
Spadix
In botany, a spadix is a type of spike inflorescence having small flowers borne on a fleshy stem. Spadix are typical of the Family Araceae known as arums or aroids...
is more often than not white and shorter than the spathe. On the spadix
Spadix
In botany, a spadix is a type of spike inflorescence having small flowers borne on a fleshy stem. Spadix are typical of the Family Araceae known as arums or aroids...
are found fertile female, fertile male, and sterile male flowers. The fertile male and female flowers are separated on the spadix
Spadix
In botany, a spadix is a type of spike inflorescence having small flowers borne on a fleshy stem. Spadix are typical of the Family Araceae known as arums or aroids...
by a sterile zone or staminodal region composed of sterile male flowers. This barrier of sterile male flowers ensures that fertile male flowers don't fertilize the female flowers. The arrangement tends to be vertical, with fertile male flowers at the top of the spadix followed by sterile male flowers, and fertile female flowers very close to the bottom in the region known as the spathe tube or chamber. In some Philodendrons there is an additional region of sterile male flowers at the very top of the spadix. The fertile female flowers are often not receptive to fertilization when the fertile males are producing pollen
Pollen
Pollen is a fine to coarse powder containing the microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce the male gametes . Pollen grains have a hard coat that protects the sperm cells during the process of their movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants or from the male cone to the...
which again prevents self-pollination
Self-pollination
Self-pollination is a form of pollination that can occur when a flower has both stamen and a carpel in which the cultivar or species is self fertile and the stamens and the sticky stigma of the carpel contact each other in order to accomplish pollination...
. The pollen itself is thread-like and appears to project out from the region where the fertile male flowers are located.
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the creation of a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms. There are two main processes during sexual reproduction; they are: meiosis, involving the halving of the number of chromosomes; and fertilization, involving the fusion of two gametes and the...
is achieved by means of beetles, with many Philodendron species requiring the presence of a specific beetle species to achieve pollination. The reverse is not always the case, as many beetle species will pollinate more than one Philodendron species. These same beetles could also pollinate other genera outside of Philodendron as well as outside of the family Araceae
Araceae
Araceae are a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. The spadix is usually accompanied by, and sometimes partially enclosed in, a spathe or leaf-like bract. Also known as the Arum family, members are often colloquially...
. The beetles that do the pollinating are males and members of the subfamily Rutelinae and Dynastinae, and to date the only beetles that have been seen to pollinate the inflorescence are in the genera Cyclocephala or Erioscelis. There are other smaller types of beetles in the genus Neelia that visit the inflorescences as well but they are not believed to be involved in pollinating Philodendron. In order to attract the beetles the sterile male flowers give off pheromones that attracts the male beetles usually at dusk
Dusk
Dusk is the beginning of darkness in the evening, and occurs after twilight, when the sky generally remains bright and blue. Civil dusk is when the earth has rotated enough that the center of the sun is at 6° below the local horizon...
. This process is called female anthesis and is followed by male anthesis in which the pollen is produced. Female anthesis typically lasts up to 2 days and includes the gradual opening of the spathe to allow the beetles to enter. There has been some evidence to suggest that the timing of opening of the spathe is dependent on light levels. Where cloudy darker days result in the spathe opening up earlier than on clear days. During female anthesis the spadix
Spadix
In botany, a spadix is a type of spike inflorescence having small flowers borne on a fleshy stem. Spadix are typical of the Family Araceae known as arums or aroids...
will project forward at roughly 45 degrees relative to the spathe. The spathe serves the purpose of providing a safe breeding area for the beetles. As such the male beetles are often followed by female beetles with the intent of mating with the male beetles within the spathe. The Philodendrons benefit from this symbiotic relationship because the male beetles will eventually leave the spathe covered in pollen and repeat the process at another Philodendron; pollinating it in the process and thus providing Philodendrons a means of sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the creation of a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms. There are two main processes during sexual reproduction; they are: meiosis, involving the halving of the number of chromosomes; and fertilization, involving the fusion of two gametes and the...
