Political psychology
Encyclopedia
Political psychology is an interdisciplinary academic field dedicated to understanding political science
, politician
s and political behavior. Psychological theories of behavior including; belief, motivation, conflict, perception, cognition, information processing, learning strategies, socialization and attitude formation , in both individual and group settings, are applied to the study of political science. In turn the effect of a political climate upon individuals is also considered a key dimension in the field of political psychology. In essence political psychology strives to analyze the ways in which humans behave in relation to one another, and thus how political actors can influence these behaviors. A wide range of other disciplines are involved in the study of political psychology including; anthropology
, sociology
, international relations
, economics
, philosophy
, media
, journalism
and history
. Political psychologists study the foundations, dynamics and outcomes of political behavior through cognitive and social explanations, with the intention to understand and therefore predict human motivations. Political psychology aids those engaged in political fields to organize frameworks and think about the consequences of their actions in a more analytical and systematic way. The application of political psychology is thus demonstrated in many contexts such as; domestic and foreign policy making by leaders and leadership types; behavior in ethnic violence, wars and genocide; group dynamics and conflict; racist behavior and conflict; voting attitudes and motivation; voting and role of the media; nationalism and political extremism .
, Machiavelli, Shakespeare and Hobbes .
The discipline political psychology however was formally introduced during the instability created by the Franco-Prussian war and the socialist revolution stirred by the rise of the Paris Commune
(1871) . The term “political psychology” was first introduced by the ethnologist Adolph Bastian in his book Man in History (1860). The philosopher Hippolyte Taine
(1828-1893) applied the theories developed by Bastian to the founding and development of the Third Republic
in his works The Origins of Contemporary France (1875-1893). Taine was subsequently involved in founding the Ecole Libre de Sciences Politiques. Emile Boutmy
(1835-1906) was the head of ecole Libre de Sciences Politiques. She explored social, political and geographical concepts of national interactions, contributing various works on political psychology such as The English People; A study of their Political Psychology (1901) and The American People; Elements of Their Political Psychology (1902). The physician and evolutionary anthropologist Gustave LeBon (1841-1931) contributed the crowd theory to the understanding of socialism and nationalism, suggesting that crowd activity subdued will and rational thought, resulting in the effect of uncontrollable impulses and emotions. He suggested in his works Psychology of Socialism (1896) and Political Psychology and Social Defense (1910) that in the uncontrollable state of a crowd people were more vulnerable to submission and leadership, and therefore nationalism
should be embraced.
Meanwhile in Italy, the Risorgimento (1870) instigated various social reforms and voting rights. A large divide in class during this period led the lawyer Gaetano Mosca
(1858-1914) to publish his work The Ruling Class: Elements of Political Science (1896), theorizing the presence of a ruling and a ruled class in all societies . Vilfredo Pareto
(1828-1923), inspired by Mosca’s concepts, contributed The Rise and Fall of the Elites (1901) and The Socialist System (1902-1903) to the discipline of political psychology, theorizing on the role of class and social systems. His work The Mind and Society
(1916) offers a sociology treatise
. Mosca and Pareto’s texts of the Italian elite contributed to the theories of Robert Michels (1875-1936). Michels was a German socialist fascinated by the distinction between the largely lower class run parliament in Germany and upper class run parliament in Italy. He wrote Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchic Tendencies of Modern Democracy (1911).
A large psychoanalytical influence was contributed to the discipline political psychology by Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939). His texts Totem and Taboo
(1913) and Group psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (1921) link psychoanalysis with politics. Freud and Bullit (1967) developed the first psychobiography explaining how the personality characteristics of President Wilson affected his decision making during WW1. Wilhelm Reich
(1897-1957) inspired by the effects of WW2 was interested in whether personality types varied according to epoch, culture and class. He implicated the bidirectional effect of group, society and the environment on personality. He combined Freudian and Marxist theories in his book The Mass Psychology of Fascism
(1933) although it was banned at the time. He also edited the Journal for Political Psychology and Sexual Economy (1934-1935) which was the first journal implicating political psychology in a principal western language .
