Pied Currawong
Encyclopedia
The Pied Currawong is a medium-sized black passerine
bird native to eastern Australia and Lord Howe Island
. One of three currawong
species in the genus Strepera, it is closely related to the butcherbird
s and Australian Magpie
of the family Artamidae
. Six subspecies are recognised. It is a robust crowlike bird averaging around 48 cm (19 in) in length, black or sooty grey-black in plumage with white undertail and wing patches, yellow irises, and a heavy bill. The male and female are similar in appearance. Known for its melodious calls, the species' name currawong is of indigenous origin.
Within its range, the Pied Currawong is generally sedentary
, although populations at higher altitudes relocate to lower areas during the cooler months. It is omnivorous
, with a diet that includes a wide variety of berries and seeds, invertebrate
s, bird eggs and juvenile birds. It is a predator which has adapted well to urbanization and can be found in parks and gardens as well as rural woodland. The habitat includes all kinds of forested areas, although mature forests are preferred for breeding. Roosting, nesting and the bulk of foraging take place in trees, in contrast with the ground foraging behaviour of its relative the Australian Magpie.
in 1790 as Coracias strepera, although Strepera was adopted as a generic
name. Its binomial
names were derived from the Latin
strepera, meaning "noisy", and graculina for resembling a Jackdaw
. Pied Crow-shrike is an old vernacular name from colonial days, and the term "pied" refers to two or more colors in blotches. Other common name
s include Pied Chillawong, Currawang, Charawack, Kurrawack, Tallawong, Tullawong, Mutton-bird, Otway Forester, and Pied Afternoon-tea Bird. The term currawong itself is derived from the bird's call. However, the exact origin of term is unclear; the most likely antecedent is the word garrawaŋ from the indigenous Jagera
language from the Brisbane region, although the Darug word gurawaruŋ from the Sydney basin is a possibility. Yungang as well as Kurrawang and Kurrawah are names from the Dharawal people of the Illawarra region.
Its closest relative is the Black Currawong (S. fuliginosa) of Tasmania, which has sometimes been considered a subspecies
. Together with the larger Grey Currawong (S. versicolor), they form the genus Strepera. Although crow
-like in appearance and habits, currawongs are only distantly related to true crows, and instead belong to the family Artamidae
, together with the closely related Australian Magpie
and the butcherbird
s. The affinities of all three genera were recognised early on and they were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by ornithologist John Albert Leach
after he had studied their musculature. Ornithologists Charles Sibley
and Jon Ahlquist
recognised the close relationship between woodswallow
s and the butcherbirds in 1985, and combined them into a Cracticini clade
, which became the family Artamidae.
, larger body size, and a shorter bill. Southerly populations also show more white plumage in the tail, with less whiteness on the wing.
, the base of the tail and most visibly, the tip of the tail. It has yellow eyes. Adult birds are 44–50 cm (17–19 in) in length, with an average of around 48 cm (19 in); the wingspan varies from 56 to 77 cm (22–31 in), averaging around 69 cm (27 in). Adult males average around 320 g (11 oz), females 280 g (10 oz). The wings are long and broad. The long and heavy bill
is about one and a half times as long as the head and is hooked at the end. Juvenile birds have similar markings to adults but have softer and brownish plumage overall, although the white band on the tail is narrower. The upperparts are darker brown with scallops and streaks over the head and neck, and the underparts lighter brown. The eyes are dark brown and the bill dark with a yellow tip. The gape
is a prominent yellow. Older birds grow darker until adult plumage is achieved, but juvenile tail markings only change to adult late in development. Birds appear to moult once a year in late summer after breeding. The Pied Currawong can live for over 20 years in the wild.
has similar plumage but has red eyes and is found mainly on the ground. Australian crow and raven species have white eyes and lack the white rump, and the similar-sized Australian Magpie
has red eyes and prominent black and white plumage. The larger Grey Currawong is readily distinguished by its lighter grey overall plumage and lack of white feathers at the base of the tail. In northwestern Victoria, the Black-winged Currawong (subspecies melanoptera of the Grey) does have a darker plumage than other Grey subspecies, but its wings lack the white primaries of the Pied Currawong.
The Pied Currawong is common in both wet and dry sclerophyll
forests, rural and semi-urban environments throughout eastern Australia, from Cape York Peninsula
to western Victoria and Lord Howe Island
, where it occurs as an endemic
subspecies. In general, the Pied Currawong is sedentary, although some populations from higher altitudes move to areas of lower elevation in winter. However, evidence for the extent of migration is conflicting, and the species' movements have been little studied to date. It has adapted well to European presence, and has become more common in many areas of eastern Australia, with surveys in Nanango, Queensland
, Barham, New South Wales
, Geelong, Victoria
, as well as the Northern Tablelands and South West Slopes regions in New South Wales all showing an increase in population. This increase has been most marked, however, in Sydney and Canberra since the 1940s and 1960s respectively. In both cities, the species had previously been a winter resident only, but now remain year-round and breed there. They are a dominant species and common inhabitant of Sydney gardens. More recently still, a survey of the population of Pied Currawongs in southeastern Queensland between 1980 and 2000 had found the species had become more numerous there, including suburban Brisbane. One 1992 survey reported the total number of Pied Currawongs in Australia had doubled from 3 million birds in the 1960s to 6 million in the early 1990s.
The Pied Currawong is able to cross bodies of water of some size, as it has been recorded from Rodondo Island
, which lies 10 km (6 mi) off the coast of Wilsons Promontory
in Victoria, as well as some offshore islands in Queensland. It has disappeared from Tryon
, North West
, Masthead
and Heron Islands in the
Capricorn Group on the Great Barrier Reef. The presence of the Lord Howe subspecies is possibly the result of a chance landing there.