. The benefit to the beetles is a little less obvious. In addition to gaining a safe location to mate, the male beetles may benefit from having a central location because it allows them to broadcast to females that they are willing and able to mate. Females who see a male beetle headed for a Philodendron flower know that he does so with intention of mating and females who are sexually receptive and need to mate know that they can find males if they follow the pheromones produced by the Philodendron flowers. As a result, the male beetles benefit from this relationship with the Philodendrons because they don't have to produce pheromones to attract females since the Philodendrons do it for them. Additionally, male beetles benefit from the fact that they are ensured of mating with only sexually receptive females, something that is not necessarily certain if the beetle is flying through the rainforest in search of females. In doing so, the Philodendron provides male beetles a means of finding female beetles that proves to be more efficient than what it could achieve on its own. Interestingly, there is some evidence to suggest that the pheromones produced by the Philodendrons are similar to those produced by female beetles when they wish to attract males to mate, although as of yet this isn't conclusive. Also, the pheromones produced has a sweet fruity smell in many species and no noticeable smell for others. In addition to the reproductive benefits provided to the male beetles the Philodendrons provide food in two forms. Pollen from the fertile male flowers are edible and are eaten by the beetles throughout the night. Secondly, the sterile male flowers themselves are consumed by the beetles and are rich in lipids.
The male beetles will stay overnight in the spathe, eating and mating throughout the night due to the benefits provided by the spathe and spadix. Typically, 5 to 12 beetles will be within the spathe throughout the night. However, rarely cases of 200 beetles at a time have been observed and almost always the beetles are of the same species. Another interesting feature of this symbiotic relationship that is less well understood, is the series of events in which the spadix begins to heat up prior to the spathe opening up for the beetles. This process is known as thermogenesis
Thermogenesis
Thermogenesis is the process of heat production in organisms. It occurs mostly in warm-blooded animals, but a few species of thermogenic plants exist.-Types:...
. By the time the spathe is open and the beetles have arrived the spadix is usually quite hot; up to around 46°C in some species, but usually around 35°C. The thermogenesis
Thermogenesis
Thermogenesis is the process of heat production in organisms. It occurs mostly in warm-blooded animals, but a few species of thermogenic plants exist.-Types:...
coincides with the arrival of the beetles and the temperature appears to increase in their presence. An additional characteristic is that the maximum temperature reached by the spadix remains about 20°C higher than the outside ambient temperature. The time dependence of the temperature can vary from species to species. In some species the temperature of the spadix will peak on the arrival of the beetles then decrease and finally increase reaching a maximum once again when the Philodendron is ready for the beetles to leave. Other species however, only show a maximum temperature on the arrival of the beetles which remains roughly constant for about a day and then steadily decreases. It has also been observed that a few species will show three peaks in temperature during the flowering. The increased temperature serves the purpose of increasing the metabolism of the beetles causing them to move about more within the spathe and increasing the likelihood that they will be sufficiently coated with pollen. A sticky resin is also produced in drops attached to the spadix which help to keep the pollen attached to the beetles. This resin producing quality is unique to Philodendron and Monstera
Monstera
Monstera is a genus of about 60 species of flowering plants in the family Araceae, native to tropical regions of the Americas. The genus is named from the Latin word for "monstrous" or "abnormal", the members of the genus are distinguished by their unusual leaves with natural holes.They are herbs...
as that other genera of Araceae
Araceae
Araceae are a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. The spadix is usually accompanied by, and sometimes partially enclosed in, a spathe or leaf-like bract. Also known as the Arum family, members are often colloquially...
don't produce it on their spadix. The resin is also found on the stems, leaves, and roots of Philodendrons. Its color can be red, orange, yellow, or colorless when it is first produced. Yet, over time it will turn brown as it is exposed to air. There is also some evidence to suggest that the thermogenesis triggers the beetles to mate. It also appears to serve the purpose of propagating the pheromones into the air. The reason for the spadix
Spadix
In botany, a spadix is a type of spike inflorescence having small flowers borne on a fleshy stem. Spadix are typical of the Family Araceae known as arums or aroids...