In Germany novice political alterations and fascist control during WW2 spurred research into authoritarianism from The Frankfurt school. The philosopher Herbert Marcuse
(1898-1979) opened up issues concerning freedom and authority, implicating in Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory (1941) that groups compromised individual rights. Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) also investigated authoritarian individuals and anti-Semitism, attempting to determine the type of personality to have a propensity to follow fascism and anti-democratic propaganda in his report The Authoritarian Personality
(1950). Nazi movements during WW2 also spurred controversial psychologists such as Poppelreuter (1932) to lecture and write about political psychology that identified with Hitler. The psychologist Eric Jaensch (1883-1940) published the racist book The Anti-Type (1933).
In the UK the discipline political psychology was introduced through courses on “The Sciences of the Man” at Oxford
and Cambridge
, during the turn of the century, along with the foundation of the Psychological society (1901) and the Sociological society (1904) . The Oxford historian G. B. Grundy (1861-1948) noted political psychology in 1917 as a sub-discipline of history. The science was intended to instrument the clarification of mistaken beliefs about others intentions based on mistaken beliefs about ourselves . Grundy was motivated by social and political behavior during WW1 to suggest a new branch of historical science deemed “the psychology of men acting in masses” . The intellectual Graham Wallace (1859-1932) implicated the significance in studying psychology in politics in Human Nature in Politics (1908). Wallace stated the importance of enlightening politicians and the public to unconscious psychological processes to help to guard oneself against exploitation and to control ones own psychological processes intellectually. He suggested in The Great Society
(1917) that recognition of such processes could help to build a more functional humanity.
Across the Atlantic the first American to be considered a political psychologist was Harold Lasswell (1902-1978) who’s research was also spurred by a sociological fascination of WW1. His work Propaganda Technique in the World War (1927) implicated the significant psychological effects and techniques of propaganda . Lasswell moved to Europe shortly after where he started to tie Freudian and Adler personality theories to politics and published Psychopathology and Politics (1930). His major theories involved the motives of the politically active and the relation between propaganda and personality.
Another contributing factor to the development of Political Psychology was the introduction of psychometrics and The Measurement of Attitude by Thurstone and Chave (1929). A methodological revolution in social science gave quantitative grounds and therefore more credibility to Political Psychology. Research into political preference during campaigns was spurred by George Gallup
(1901-1984), who founded the American Institute of Public Opinion. The 1940’s election in America drew a lot of attention being at the start of WW2. Gallup, Roper and Crossley instigated research into the chances of Roosevelt being re-elected. Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet (1944) also conducted a famous panel study “The People’s Choice” into the 1940’s election campaign. These studies drew attention to the possibility of measuring political techniques using psychological theories . The entry of the US into WW2 spiraled vast research into fields such as war technique, propaganda, group moral, psycho-biography and culture conflict to name a few, with the U.S. army and Navy recruiting young psychologists . Thus the discipline quickly developed and gained international accreditation.
in political psychology focuses on the effects of leadership personality on decision-making, and the consequences of mass personality on leadership boundaries. Key personality approaches utilized in political psychology are psychoanalytic theories, trait-based theories and motive-based theories .
Sigmund Freud made significant contributions to the study of personality in political psychology through his psychoanalytic theories of the unconscious motives of behavior. Freud suggested that a leaders behavior and decision making skill was largely determined by the interaction in their personality of the id
, ego
and superego, and their control of the pleasure principle
and reality principle
. The psychoanalytic approach has also been used extensively in psychobiography
’s of political leaders. Psychobiography’s draw inferences from personal, social and political development, starting from childhood, to understand behavior patterns that can be implemented to predict decision-making motives and strategies.
Trait theory
has also been a key influence in political psychology. Traits are personality characteristics that show to be stable over time and in different situations creating predispositions to perceive and respond in particular ways . Gordon Allport
(1897-1967) realized the study of traits introducing central, secondary, cardinal and common traits. These four distinctions suggest that people demonstrate traits to varying degrees, and further that there is a difference between individual and common traits that are recognized within a society. Hans Eysneck (1916-1997) presented three major traits. Currently Costa and McCrae’s (1992) “ The Big Five” personality dimensions are the most recognized. These include; neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience and conscientiousness . Theories in political psychology induce that one’s combination of these traits has implications for leadership style and capacity. For example individuals who score highly on extroversion are demonstrated as having superior leadership skills .