The Pied Currawong's impact on smaller birds that are vulnerable to nest predation is controversial: several studies have suggested that the species has become a serious problem, but the truth of this widely held perception was queried in a 2001 review of the published literature on their foraging habits by Bayly and Blumstein of Macquarie University, who also observed that common introduced
birds were more affected than native birds. However, predation by Pied Currawongs has been a factor in the decline of Gould's Petrel
at a colony on Cabbage Tree Island, near Port Stephens
in New South Wales; birds have been reported preying on adult seabirds. Their removal from the islands halted a decline of the threatened petrels. Furthermore, a University of New England study published in 2006 reported that the breeding success rates for the Eastern Yellow Robin
(Eopsaltria australis) and Scarlet Robin
(Petroica boodang) on the New England Tablelands were improved after nests were protected and currawongs culled, and some Yellow Robins even colonised an area they had become locally extinct in. The presence of Pied Currawongs in Sydney gardens is negatively correlated with the presence of Silvereye
s (Zosterops lateralis).
The species has been implicated in the spread of weeds by consuming and dispersing fruit and seed. In the first half of the twentieth century, Pied Currawongs were shot as they were considered pests of corn and strawberry crops, as well as assisting in the spread of the prickly pear
. They were also shot on Lord Howe Island for attacking chickens. However, they are seen as beneficial in forestry
as they consume phasmids
, and also in agriculture for eating cocoons of the codling moth
.
Pied Currawongs are generally tree dwelling, hunting and foraging some metres above the ground, and thus able to share territory with the ground-foraging Australian Magpie. Birds roost in forested areas or large trees at night and disperse to forage for the day in the early morning and return in the late afternoon. Although often solitary or encountered in small groups, the species may form larger flocks of fifty or more birds in autumn and winter. On the ground, a Pied Currawong hops or struts.
During the breeding season, Pied Currawongs will pair up and become territorial, defending both nesting and feeding areas. A 1994 study in Sydney's leafy northern suburbs measured an average distance of 250 m (820 ft) between nests, while another in Canberra in 1990 had three pairs in a 400 m (1300 ft) segment of pine-tree lined street. Territories have been measured around 0.5–0.7 ha
in Sydney and Wollongong, although these were restricted to nesting area and did not include a larger feeding territory, and 7.9 ha
in Canberra. Pied Currawongs vigorously drive off threats such as ravens, and engage in bill-snapping, dive-bombing and aerial pursuit. They adopt a specific threat display
against other currawongs by lowering the head so the head and body are parallel to the ground and pointing the beak out forward, often directly at the intruder. The male predominates in threat displays and territory defence, and guards the female closely as she builds the nest.
Flocks of birds appear to engage in play; one routine involves a bird perching atop a tall tree, pole or spire, and others swooping, tumbling or diving and attempting to dislodge it. A successful challenger is then challenged in its turn by other birds in the flock.
The Pied Currawong bathes by wading into water up to 15 cm (6 in) deep, squatting down, ducking its head under, and shaking its wings. It preens its plumage afterwards, sometimes applying mud or soil first. The species has also been observed anting
.
) and Strangler fig (F. watkinsiana
), as well as lillypillies (Syzygium
species), white cedar (Melia azedarach
), plum pine (Podocarpus elatus
), and geebungs (Persoonia
species). Other fruit is also sought after, and currawongs have been known to raid orchards, eating apples, pears, strawberries, grapes, stone fruit, citrus, and corn. Pied Currawongs have been responsible for spread of the invasive ornamental Asparagus densiflorus
in the Sydney area, the weedy privet
species Ligustrum lucidum
and L. sinense, and firethorn species Pyracantha angustifolia
and P. rogersiana
around Armidale
.
Birds forage singly or in pairs in summer, and more often in larger flocks in autumn and winter, during which time they are more likely to loiter around people and urban areas. They occasionally associate with Australian Magpies (Cracticus tibicen) or Common Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) when foraging. Birds have also been encountered with Grey Currawongs (S. versicolor) and Satin Bowerbird
s (Ptilinorhynchus violaceus). The species has been reported stealing food
from other birds such as the Australian Hobby
(Falco longipennis), Collared Sparrowhawk
(Accipiter cirrocephalus), and Sulphur-crested Cockatoo
(Cacatua galerita). Pied Currawongs will also harass each other. A 2007 study conducted by researchers from the Australian National University
showed that White-browed Scrubwren
(Sericornis frontalis) nestlings became silent when they heard the recorded sound of a Pied Currawong walking through leaf litter.
Although found in many types of woodland, the Pied Currawong prefers to breed in mature forests. It builds a nest of thin sticks lined with grass and bark high in trees in spring; generally eucalypts are chosen and never isolated ones. It produces a clutch
of three eggs
; they are a light pinkish-brown colour (likened by one author to that of silly putty
) with splotches of darker pink-brown and lavender. Tapered oval in shape, they measure about 30 × 42 mm (1 × 1.5 in). The female broods alone. The incubation
period is not well known, due to the difficulty of observing nests, but observations indicate around 30 days from laying to hatching. Like all passerine
s, the chicks are born naked, and blind (altricial
), and remain in the nest for an extended period (nidicolous
) They quickly grow a layer of ashy-grey down. Both parents feed the young, although the male does not begin to feed them directly until a few days after birth.
The Channel-billed Cuckoo
(Scythrops novaehollandiae) parasitizes Pied Currawong nests, laying eggs which are then raised by the unsuspecting foster parents. The eggs closely resemble those of the currawong hosts. Pied Currawongs have been known to desert nests once cuckoos have visited, abandoning the existing currawong young, which die, and a Channel-billed Cuckoo has been recorded decapitating a currawong nestling. The Brown Goshawk
(Accipiter fasciatus) and Lace monitor
(Varanus varius) have also been recorded taking nestlings.
Passerine
A passerine is a bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders: with over 5,000 identified species, it has roughly...
bird native to eastern Australia and Lord Howe Island
Lord Howe Island
Lord Howe Island is an irregularly crescent-shaped volcanic remnant in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand, directly east of mainland Port Macquarie, and about from Norfolk Island. The island is about 11 km long and between 2.8 km and 0.6 km wide with an area of...