being held at 45 degrees relative to the spathe has been suggested to be for the purpose of maximizing the heats ability to waft the pheromones into the air. For a long time the means by which thermogenesis worked wasn't understood, but it is now known to occur by means of rapidly oxidizing stored carbohydrates and lipids. The part of the spadix that heats up is the sterile zone. As the sterile zone heats up carbohydrates are burned, but once the spadix has reached its maximum temperature lipids are being oxidized. The burning of lipids is a particularly interesting feature found in Philodendrons since previously it was believed that only animals were capable of oxidizing lipids. It should be noted that the lipids aren't first converted to carbohydrates but rather are directly oxidized. This is an example of convergent evolution
Convergent evolution
Convergent evolution describes the acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages.The wing is a classic example of convergent evolution in action. Although their last common ancestor did not have wings, both birds and bats do, and are capable of powered flight. The wings are...
where two unrelated lifeforms exhibit the same trait. For Philodendrons however the oxidation of lipids is done for the purpose of generating heat whereas in animals it is often done for the purpose of generating ATP
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine-5'-triphosphate is a multifunctional nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme. It is often called the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism...
. The thermogenic reaction is triggered when concentrations of acetosalicitic acid form in the sterile zone. The acetosalicitic acid sets off the mitochondria in the cells that make up the sterile zone to switch to an electron transport chain
Electron transport chain
An electron transport chain couples electron transfer between an electron donor and an electron acceptor with the transfer of H+ ions across a membrane. The resulting electrochemical proton gradient is used to generate chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate...
called the cyanide resistant pathway which results in the production of heat. Philodendrons consume oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς and -γενής , because at the time of naming, it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition...
during thermogenesis
Thermogenesis
Thermogenesis is the process of heat production in organisms. It occurs mostly in warm-blooded animals, but a few species of thermogenic plants exist.-Types:...
. The rate at which oxygen is used is remarkably high being close to that of hummingbirds and sphinx moths. It has also been observed that the spadix generates infrared radiation. As the beetles home in on the inflorescence they first move in a zig-zag pattern until they get reasonably close at which time they switch to a straight line path. It has been suggested that the beetles are using scent to find the inflorescence when they are far away, but once they reach a certain distance they find it by means of the infrared radiation. This would account for the two different types of paths the beetles follow as they attempt to find a Philodendron inflorescence.
Once female anthesis is nearing its end and the female flowers have been pollinated the spathe will be fully open and male anthesis begins. In the beginning of male anthesis the fertile male flowers complete the process of producing the pollen and the female flowers become unreceptive to further pollination. Additionally, the spadix
Spadix
In botany, a spadix is a type of spike inflorescence having small flowers borne on a fleshy stem. Spadix are typical of the Family Araceae known as arums or aroids...
moves from its 45 degree position and presses up flush to the spathe. Towards the end of male anthesis the spathe begins to close from the bottom working its way up and forcing the beetles to move up and across the upper region of the spathe where the fertile male flowers are located. In doing so the Philodendron controls when the beetles come and when they leave and forces them to rub against the top of the spadix where the pollen is located as they exit. Thus ensuring that they are well coated with pollen. One would expect that the beetles would stay indefinitely if they could due to the very favorable conditions that the inflorescence provides for the beetles. After male anthesis the male beetles will go off and find another Philodendron that is undergoing female anthesis and as a result will pollinate the female flowers with the pollen it had collected from its previous night of mating.
Fruit
Botanically the fruit produced is a berryBerry
The botanical definition of a berry is a fleshy fruit produced from a single ovary. Grapes are an example. The berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit in which the entire ovary wall ripens into an edible pericarp. They may have one or more carpels with a thin covering and fleshy interiors....