The Myers-Briggs Type indicator (MBTI) is another personality assessment scale commonly used in the study of political personality and for job profiling.
In terms of political psychology motivation
is viewed as a goal-orientated behavior driven by a need for three things; power
, affiliation intimacy, and achievement
. These categories were grouped by Winter
(1996) from Murray
’s (1938) 20 suggested common human goals. Need for power affects the style in which a leader performs, and it has been suggested that motivations between a leader and those whom they are ruling need to be consistent. Motives have been shown to be correlated more highly with situation and time since last goal-fulfillment, rather than consistent traits . The Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT) is commonly used for assessing motives. However in the case of leadership assessment this test is more difficult to implement therefore more applicable tests are often used such as; content analysis of speeches and interviews. Winter and Stewart (1977) suggested that leaders high in power and low in need of affiliation intimacy make better presidents. Affiliation-motivated leaders alternatively tend to collaborate joint efforts in the absence of threat. Lastly, achievement motivation has demonstrated to not correspond with political success, especially if it is higher than power motivation (Winter, 2002) .
is a syndrome theory that was developed by the researchers Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswick, Levinson and Sanford (1950) at The University of California. It was also developed into a book that was subsidized by the American Jewish Committee since it revolved around ideas developed from WWII events. Adorno (1950) explained the authoritarian personality type from a psychoanalytic point of view suggesting it to be a result of highly controlled and conventional parenting. Adorno explained that individuals with and authoritarian personality type had been stunted in terms of developing an ability to control the sexual and aggressive id impulses, yet being afraid of them and thus creating defense mechanisms to avoid confronting them . Authoritarian personality types are persons described as swinging between depending on yet resenting authority. The syndrome was theorized to encompass nine characteristics; conventionalism, authoritarian submission, authoritarian aggression, anti-intraception, superstition and stereotypy, power and “toughness”, destructiveness and cynicism, sex obsession, and projectivity. The authoritarian personality type is suggested to be; ethnocentric, ego-defensive, mentally rigid, conforming and conventional, adverse to the out of the ordinary, and as having conservative political views. The book introduces several scales based on different authoritarian personality types. These are; theF-scale
which measures from where and to what degree fascist attitudes develop, the anti-Semitism scale, the ethnocentrism scale and the politico economic conservatism scale. The F-scale however, is the only scale that is expected to measure implicit authoritarian personality tendencies.
Altmeyer (1996) deconstructed the authoritarian personality using trait analysis. He developed a Right Wing Authoritarianism
(RWA) scale based on the traits; authoritarian submission, authoritarian aggression, and conventionalism. Altmeyer (1996) suggested that those who score high on the F-scale have a low ability for critical thinking and therefore are less able to contradict authority. Altmeyer’s theories also incorporate the psychodynamic point of view, suggesting that authoritarian personality types were taught by their parents to believe that the world was as dangerous place and thus their impulses lead them to make impulsive, emotional and irrational decisions. The beliefs and behavior of an authoritarian are suggested to be easily manipulated by authority instead of being based on internal values. Altmeyer also theorized that leaders with authoritarian personality types were more susceptible to the fundamental attribution error
. There are many weaknesses associated with this syndrome, although it may have been more relevant during the period in which it was produced being shortly after WWII. The authoritarian personality is generally related to a fascist image howeverit is suggested to exist in all political fields.
Trait-based frameworks excluding the Freudian approach were suggested by James Barber
(1930-2004) in The Presidential Character (1972) who highlighted the importance of psychobiography
in political personality analysis. Barber suggested that leadership personality was comprised of three dimensions; “character”, “world view”, and “style”. Barber also proposed that leadership typology follows a pattern leading from an individuals first political success and that it is includes two variables; the effort that a leader puts in and the personal satisfaction that the leader gains. This typology is fairly limited in its dimensions.
Etheredge (1978) proposed the importance of the traits; “dominance”, “interpersonal trust”, “self-esteem” and “introversion-extroversion” in leadership views and policy shaping. Etheredge found that studies drawn from leaders of the Soviet Union showed leaders who scored highly on dominance to support the use of force during debate settlement. He found that the trait introversion can lead to a lack of co-operation, and that extroversion usually leads to cooperation and negotiation. Further he suggested that interpersonal trust and self-esteem were more closely related to not advocating force .