. One of three currawong
Currawong
Currawongs are three species of medium-sized passerine birds belonging to the genus Strepera in the family Artamidae native to Australasia. These are the Grey Currawong , Pied Currawong , and Black Currawong . The common name comes from the call of the familiar Pied Currawong of eastern Australia...
species in the genus Strepera, it is closely related to the butcherbird
Butcherbird
Butcherbirds are magpie-like birds in the genus Cracticus. They are native to Australasia. Their closest relatives are the three species of currawong...
s and Australian Magpie
Australian Magpie
The Australian Magpie is a medium-sized black and white passerine bird native to Australia and southern New Guinea. A member of the Artamidae, it is closely related to the butcherbirds...
of the family Artamidae
Artamidae
The family Artamidae gathers together 20 species of mostly crow-like birds native to Australasia and nearby areas.There are two subfamilies: Artaminae, the woodswallows, are sombre-coloured, soft-plumaged birds that have a brush-tipped tongue but seldom use it for gathering nectar. Instead, they...
. Six subspecies are recognised. It is a robust crowlike bird averaging around 48 cm (19 in) in length, black or sooty grey-black in plumage with white undertail and wing patches, yellow irises, and a heavy bill. The male and female are similar in appearance. Known for its melodious calls, the species' name currawong is of indigenous origin.
Within its range, the Pied Currawong is generally sedentary
Bird migration
Bird migration is the regular seasonal journey undertaken by many species of birds. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat or weather. Sometimes, journeys are not termed "true migration" because they are irregular or in only one direction...
, although populations at higher altitudes relocate to lower areas during the cooler months. It is omnivorous
Omnivore
Omnivores are species that eat both plants and animals as their primary food source...
, with a diet that includes a wide variety of berries and seeds, invertebrate
Invertebrate
An invertebrate is an animal without a backbone. The group includes 97% of all animal species – all animals except those in the chordate subphylum Vertebrata .Invertebrates form a paraphyletic group...
s, bird eggs and juvenile birds. It is a predator which has adapted well to urbanization and can be found in parks and gardens as well as rural woodland. The habitat includes all kinds of forested areas, although mature forests are preferred for breeding. Roosting, nesting and the bulk of foraging take place in trees, in contrast with the ground foraging behaviour of its relative the Australian Magpie.
Taxonomy
The Pied Currawong was first described by English ornithologist Robert ShawRobert Shaw
-Arts and humanities:* Bob Shaw , Irish science fiction writer* Bob Shaw , co-writer for Seinfeld, A Bugs Life and others* Robert J...
in 1790 as Coracias strepera, although Strepera was adopted as a generic
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
name. Its binomial
Binomial nomenclature
Binomial nomenclature is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages...
names were derived from the Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
strepera, meaning "noisy", and graculina for resembling a Jackdaw
Jackdaw
The Jackdaw , sometimes known as the Eurasian Jackdaw, European Jackdaw or Western Jackdaw, is a passerine bird in the crow family. Found across Europe, western Asia and North Africa, it is mostly sedentary, although northern and eastern populations migrate south in winter. Four subspecies are...
. Pied Crow-shrike is an old vernacular name from colonial days, and the term "pied" refers to two or more colors in blotches. Other common name
Common name
A common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...
s include Pied Chillawong, Currawang, Charawack, Kurrawack, Tallawong, Tullawong, Mutton-bird, Otway Forester, and Pied Afternoon-tea Bird. The term currawong itself is derived from the bird's call. However, the exact origin of term is unclear; the most likely antecedent is the word garrawaŋ from the indigenous Jagera
Jagera
Jagera is a genus of 4 species of small tree in the soapberry family Sapindaceae. Three are found in the rainforests of eastern Australia, the other is found in the Moluccas and New Guinea....
language from the Brisbane region, although the Darug word gurawaruŋ from the Sydney basin is a possibility. Yungang as well as Kurrawang and Kurrawah are names from the Dharawal people of the Illawarra region.
Its closest relative is the Black Currawong (S. fuliginosa) of Tasmania, which has sometimes been considered a subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
. Together with the larger Grey Currawong (S. versicolor), they form the genus Strepera. Although crow
Corvidae
Corvidae is a cosmopolitan family of oscine passerine birds that contains the crows, ravens, rooks, jackdaws, jays, magpies, treepies, choughs and nutcrackers. The common English names used are corvids or the crow family , and there are over 120 species...
-like in appearance and habits, currawongs are only distantly related to true crows, and instead belong to the family Artamidae
Artamidae
The family Artamidae gathers together 20 species of mostly crow-like birds native to Australasia and nearby areas.There are two subfamilies: Artaminae, the woodswallows, are sombre-coloured, soft-plumaged birds that have a brush-tipped tongue but seldom use it for gathering nectar. Instead, they...
, together with the closely related Australian Magpie
Australian Magpie
The Australian Magpie is a medium-sized black and white passerine bird native to Australia and southern New Guinea. A member of the Artamidae, it is closely related to the butcherbirds...
and the butcherbird
Butcherbird
Butcherbirds are magpie-like birds in the genus Cracticus. They are native to Australasia. Their closest relatives are the three species of currawong...
s. The affinities of all three genera were recognised early on and they were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by ornithologist John Albert Leach
John Albert Leach
Dr John Albert Leach was an ornithologist, teacher and headmaster in the state of Victoria, Australia.Leach was born in Ballarat, Victoria and educated at Creswick Grammar School , Melbourne Training College and the University of Melbourne, where he graduated B.Sc. in 1904, M.Sc...
after he had studied their musculature. Ornithologists Charles Sibley
Charles Sibley
Charles Gald Sibley was an American ornithologist and molecular biologist. He had an immense influence on the scientific classification of birds, and the work that Sibley initiated has substantially altered our understanding of the evolutionary history of modern birds.Sibley's taxonomy has been a...