. The berries develop later in the season where the time of development varies from species to species. It can take from a few weeks to a year for the berries to develop although most Philodendron take a few months. The spathe will enlarge to hold the maturing berries. Once the fruit are mature the spathe will begin to open again, but this time it will break off at the base and fall to the forest floor. Additionally, the berries are edible even though they contain the calcium oxalate
Calcium oxalate
Calcium oxalate is a chemical compound that forms needle-shaped crystals, known in plants as raphides. A major constituent of human kidney stones, the chemical is also found in beerstone, a scale that forms on containers used in breweries...
crystals, having a taste akin to bananas.
The color of the berries can vary a bit depending on the species, but most produce a white berry with slight tones of green. Some produce orange berries and others yellow berries though. Still others will produce berries that start off white, but then change to another color with time. Philodendron that produce orange berries tend to be members of the section Calostigma. Contained within the berries are the seeds which are extremely small compared to other members of the Araceae family. The berries of Philodendron often give off odors for the purpose of attracting animals to eat and disperse them. For example, Philodendron alliodorum berries are known to emit an odor similar to that of garlic
Garlic
Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion genus, Allium. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, and rakkyo. Dating back over 6,000 years, garlic is native to central Asia, and has long been a staple in the Mediterranean region, as well as a frequent...
. The animals that distribute the seeds depends on the species of Philodendron, but some of the possible dispersers include bat
Bat
Bats are mammals of the order Chiroptera "hand" and pteron "wing") whose forelimbs form webbed wings, making them the only mammals naturally capable of true and sustained flight. By contrast, other mammals said to fly, such as flying squirrels, gliding possums, and colugos, glide rather than fly,...
s and monkeys. There is also evidence that insects are also responsible for dispersing seeds as that beetles and wasps have been seen feeding on Philodendron berries.
Another insect that seeks out Philodendrons are chalcid wasps. They are known to lay their eggs in the ovaries of many Philodendron species. The result is what is known as a galled inflorescence.
Hybridisation
Philodendron exhibit extremely few physical reproductive barriers that prevent hybrids. Even though this is the case there are very few natural hybrids that are found in nature. It has been suggested that this may be because Philodendrons have many geographic and time barriers that would prevent any such cross pollination. For example, its rare for more than one Philodendron species to be flowering at the same time. Its also the case that since Philodendron often are pollinated by specific species of beetles that this would prevent cross pollination. The beetles have also been observed to be selective to the height of the plant they pollinate which would serve as an additional preventitive measure that would make hybrids less likely. It has been suggested that because of these outside barriers that Philodendrons haven't had to evolve physical mechanisms that would prevent cross pollination. Due to this, one rarely can find hybrids in nature although reported cases have been observed. An interesting feature of these hybrids is that they often can show remarkable types of crosses with regards to genetic relation. Crosses between two Philodendrons in different sections can occur successfully.Growing
Philodendron can be grown outdoors in mild climates in shady spots. They thrive in moist soils with high organic matter. In milder climates the plants can be grown in pots of soil or in the case of Philodendron oxycardium in containers of water. Indoors plants thrive at temperatures between 15-18 °C and can survive at lower light than other house plants. Although Philodendrons can survive in dark places they much prefer bright lights. Wiping the leaves off with water will remove any dust and insects. Plants in pots with good roots systems will benefit from a weak fertilizer solution every other week.Propagation
New plants can be grown by taking stem cuttings with at least two joints. Cuttings then can be rooted in pots of sand and peat moss mixtures. These pots are placed in greenhouses with bottom heat of 21-24 °C. During the rooting cuttings should be kept out of direct sunlight. Once rooted the plants can be transplanted to larger pots or directly outside in milder climates. A second way to propagate philodendrons is to take stem cuttings, particularly from trailing varieties, and place them in water. In four to five weeks the plant should develop roots and can be transferred to pots.Hybridizing Philodendron is extremely easy if flowering plants are available because they have very few barriers that prevent hybrids. However, there are some aspects to making crosses that can make Philodendron hybridization more difficult. Philodendron often flower at different times and the time that the spathe opens up varies from plant to plant. The pollen has a short shelf life along with the inflorescence itself which means that a large collection of Philodendron is necessary if hybridization is to be done successfully. The shelf life of the pollen can be extended by storing it in film canisters in a refrigerator
Refrigerator
A refrigerator is a common household appliance that consists of a thermally insulated compartment and a heat pump that transfers heat from the inside of the fridge to its external environment so that the inside of the fridge is cooled to a temperature below the ambient temperature of the room...