Margaret Hermann (1976) introduced the Leader Trait Assessment (LTA) and advocated the development of the Profiler-Plus. The profiler plus is a computer system that codes spontaneous interview answers for seven major characteristics; need for power, cognitive complexity, task-interpersonal emphasis, self-confidence, locus of control, distrust of others, and ethnocentrism. This method can profile large bodies of leadership related text whilst removing any subjective bias from content analysis. It is efficient and has high reliability.
Herman and Preston (1994) suggested 5 distinct variables of leadership style; their involvement in policy making, their willingness to tolerate conflict, their level and reasons for motivation, their information managing strategies, and their conflict resolving strategies .
An alternative approach is the Operational Code method introduced by Nathan Leites (1951) and restructured by Alexander George
(1979). The code is based on five philosophical beliefs and five instrumental beliefs. A Verbs In Context (VIC) coding system employed through the Profiler-Plus computer program once again allows substantial bodies of written and spoken speech, interviews and writings to be analyzed subjectively. The method attempts to be able to predict behavior thorough applying knowledge of various beliefs.
Although political behavior is governed and represented by a leader the consequential influence of the leader largely depends upon the context in which they are placed and in which type of political climate they are running. For this reason group behavior is also instrumental for understanding sociopolitical environments.
Group size has various consequences. In smaller groups individuals are more committed (Patterson and Schaeffer, 1997) and there is a lower turnover rate (Widmeyer, Brawley and Carron, 1990) . Large groups display greater levels of divergence (O’Dell, 1968) and less conformity (Olson and Caddell, 1994). Group performance also diminishes with size increase due to decreased co-ordination and free riding . The size of a political party or nation can therefore have consequential effects on their ability to co-ordinate and progress.
Group member diversity also largely affects its efficiency. Diversity has proven to demonstrate less communication and therefore to increase conflict (Maznevski, 1994) . This has implications for political parties based in strongly colonial or multiracial nations.
Status, role allocation and role strain within a group can cause disagreement. The maintenance of group cohesion is significantly affected by several factors; the amount of time members spend in the group, the amount that members like one another, the amount of reward that the group offers, the amount of external threat to the group and the level of warmth offered by leaders . These factors should be considered when attempting to form an efficient political group. President decision efficiency for example is affected by the degree to which members of the advisory group have a hierarchical status and by the roles that each member is assigned.
The formation of a group, whether it is formed for a “functional” purpose or an “interpersonal attraction” purpose (Mackie and Goethals, 1987) also affects the efficiency of the group.
Group development tends to happen in several stages; forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning (Tuckman, 1965). Group awareness of these stages is important in order for members to acknowledge that a process is taking place and that certain stages such as storming are part of progression and that they should not be discouraged or case instability. Awareness of group development also allows for models to be implemented in order to manipulate different stages. External influences upon a group will have different effects depending upon which stage the group is at in its course.
The study of group influence is key for political groups in the application of theories such as conformity. Decision making within a group is largely influenced by conformity. It is theorized to occur based on two motives; normative social influence
and informational social influence (Asch
, 1955) . Conformity is also influenced by several factors. An increase in group size increases chance of conformity but only to a certain degree at which it plateaus. Chance of conformity is also increased by degree of unanimity and commitment to the group. Therefore the degree of popularity of a political group can be influenced by its existing size and the believed unanimity and commitment by the public of the already existing members. The degree by which the group conforms as a whole can also be influenced by the degree of individuation of its members .
Power is another influential factor within a group or between separate groups. The critical bases of power developed by French and Raven (1959) allocates the following types of power as the most successful; reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, referent power
and expert power .
The way in which power is exerted upon a group can have repercussive outcomes for popularity. Referent power results in greater popularity of a political group or leader than coercive power (Shaw and Condelli, 1986) . This has implications for leaders in manipulating others to identify with them rather than enforcing consequential punishments. However if coercive power is enforced success and a trusted leader (Friedland, 1976) are necessary in order for group conflict not to escalate . Extrinsic punishment and reward also detracts from intrinsic motivation therefore a sense of freedom must be advocated to the group .
Consistency is also a key aspect in a group for success (Wood, 1994).
Applied psychology theories to improve productivity of political groups include implementing “team development” techniques, “quality circles” and autonomous work groups .