and Jon Ahlquist
Jon Edward Ahlquist
Jon Edward Ahlquist is an American molecular biologist and ornithologist who has specialized in molecular phylogenetics. He has collaborated extensively with Charles Sibley, primarily at Yale University.By 1987, both Ahlquist and Sibley had left Yale....
recognised the close relationship between woodswallow
Woodswallow
Woodswallows are soft-plumaged, somber-coloured passerine birds. There is a single genus, Artamus, The woodswallows are either treated as a subfamily, Artaminae in an expanded family Artamidae, which includes the butcherbirds and Australian Magpie, or as the only genus in that family...
s and the butcherbirds in 1985, and combined them into a Cracticini clade
Clade
A clade is a group consisting of a species and all its descendants. In the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a single "branch" on the "tree of life". The idea that such a "natural group" of organisms should be grouped together and given a taxonomic name is central to biological...
, which became the family Artamidae.
Subspecies
Six subspecies are currently recognised, characterised principally by differences in size and plumage. There is a steady change to the birds morphology and size the further south they are encountered, with lighter and more greyish plumagePlumage
Plumage refers both to the layer of feathers that cover a bird and the pattern, colour, and arrangement of those feathers. The pattern and colours of plumage vary between species and subspecies and can also vary between different age classes, sexes, and season. Within species there can also be a...
, larger body size, and a shorter bill. Southerly populations also show more white plumage in the tail, with less whiteness on the wing.
- S. g. graculina is the nominate form, found from the Sydney region north to the Burdekin RiverBurdekin RiverThe Burdekin River in Queensland, Australia rises on the western slope of the Seaview Range and flows into the Pacific Ocean at Upstart Bay over 200 km to the southeast of the source. The river was first encountered by Europeans during the expedition led by Ludwig Leichhardt in 1845 and named...
in northern Queensland. - S. g. ashbyi, (critically endangered), the Western Victorian Pied Currawong, was described by Australian amateur ornithologist Gregory MathewsGregory MathewsGregory Macalister Mathews CBE was an Australian amateur ornithologist.Mathews made his fortune in mining shares, and moved to England around 1900....
in 1913. It is threatened by hybridization with the neighbouring subspecies nebulosa whose range is expanding westwards. A 2000 estimate placed the number of breeding birds at around 250. It resembles subspecies nebulosa, with sooty plumage and a long tail and short bill. There is some doubt over whether ashbyi, which is little known, is a distinct subspecies or a colour morphPolymorphism (biology)Polymorphism in biology occurs when two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species — in other words, the occurrence of more than one form or morph...
of nebulosa. It is thought to have evolved after the two populations became separated by basalt plains in western Victoria, with the return of trees after the abandonment of regular Aboriginal burning in the late 18th century contributing to the remixing of populations. Hybrid forms have been identified in the GrampiansGrampians National ParkThe Grampians National Park is a national park in Victoria, Australia, 235 kilometres west of Melbourne. The Park was listed on the Australian National Heritage List on 15 December 2006 for its outstanding natural beauty and being one of the richest indigenous rock art sites in south-eastern...
and Yarra ValleyYarra ValleyThe Yarra Valley is the name given to the region surrounding the Yarra River in Victoria, Australia. The river originates approximately 90 kilometres east of the City of Melbourne and flows towards it and out into Port Phillip Bay...
. - S. g. crissalis, (vulnerable) the Lord Howe CurrawongLord Howe CurrawongThe Lord Howe Currawong , Lord Howe Island Currawong or Lord Howe Pied Currawong, is a large and mainly black passerine bird in the Artamidae family...
was described by English naturalist Richard Bowdler SharpeRichard Bowdler SharpeRichard Bowdler Sharpe was an English zoologist.-Biography:Sharpe was born in London and studied at Brighton College, The King's School, Peterborough and Loughborough Grammar School. At the age of sixteen he went to work for Smith & Sons in London...
in 1877. It appears to have adapted well to human habitation on Lord Howe IslandLord Howe IslandLord Howe Island is an irregularly crescent-shaped volcanic remnant in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand, directly east of mainland Port Macquarie, and about from Norfolk Island. The island is about 11 km long and between 2.8 km and 0.6 km wide with an area of...
, though the population is small overall, somewhere around 70–80 birds. Although regarded as a subspecies, it has yet to be studied with molecular DNA techniques, which may lead to it being reclassified as a separate species.
- S. g. magnirostris is found on the Cape York PeninsulaCape York PeninsulaCape York Peninsula is a large remote peninsula located in Far North Queensland at the tip of the state of Queensland, Australia, the largest unspoilt wilderness in northern Australia and one of the last remaining wilderness areas on Earth...
to the Normanby RiverNormanby RiverThe Normanby River is a major river in northern Queensland, located on the edge of the Wet Tropics and flowing in a generally north-northwestward direction through seasonally flooded savanna grassland to Princess Charlotte Bay about 150 kilometres from Cooktown....
in northern Queensland. First described by Henry Lake White in 1923, it has a longer and heavier bill and shorter tail than the nominate subspecies. It has been little studied to date. - S. g. robinsoni is found on the Atherton TablelandAtherton TablelandThe Atherton Tableland is a fertile plateau which is part of the Great Dividing Range in Queensland, Australia. It is located west to south-south-west inland from Cairns, well into the tropics, but its elevated position provides a climate suitable for dairy farming. It has an area of around...
in northeastern Queensland. First described by Gregory Mathews in 1912, it is combined with magnirostris by some authors. Little researched, it appears to be smaller than other subspecies. - S. g. nebulosa, found in southeastern New South Wales, the Australian Capital TerritoryAustralian Capital TerritoryThe Australian Capital Territory, often abbreviated ACT, is the capital territory of the Commonwealth of Australia and is the smallest self-governing internal territory...
and central Victoria, is very similar to the nominate subspecies but has a shorter bill, longer tail and larger wing. Its upperparts are sooty black, a little paler than the nominate subspecies, and underparts sooty black to slate-grey. The white patch on the primary flight feathers is also smaller. It was first defined in 1999 by ornithologists and bird taxonomists Richard SchoddeRichard SchoddeRichard Schodde, OAM is an Australian botanist and ornithologist.Schodde studied at the University of Adelaide where he received a BSc in 1960 and a PhD in 1970. During the 1960s he was a botanist with the CSIRO Division of Land Research and Regional Survey in Papua New Guinea...
and Ian MasonIan J. MasonIan J. Mason is an Australian ornithologist and taxonomist who is Senior Collection Manager for the Australian National Wildlife Collection. He is an authority on oology.-Publications:...