. If this is done the pollen can last for a couple weeks. Artificial pollination is usually achieved by first mixing the pollen with water. A window is then cut into the spathe and the water-pollen mixture is rubbed on the fertile female flowers. The entire spathe is then covered in a plastic bag so that the water-pollen mixture doesn't dry out and is removed a few days later. If the inflorescence hasn't been successfully fertilized it will fall off usually within one to two weeks, but sometimes as long as a month.
Uses
The resin produced during the flowering of MonsteraMonstera
Monstera is a genus of about 60 species of flowering plants in the family Araceae, native to tropical regions of the Americas. The genus is named from the Latin word for "monstrous" or "abnormal", the members of the genus are distinguished by their unusual leaves with natural holes.They are herbs...
and Philodendron are known to be used by Trigona bees in the construction of their nests. Subsequently native Indians from South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
take the resin from the bees' nests and use it to make their blowgun
Blowgun
"Blowpipe" and "blow tube" redirect here. For other uses of the terms, see GlassblowingA blowgun is a simple weapon consisting of a small tube for firing light projectiles, or darts....
s air and watertight.
Even though Philodendron contain calcium oxalate
Calcium oxalate
Calcium oxalate is a chemical compound that forms needle-shaped crystals, known in plants as raphides. A major constituent of human kidney stones, the chemical is also found in beerstone, a scale that forms on containers used in breweries...
crystals the berries of some species are eaten by the locals. For example, in the case of Philodendron bipinnatifidum the white sweet berries are known to be used in such a fashion. Additionally, the aerial roots are also used for rope
Rope
A rope is a length of fibres, twisted or braided together to improve strength for pulling and connecting. It has tensile strength but is too flexible to provide compressive strength...
in this particular species.
The leaves of Philodendron are also known to be eaten by Venezuelan Red Howler
Venezuelan Red Howler
The Venezuelan red howler is a South American species of howler monkey, a type of New World monkey. It is found in the western Amazon Basin in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil...
monkeys making up 3.1% of all the leaves they eat.
Also, in the making of a particular recipe for curare
Curare
Curare is a common name for various arrow poisons originating from South America. The three main types of curare are:* tubocurare...
by the Amazonian Taiwanos, the leaves and stems of an unknown Philodendron species is used. The leaves and stems are mixed with the bark of Vochysia ferruginea and with some parts of a species in the genus Strychnos
Strychnos
Strychnos is a genus of flowering plants, belonging to family Loganiaceae . The genus includes about 190 species of trees and lianas, distributed around the world's tropics....
.
Yet another use of Philodendron is for the purpose of catching fish
Fish
Fish are a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as various extinct related groups...
. A tribe in the Colombia
Colombia
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia , is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the...
n Amazon are known to use Philodendron craspedodromum to add poison to the water, temporarily stunning the fish, which rise up to the surface where they can be easily scooped up. To add the poison to the water, the leaves are cut into pieces and tied together to form bundles, which are allowed to ferment
Fermentation (biochemistry)
Fermentation is the process of extracting energy from the oxidation of organic compounds, such as carbohydrates, using an endogenous electron acceptor, which is usually an organic compound. In contrast, respiration is where electrons are donated to an exogenous electron acceptor, such as oxygen,...
for a few days. The bundles are crushed and added to the water into which the poison will dissipate. Although the toxicity of Philodendron craspedodromum is not fully known, it is possible that the active ingredients in the poisoning of the fish are coumarins which are formed during the fermentation process.