. There is a hybrid zone with subspecies graculina in southern and central New South Wales, from EdenEden, New South WalesEden is a coastal town in the South Coast region of New South Wales, Australia. The town, south of the state capital Sydney near the border with Victoria, is located between Nullica Bay to the south and Calle Calle Bay, the northern reach of Twofold Bay, and built on undulating land adjacent to a...
north to the IllawarraIllawarraIllawarra is a region in the Australian state of New South Wales. It is a coastal region situated immediately south of Sydney and north of the Shoalhaven or South Coast region. It encompasses the cities of Wollongong, Shellharbour, Shoalhaven and the town of Kiama. The central region contains Lake...
region and stretching northwest to the Blue Mountains.
Description
The Pied Currawong is generally a black bird with white in the wing, undertail covertsCovert (feather)
A covert feather on a bird is one of a set of feathers, called coverts, which as the name implies, cover other feathers. The coverts help to smooth airflow over the wings and tail.- Wing-coverts :...
, the base of the tail and most visibly, the tip of the tail. It has yellow eyes. Adult birds are 44–50 cm (17–19 in) in length, with an average of around 48 cm (19 in); the wingspan varies from 56 to 77 cm (22–31 in), averaging around 69 cm (27 in). Adult males average around 320 g (11 oz), females 280 g (10 oz). The wings are long and broad. The long and heavy bill
Beak
The beak, bill or rostrum is an external anatomical structure of birds which is used for eating and for grooming, manipulating objects, killing prey, fighting, probing for food, courtship and feeding young...
is about one and a half times as long as the head and is hooked at the end. Juvenile birds have similar markings to adults but have softer and brownish plumage overall, although the white band on the tail is narrower. The upperparts are darker brown with scallops and streaks over the head and neck, and the underparts lighter brown. The eyes are dark brown and the bill dark with a yellow tip. The gape
Gape
In bird anatomy, the gape is the interior of the open mouth of a bird and the gape flange is the region where the two mandibles join together, at the base of the beak...
is a prominent yellow. Older birds grow darker until adult plumage is achieved, but juvenile tail markings only change to adult late in development. Birds appear to moult once a year in late summer after breeding. The Pied Currawong can live for over 20 years in the wild.
Voice
Pied Currawongs are vocal birds, calling when in flight and at all times of the day. They are more noisy early in the morning and in the evening before roosting, as well as before rain. The loud distinctive call has been translated as Kadow-Kadang or Curra-wong. Birds also have a high-pitched but loud whistle, transcribed as Wheeo. The endemic Lord Howe Island subspecies has a distinct, more melodious call.Similar species
The smaller White-winged ChoughWhite-winged Chough
The White-winged Chough is one of only two surviving members of the Australian mud-nest builders family, Corcoracidae, and is the only member of the genus Corcorax...
has similar plumage but has red eyes and is found mainly on the ground. Australian crow and raven species have white eyes and lack the white rump, and the similar-sized Australian Magpie
Australian Magpie
The Australian Magpie is a medium-sized black and white passerine bird native to Australia and southern New Guinea. A member of the Artamidae, it is closely related to the butcherbirds...
has red eyes and prominent black and white plumage. The larger Grey Currawong is readily distinguished by its lighter grey overall plumage and lack of white feathers at the base of the tail. In northwestern Victoria, the Black-winged Currawong (subspecies melanoptera of the Grey) does have a darker plumage than other Grey subspecies, but its wings lack the white primaries of the Pied Currawong.
Distribution and habitat
Sclerophyll
Sclerophyll is the term for a type of vegetation that has hard leaves and short internodes . The word comes from the Greek sclero and phyllon ....
forests, rural and semi-urban environments throughout eastern Australia, from Cape York Peninsula
Cape York Peninsula
Cape York Peninsula is a large remote peninsula located in Far North Queensland at the tip of the state of Queensland, Australia, the largest unspoilt wilderness in northern Australia and one of the last remaining wilderness areas on Earth...
to western Victoria and Lord Howe Island
Lord Howe Island
Lord Howe Island is an irregularly crescent-shaped volcanic remnant in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand, directly east of mainland Port Macquarie, and about from Norfolk Island. The island is about 11 km long and between 2.8 km and 0.6 km wide with an area of...
, where it occurs as an endemic
Endemic (ecology)
Endemism is the ecological state of being unique to a defined geographic location, such as an island, nation or other defined zone, or habitat type; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere. For example, all species of lemur are endemic to the...
subspecies. In general, the Pied Currawong is sedentary, although some populations from higher altitudes move to areas of lower elevation in winter. However, evidence for the extent of migration is conflicting, and the species' movements have been little studied to date. It has adapted well to European presence, and has become more common in many areas of eastern Australia, with surveys in Nanango, Queensland
Nanango, Queensland
Nanango is a town in the South Burnett region of Queensland, Australia. It is the fourth oldest town in Queensland. At the 2006 census, Nanango had a population of 3,083. It is situated north-west of the state capital, Brisbane...
, Barham, New South Wales
Barham, New South Wales
Barham is a town in the western Riverina district of New South Wales, Australia. The town is located 823 kilometres south west of the state capital, Sydney and 303 kilometres north west of Melbourne. Situated on the banks of the Murray River across from Koondrook in the neighbouring state of...