Some Philodendron are also used for ceremonial purposes. Among the Kubeo tribe, native to Colombia
Colombia
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia , is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the...
, Philodendron insigne is used by witch doctor
Witch doctor
A witch doctor originally referred to a type of healer who treated ailments believed to be caused by witchcraft. It is currently used to refer to healers in some third world regions, who use traditional healing rather than contemporary medicine...
s when they are treating ill patients. They use the juice of the spathe to stain their hands red since many such tribes view the color red as a sign of power.
History
Philodendrons are known to have been collected from the wild as early as 1644 by Georg Marcgraf, but the first semi successful scientific attempt to collect and classify the genus was done by Charles PlumierCharles Plumier
Charles Plumier was a French botanist, after whom the Frangipani genus Plumeria is named. Plumier is considered one of the most important of the botanical explorers of his time...
. Plumier collected approximately six species from the islands of Martinique
Martinique
Martinique is an island in the eastern Caribbean Sea, with a land area of . Like Guadeloupe, it is an overseas region of France, consisting of a single overseas department. To the northwest lies Dominica, to the south St Lucia, and to the southeast Barbados...
, Hispaniola
Hispaniola
Hispaniola is a major island in the Caribbean, containing the two sovereign states of the Dominican Republic and Haiti. The island is located between the islands of Cuba to the west and Puerto Rico to the east, within the hurricane belt...
, and St. Thomas
Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands
Saint Thomas is an island in the Caribbean Sea and with the islands of Saint John, Saint Croix, and Water Island a county and constituent district of the United States Virgin Islands , an unincorporated territory of the United States. Located on the island is the territorial capital and port of...
. Since then there has been many exploration attempts to collect new species by others. These include those by N.J. Jacquin who collected new species in the West Indies, Colombia
Colombia
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia , is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the...
, and Venezuela
Venezuela
Venezuela , officially called the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela , is a tropical country on the northern coast of South America. It borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south...
. At this time in history the names of the Philodendrons they were discovering were being published with the genus name Arum since most aroids were considered to belong to this same genus. The genus Philodendron had not yet been created. Throughout the late 17th century, 18th century, and early 19th century many plants were removed from the genus Arum and placed into newly created genera in an attempt to improve the classification. It wasn't until Heinrich Wilhelm Schott
Heinrich Wilhelm Schott
Heinrich Wilhelm Schott was an Austrian botanist well known for his extensive work on the aroids ....
addressed the problem of providing improved taxonomy that the genus Philodendron was created and described. This was done in 1829 and the genus was first spelled as 'Philodendrum'. Then in 1832, Schott published a system for classifying plants in the family Araceae
Araceae
Araceae are a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. The spadix is usually accompanied by, and sometimes partially enclosed in, a spathe or leaf-like bract. Also known as the Arum family, members are often colloquially...
titled Meletemata Botanica in which he provided a method of classifying Philodendrons based on flowering characteristics. In 1856, Schott published a revision of his previous work titled Synopsis aroidearum and then subsequently in 1860 published his final work Prodromus Systematis Aroidearum in which he provided even more details about the classification of Philodendron and described 135 species.
Modern Classification
Philodendron are usually extremely distinctive and not usually confused with other genera although there are a few exceptions. There are a few species that resemble Philodendrons in the genus AnthuriumAnthurium
Anthurium , is a large genus of about 600–800 species, belonging to the arum family . Anthurium can also be called "Flamingo Flower" or "Boy Flower", both referring to the structure of the spathe and spadix....
and Homalomena
Homalomena
Homalomena is a genus of flowering plants within the family Araceae. It is estimated to be composed of approximately 80 to 150 species. Homalomena are primarily found in southern Asia and the southwestern Pacific, but there are a few species that are known to be indigenous to South America. Many...
. The genus Philodendron is subdivided into several sections and subsections:
Section Baursia
Baursia
Baursia is a section within the genus Philodendron that consists of 33 different species of plants. Philodendron species that are members of this section are typically described as having very prominent lateral veins. They also have elongated oblong leaves with a few species that are exceptions to...
, section Philopsammos, section Philodendron (subsections Achyropodium, Canniphyllium, Macrolonchium, Philodendron, Platypodium, Psoropodium and Solenosterigma), section Calostigma (subsections Bulaoana, Eucardium, Glossophyllum, Macrobelium and Oligocarpidium), section Tritomophyllum, section Schizophyllum, section Polytomium, section Macrogynium and section Camptogynium.
Typically the inflorescence is of great importance in determining the species of a given Philodendron since it tends to be less variable than the leaves of the plant. It has been suggested however that the genus Philodendron could be classified further by means of differentiating them based on the pattern of thermogenesis observed although this isn't currently in use.
Selected species
- Philodendron acutatum Schott
- Philodendron adamantinum Mart. ex Schott
- Philodendron alliodorum Croat & Grayum
- Philodendron auriculatum Standl. & L. O. Williams
- Philodendron bipennifolium Schott
- Philodendron bipinnatifidum Schott ex Endl. - Tree Philodendron
- Philodendron black cardinal
- Philodendron chimboanumPhilodendron chimboanumPhilodendron chimboanum is a species of plant in the Araceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montanes. It is threatened by habitat loss.-Source:...
- Philodendron consanguineum Schott - Rascagarganta
- Philodendron cordatumPhilodendron cordatumPhilodendron hederaceum is a species of Philodendron commonly grown as a houseplant. Parts of the plant are known to contain calcium oxalate crystals in varying concentrations. Although the plant is known to be toxic to mice and rats, the current literature is conflicting with regards to its...
(Vell.) Kunth - Philodendron crassinerviumPhilodendron crassinerviumPhilodendron crassinervium is a species of plant in the Araceae family.It is native to southeast Brazil and is part of the section Baursia. In fact, it is the type species of this section. It has long lance-shaped leaves that point upwards with a large predominant midvein. The midvein is used to...
Lindl. - Philodendron cruentospathumPhilodendron cruentospathumPhilodendron cruentospathum is a species of plant in the Araceae family.It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.-Source:...
- Philodendron davidsonii Croat
- Philodendron devansayeanum L. Linden
- Philodendron domesticumPhilodendron domesticumPhilodendron domesticum, also called Spadeleaf Philodendron or Burgundy Philodendron is a member of the popular genus Philodendron. Its arrow-shaped glossy leaves grow to be 22 inches long and 9 inches wide when mature...
G. S. Bunting - Philodendron ensifolium Croat & Grayum
- Philodendron erubescens K. Koch & Augustin
- Philodendron evansii
- Philodendron eximium Schott
- Philodendron fragrantissimum
- Philodendron ferrugineum Croat
- Philodendron giganteum Schott - Giant Philodendron
- Philodendron gigasPhilodendron gigasPhilodendron gigas is a species of flowering plant in the Araceae family....
- Philodendron gloriosum André
- Philodendron gualeanumPhilodendron gualeanumPhilodendron gualeanum is a species of plant in the Araceae family.It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montanes. It is threatened by habitat loss.-Source:...
- Philodendron hastatum Also known incorrectly as 'Glaucophyllum'
- Philodendron hederaceum (Jacq.) Schott - Vilevine, Heartleaf Philodendron, Velvet-leaved Philodendron
- Philodendron herbaceum Croat & Grayum
- Philodendron hooveriPhilodendron hooveriPhilodendron hooveri is a species of plant in the Araceae family.It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.-Source:...
- Philodendron imbe Schott ex Endl. - Philodendron
- Philodendron jacquinii Schott
- Philodendron lacerum (Jacq.) Schott
- Philodendron lingulatum (L.) K. Koch - Treelover
- Philodendron mamei André
- Philodendron marginatum Urban - Puerto Rico Philodendron
- Philodendron martianumPhilodendron martianumPhilodendron martianum is a species of plant in the Araceae family....