, Geelong, Victoria
Victoria (Australia)
Victoria is the second most populous state in Australia. Geographically the smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania on Boundary Islet to the north, west and south respectively....
, as well as the Northern Tablelands and South West Slopes regions in New South Wales all showing an increase in population. This increase has been most marked, however, in Sydney and Canberra since the 1940s and 1960s respectively. In both cities, the species had previously been a winter resident only, but now remain year-round and breed there. They are a dominant species and common inhabitant of Sydney gardens. More recently still, a survey of the population of Pied Currawongs in southeastern Queensland between 1980 and 2000 had found the species had become more numerous there, including suburban Brisbane. One 1992 survey reported the total number of Pied Currawongs in Australia had doubled from 3 million birds in the 1960s to 6 million in the early 1990s.
The Pied Currawong is able to cross bodies of water of some size, as it has been recorded from Rodondo Island
Rodondo Island
Rodondo Island is a visually striking granite island, ringed by steep cliffs up to 200 m high, with an area of 106 ha and a high point of 350 m, in south-eastern Australia. It is part of Tasmania’s Rodondo Group, lying in northern Bass Strait only 10 km south of Wilsons Promontory in Victoria, and...
, which lies 10 km (6 mi) off the coast of Wilsons Promontory
Wilsons Promontory
Wilsons Promontory is a peninsula that forms the southernmost part of the Australian mainland and is located at . South Point at is the southernmost tip of Wilsons Promontory and hence of mainland Australia...
in Victoria, as well as some offshore islands in Queensland. It has disappeared from Tryon
Tryon Island
Tryon Island is a coral cay located in the southern Great Barrier Reef, 86 km northeast of Gladstone, Queensland, Australia, and 465 km north of the state capital Brisbane. The island is a protected area and forms part of Capricornia Cays National Park. It is part of the Capricornia Cays...
, North West
North West Island
North West Island is a coral cay in the southern Great Barrier Reef, located 75 kilometres northeast of Gladstone, Queensland. North West Island forms part of Capricornia Cays National Park and with an area of 1.05 km², the island is the second largest coral cay in the Great Barrier Reef...
, Masthead
Masthead Island
Masthead Island is a coral cay located in the southern Great Barrier Reef, 60 kilometres northeast of Gladstone, Queensland. The island is a protected area and forms part of Capricornia Cays National Park. Masthead Island is one of the most undisturbed cays in the national park because human and...
and Heron Islands in the
Capricorn Group on the Great Barrier Reef. The presence of the Lord Howe subspecies is possibly the result of a chance landing there.
The Pied Currawong's impact on smaller birds that are vulnerable to nest predation is controversial: several studies have suggested that the species has become a serious problem, but the truth of this widely held perception was queried in a 2001 review of the published literature on their foraging habits by Bayly and Blumstein of Macquarie University, who also observed that common introduced
Introduced species
An introduced species — or neozoon, alien, exotic, non-indigenous, or non-native species, or simply an introduction, is a species living outside its indigenous or native distributional range, and has arrived in an ecosystem or plant community by human activity, either deliberate or accidental...
birds were more affected than native birds. However, predation by Pied Currawongs has been a factor in the decline of Gould's Petrel
Gould's Petrel
Gould's Petrel is a species of seabird in the Procellariidae family. It is a small petrel, 30 cm long with a wingspan of about 70 cm. It is largely grey above and white below with a blackish crown and hindneck and a black M-shaped band across the wings and rump.The subspecies P. l...
at a colony on Cabbage Tree Island, near Port Stephens
Port Stephens
Port Stephens is a large natural harbour located about north-east of Sydney in New South Wales, Australia. It lies wholly within the Port Stephens Local Government Area although its northern shoreline forms the boundary between the Port Stephens and Great Lakes LGAs...
in New South Wales; birds have been reported preying on adult seabirds. Their removal from the islands halted a decline of the threatened petrels. Furthermore, a University of New England study published in 2006 reported that the breeding success rates for the Eastern Yellow Robin
Eastern Yellow Robin
The Eastern Yellow Robin is an Australasian robin of coastal and sub-coastal eastern Australia. The extent of the Eastern Yellow Robin's residence is from the extreme southeast corner of South Australia through most of Victoria and the western half of New South Wales and north as far as Cooktown...
(Eopsaltria australis) and Scarlet Robin
Scarlet Robin
The Scarlet Robin is a common red-breasted Australasian robin in the passerine bird genus Petroica. The species is found on continental Australia and its offshore islands, including Tasmania...
(Petroica boodang) on the New England Tablelands were improved after nests were protected and currawongs culled, and some Yellow Robins even colonised an area they had become locally extinct in. The presence of Pied Currawongs in Sydney gardens is negatively correlated with the presence of Silvereye
Silvereye
The Silvereye or Wax-eye is a very small passerine bird native to Australia, New Zealand and the south-west Pacific islands of Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji...
s (Zosterops lateralis).
The species has been implicated in the spread of weeds by consuming and dispersing fruit and seed. In the first half of the twentieth century, Pied Currawongs were shot as they were considered pests of corn and strawberry crops, as well as assisting in the spread of the prickly pear
Opuntia
Opuntia, also known as nopales or paddle cactus , is a genus in the cactus family, Cactaceae.Currently, only prickly pears are included in this genus of about 200 species distributed throughout most of the Americas. Chollas are now separated into the genus Cylindropuntia, which some still consider...
. They were also shot on Lord Howe Island for attacking chickens. However, they are seen as beneficial in forestry
Forestry
Forestry is the interdisciplinary profession embracing the science, art, and craft of creating, managing, using, and conserving forests and associated resources in a sustainable manner to meet desired goals, needs, and values for human benefit. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands...
as they consume phasmids
Phasmatodea
The Phasmatodea are an order of insects, whose members are variously known as stick insects , walking sticks or stick-bugs , phasmids, ghost insects and leaf insects...