Engl. - Philodendron mayoii Symon Mayo
- Philodendron maximumPhilodendron maximumPhilodendron maximum is a species of flowering plant in the Araceae family....
- Philodendron melanochrysumPhilodendron melanochrysumPhilodendron melanochrysum is a species of flowering plant in the Araceae family.One of the best climbing foliage pants for a conservatory, black gold philodendron has heart-shaped leaves that are typically 25 cm long, but in ideal conditions they can grow even longer...
Linden & André - Philodendron microstictum Standl. & L. O. Williams
- Philodendron musifoliumPhilodendron musifoliumPhilodendron musifolium is a species of plant in the Araceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montanes. It is threatened by habitat loss.-References:...
- Philodendron nanegalensePhilodendron nanegalensePhilodendron nanegalense is a species of plant in the Araceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montanes. It is threatened by habitat loss.-Source:...
- Philodendron opacum Croat & Grayum
- Philodendron ornatum Schott
- Philodendron pachycaulePhilodendron pachycaulePhilodendron pachycaule is a species of plant in the Araceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montanes. It is threatened by habitat loss.-Source:...
- Philodendron panduriforme
- Philodendron pedatum (Hook.) Kunth
- Philodendron pinnatifidumPhilodendron pinnatifidumPhilodendron pinnatifidum is a species of flowering plant in the Araceae....
(Jacq.) Schott - Philodendron pogonocaulePhilodendron pogonocaulePhilodendron pogonocaule is a species of plant in the Araceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.-Source:...
- Philodendron quitensePhilodendron quitensePhilodendron quitense is a species of plant in the Araceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montanes. It is threatened by habitat loss.-References:...
- Philodendron radiatum Schott
- Philodendron recurvifolium Schott
- Philodendron renauxii Reitz
- Philodendron ripariumPhilodendron ripariumPhilodendron riparium is a species of plant in the Araceae family.It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montanes. It is threatened by habitat loss.-Source:...
- Philodendron robustum Schott
- Philodendron rugosumPhilodendron rugosumPhilodendron rugosum is a species of plant in the Araceae family.It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montanes. It is threatened by habitat loss.-Source:...
- Philodendron sagittifolium Liebm.
- Philodendron santa leopoldina Liebm.
- Philodendron selloumPhilodendron selloumPhilodendron bipinnatifidum is a plant that belongs to the family Araceae. The commonly used name P. selloum is a synonym...
- Philodendron sodiroi Hort. Cf. Gard. Chron. (1883) I. 510
- Philodendron speciosumPhilodendron speciosumPhilodendron speciosum is a species of plant in the Araceae family....
Schott - Philodendron sphalerum Schott
- Philodendron squamiferumPhilodendron squamiferumPhilodendron squamiferum is a species of plant in the Araceae family, native to French Guiana.-References:* Marc Gibernau and Denis Barabé, "Pollination ecology of Philodendron squamiferum ", Can. J. Bot. 80: 316–320...
Poepp. - Philodendron standleyi Grayum
- Philodendron tripartitum (Jacq.) Schott
- Philodendron validinerviumPhilodendron validinerviumPhilodendron validinervium is a species of plant in the Araceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montanes. It is threatened by habitat loss.-Source:...
- Philodendron ventricosumPhilodendron ventricosumPhilodendron ventricosum is a species of plant in the Araceae family.It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montanes. It is threatened by habitat loss....
- Philodendron verrucosumPhilodendron verrucosumPhilodendron verrucosum is a species of flowering plant in the Araceae family....
L. Mathieu ex Schott - Philodendron victoriae G.S. Bunting
- Philodendron warscewiczii K. Koch & C. D. Bouché
- Philodendron wendlandii Schott
- Philodendron xanadu Croat, Mayo & J. Boos