, and also in agriculture for eating cocoons of the codling moth
Codling moth
The codling moth is a member of the Lepidopteran family Tortricidae. They are known as an agricultural pest, their larva being the common apple worm or maggot. It is native to Europe and was introduced to North America, where it has become one of the regular pests of apple orchards. It is found...
.
Behaviour
During the breeding season, Pied Currawongs will pair up and become territorial, defending both nesting and feeding areas. A 1994 study in Sydney's leafy northern suburbs measured an average distance of 250 m (820 ft) between nests, while another in Canberra in 1990 had three pairs in a 400 m (1300 ft) segment of pine-tree lined street. Territories have been measured around 0.5–0.7 ha
Hectare
The hectare is a metric unit of area defined as 10,000 square metres , and primarily used in the measurement of land. In 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the are was defined as being 100 square metres and the hectare was thus 100 ares or 1/100 km2...
in Sydney and Wollongong, although these were restricted to nesting area and did not include a larger feeding territory, and 7.9 ha
Hectare
The hectare is a metric unit of area defined as 10,000 square metres , and primarily used in the measurement of land. In 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the are was defined as being 100 square metres and the hectare was thus 100 ares or 1/100 km2...
in Canberra. Pied Currawongs vigorously drive off threats such as ravens, and engage in bill-snapping, dive-bombing and aerial pursuit. They adopt a specific threat display
Threat display
Threat display is a type of display behaviour aiming at intimidation of a potential enemy. It may be directed at a rival of the same species , or at a potential threat from a different species....
against other currawongs by lowering the head so the head and body are parallel to the ground and pointing the beak out forward, often directly at the intruder. The male predominates in threat displays and territory defence, and guards the female closely as she builds the nest.
Flocks of birds appear to engage in play; one routine involves a bird perching atop a tall tree, pole or spire, and others swooping, tumbling or diving and attempting to dislodge it. A successful challenger is then challenged in its turn by other birds in the flock.
The Pied Currawong bathes by wading into water up to 15 cm (6 in) deep, squatting down, ducking its head under, and shaking its wings. It preens its plumage afterwards, sometimes applying mud or soil first. The species has also been observed anting
Anting (bird activity)
In the behavior called anting, birds rub insects on their feathers, usually ants, which secrete liquids containing chemicals such as formic acid, that can act as an insecticide, miticide, fungicide, bactericide, or to make them edible by removing the distasteful acid. It possibly also supplements...
.
Feeding
The Pied Currawong is an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder, eating fruit and berries as well as preying on many invertebrates, and smaller vertebrates, mostly juvenile birds and bird eggs. Currawongs will hunt in trees, snatching birds and eggs from nests, as well as insects and berries from trees. They also hunt in the air and on the ground. Insects predominate in the diet during summer months, and fruit during the winter. They will often scavenge, eating scraps and rubbish and can be quite bold when seeking food from people, lingering around picnic areas and bird-feeding trays. Beetles and ants are the most common types of insects consumed. Pied Currawongs have been recorded taking mice, as well as chickens and turkeys from farms. The Pied Currawong consumes fruit, including a wide variety of figs, such as the Moreton Bay (Ficus macrophylla), Port Jackson (F. rubiginosa), Banyan (F. virensFicus virens
Ficus virens is a plant of the genus Ficus found in India, southeast Asia, through Malaysia and into Northern Australia. Its common name is White Fig; it is locally known as pilkhan and in the Gun-djeihmi language it is called an-borndi. Like many figs, its fruits are edible...
) and Strangler fig (F. watkinsiana
Ficus watkinsiana
Ficus watkinsiana, commonly known as Strangler fig, Watkins' fig, Nipple fig or the Green-leaved Moreton Bay Fig is a hemiepiphytic fig that is endemic to Australia...
), as well as lillypillies (Syzygium
Syzygium
Syzygium is a genus of flowering plants that belongs to the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. The genus comprises about 1100 species, and has a native range that extends from Africa and Madagascar through southern Asia east through the Pacific...
species), white cedar (Melia azedarach
Melia azedarach
Melia azedarach is a species of deciduous tree in the mahogany family, Meliaceae, that is native to Pakistan, India, Indochina Southeast Asia and Australia...
), plum pine (Podocarpus elatus
Podocarpus elatus
Podocarpus elatus, known as the Plum Pine, or the Brown Pine is a species of Podocarpus endemic to the east coast of Australia, in eastern New South Wales and eastern Queensland....
), and geebungs (Persoonia
Persoonia
Persoonia is a genus of 98 species of shrubs and small trees in the tribe Persoonioideae in the large and diverse plant family Proteaceae. In the eastern states of Australia, they are commonly known as Geebungs, while in Western Australia and South Australia they go by the common name Snottygobbles...
species). Other fruit is also sought after, and currawongs have been known to raid orchards, eating apples, pears, strawberries, grapes, stone fruit, citrus, and corn. Pied Currawongs have been responsible for spread of the invasive ornamental Asparagus densiflorus
Asparagus densiflorus
Asparagus densiflorus, Sprenger's Asparagus, is a plant native to South Africa. Often used as an ornamental plant, it is considered an invasive weed in many locations. Asparagus fern is a common name; however, it is unrelated to true ferns. Some authorities also use the name A...
in the Sydney area, the weedy privet
Privet
Privet was originally the name for the European semi-evergreen shrub Ligustrum vulgare, and later also for the more reliably evergreen Ligustrum ovalifolium , used extensively for privacy hedging. It is often suggested that the name privet is related to private, but the OED states that there is no...
species Ligustrum lucidum
Ligustrum lucidum
Ligustrum lucidum is a species of privet native to the southern half of China.-Growth:It is the largest species in the genus, growing as a tree up to 25 m tall...
and L. sinense, and firethorn species Pyracantha angustifolia
Pyracantha angustifolia
Pyracantha angustifolia is a species of shrub in the rose family known by the common name narrowleaf firethorn. The flowers are white and produce small round pomes and can be orange to red in color. These fruits are astringent and bitter, making them inedible for humans, but they are a food source...
and P. rogersiana
Pyracantha rogersiana
Pyracantha rogersiana is species of Firethorn shrub. It is grown in gardens, yards, and parks for its golden-yellow or golden-orange berries. The seeds are poisonous if ingested and may result in vomiting. It can be grown as a hedge....
around Armidale
Armidale, New South Wales
Armidale is a city in the Northern Tablelands, New South Wales, Australia. Armidale Dumaresq Shire had a population of 19,485 people according to the 2006 census. It is the administrative centre for the Northern Tablelands region...
.
Birds forage singly or in pairs in summer, and more often in larger flocks in autumn and winter, during which time they are more likely to loiter around people and urban areas. They occasionally associate with Australian Magpies (Cracticus tibicen) or Common Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) when foraging. Birds have also been encountered with Grey Currawongs (S. versicolor) and Satin Bowerbird
Satin Bowerbird
The Satin Bowerbird, Ptilonorhynchus violaceus is a bowerbird endemic to eastern Australia.A rare natural intergeneric hybrid between the Satin Bowerbird and the Regent Bowerbird is known as Rawnsley's Bowerbird.-Distribution:...
s (Ptilinorhynchus violaceus). The species has been reported stealing food
Kleptoparasitism
Kleptoparasitism or cleptoparasitism is a form of feeding in which one animal takes prey or other food from another that has caught, collected, or otherwise prepared the food, including stored food...
from other birds such as the Australian Hobby
Australian Hobby
The Australian Hobby or Little Falcon is a falcon found mainly in Australia. It is also a winter migrant to Indonesia and New Guinea...
(Falco longipennis), Collared Sparrowhawk
Collared Sparrowhawk
The Collared Sparrowhawk is a small, slim bird of prey in the family Accipitridae found in Australia, and New Guinea and nearby smaller islands.- Description :...
(Accipiter cirrocephalus), and Sulphur-crested Cockatoo
Sulphur-crested Cockatoo
The Sulphur-crested Cockatoo, Cacatua galerita, is a relatively large white cockatoo found in wooded habitats in Australia and New Guinea. They can be locally very numerous, leading to them sometimes being considered pests...
(Cacatua galerita). Pied Currawongs will also harass each other. A 2007 study conducted by researchers from the Australian National University
Australian National University
The Australian National University is a teaching and research university located in the Australian capital, Canberra.As of 2009, the ANU employs 3,945 administrative staff who teach approximately 10,000 undergraduates, and 7,500 postgraduate students...
showed that White-browed Scrubwren
White-browed Scrubwren
The White-browed Scrubwren is a passerine bird found in coastal areas of Australia. Placed in the family Pardalotidae in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, this has met with opposition and indeed is now known to be wrong; they rather belong to the independent family Acanthizidae.It is insectivorous and...
(Sericornis frontalis) nestlings became silent when they heard the recorded sound of a Pied Currawong walking through leaf litter.
Breeding
Clutch (eggs)
A clutch of eggs refers to all the eggs produced by birds or reptiles, often at a single time, particularly those laid in a nest.In birds, destruction of a clutch by predators, , results in double-clutching...
of three eggs
Egg (biology)
An egg is an organic vessel in which an embryo first begins to develop. In most birds, reptiles, insects, molluscs, fish, and monotremes, an egg is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum, which is expelled from the body and permitted to develop outside the body until the developing...
; they are a light pinkish-brown colour (likened by one author to that of silly putty
Silly Putty
Silly Putty , is the Crayola-owned trademark name for a class of silicone polymers. It is marketed today as a toy for children, but was originally created by accident during research into potential rubber substitutes for use by the United States in World War II...
) with splotches of darker pink-brown and lavender. Tapered oval in shape, they measure about 30 × 42 mm (1 × 1.5 in). The female broods alone. The incubation
Avian incubation
Incubation refers to the process by which certain oviparous animals hatch their eggs, and to the development of the embryo within the egg. The most vital factor of incubation is the constant temperature required for its development over a specific period. Especially in domestic fowl, the act of...
period is not well known, due to the difficulty of observing nests, but observations indicate around 30 days from laying to hatching. Like all passerine
Passerine
A passerine is a bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders: with over 5,000 identified species, it has roughly...
s, the chicks are born naked, and blind (altricial
Altricial
Altricial, meaning "requiring nourishment", refers to a pattern of growth and development in organisms which are incapable of moving around on their own soon after hatching or being born...
), and remain in the nest for an extended period (nidicolous
Nidicolous
Nidicolous animals are those that stay at their nest or birthplace for a long time after birth, due to their dependence on the parents for feeding, protection and learning survival skills...
) They quickly grow a layer of ashy-grey down. Both parents feed the young, although the male does not begin to feed them directly until a few days after birth.
The Channel-billed Cuckoo
Channel-billed Cuckoo
The Channel-billed Cuckoo is a species of cuckoo in the Cuculidae family. It is monotypic within the genus Scythrops. The species is the largest brood parasite in the world, and the largest cuckoo....
(Scythrops novaehollandiae) parasitizes Pied Currawong nests, laying eggs which are then raised by the unsuspecting foster parents. The eggs closely resemble those of the currawong hosts. Pied Currawongs have been known to desert nests once cuckoos have visited, abandoning the existing currawong young, which die, and a Channel-billed Cuckoo has been recorded decapitating a currawong nestling. The Brown Goshawk
Brown Goshawk
The Brown Goshawk is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae found in Australia and surrounding islands.- Description:...
(Accipiter fasciatus) and Lace monitor
Lace monitor
The Lace Monitor, or Lace Goanna, Varanus varius, is a member of the monitor lizard family, Australian members of which are commonly known as goannas. It belongs to the subgenus Varanus....
(Varanus varius) have also been recorded taking nestlings.