Decision-making is an important political process in influencing the course of a countries policy. Group decision-making is largely influenced by 3 rules; “majority-wins rule”, “truth-wins rule”, and “first-shift rule”. Decision-making is also coerced by conformity. Irrational decisions are generally made during emotional periods . For example an unpopular political party may receive more votes during a period of economic or political instability. Controversial studies by George Marcus
(2003) however imply that high levels of anxiety can actually cause an individual to analyze information more rationally and carefully, resulting in more well-informed and successful decisions . The psychology of decision-making however must be analyzed in accordance with whether it is within a leadership context or a between group context. The implementation of successful decision-making is often enhanced by group decision-making (Hill, 1982) especially if the decision is important to the group and when the group has been working together for an extended amount of time (Watson, Michaelson and Sharp, 1991). However groups can also hinder decision-making if a correct answer is not clear. Janis (1972) introduced the notion of Groupthink
that advocates an increased chance of groups making faulty decisions under several conditions; strong group cohesion, isolation of group decision from public review, the presence of a directive leader in the group, and high stress levels.
Group polarization
(Janis, 1972) suggests that group decision-making is often more extreme whether is it more risky or cautious.
Techniques to establish more effective decision making skills in political dimensions have been suggested. Hirt and Markman (1995) claim that implementing an individual in the group to find faults and to critique will enable the members to establish alternative view points. George (1980) suggested “multiple advocacy” which implements that a neutral person analyses the pros and cons of various advocate suggestions and thus makes an informed decision.
" of information processing is a theory in political psychology that was first put forth by Ole Holsti
to explain the relationship between John Foster Dulles
’ beliefs and his model of information processing. It is the most widely studied model of one's opponent. A state is presumed to be implacably hostile, and contra-indicators of this are ignored. They are dismissed as propaganda ploys or signs of weakness. Examples are John Foster Dulles
’ position regarding the Soviet Union, or Israel’s initial position on the Palestinian Liberation Organization.
Political science
Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior...
, politician
Politician
A politician, political leader, or political figure is an individual who is involved in influencing public policy and decision making...
s and political behavior. Psychological theories of behavior including; belief, motivation, conflict, perception, cognition, information processing, learning strategies, socialization and attitude formation , in both individual and group settings, are applied to the study of political science. In turn the effect of a political climate upon individuals is also considered a key dimension in the field of political psychology. In essence political psychology strives to analyze the ways in which humans behave in relation to one another, and thus how political actors can influence these behaviors. A wide range of other disciplines are involved in the study of political psychology including; anthropology
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humanity. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean mankind or humanity, and -logia , "discourse" or "study", and was first used in 1501 by German...
, sociology
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
, international relations
International relations
International relations is the study of relationships between countries, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations , international nongovernmental organizations , non-governmental organizations and multinational corporations...
, economics
Economics
Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
, philosophy
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
, media
Media
Media may refer to:- Communications :* Media , tools used to store and deliver information or data** Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising...
, journalism
Journalism
Journalism is the practice of investigation and reporting of events, issues and trends to a broad audience in a timely fashion. Though there are many variations of journalism, the ideal is to inform the intended audience. Along with covering organizations and institutions such as government and...
and history
History
History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...
. Political psychologists study the foundations, dynamics and outcomes of political behavior through cognitive and social explanations, with the intention to understand and therefore predict human motivations. Political psychology aids those engaged in political fields to organize frameworks and think about the consequences of their actions in a more analytical and systematic way. The application of political psychology is thus demonstrated in many contexts such as; domestic and foreign policy making by leaders and leadership types; behavior in ethnic violence, wars and genocide; group dynamics and conflict; racist behavior and conflict; voting attitudes and motivation; voting and role of the media; nationalism and political extremism .
History of Political Psychology
The interaction between individuals and societies has been referenced for centuries by key philosophers, writers and politicians including DanteDANTE
Delivery of Advanced Network Technology to Europe is a not-for-profit organisation that plans, builds and operates the international networks that interconnect the various national research and education networks in Europe and surrounding regions...
, Machiavelli, Shakespeare and Hobbes .
The discipline political psychology however was formally introduced during the instability created by the Franco-Prussian war and the socialist revolution stirred by the rise of the Paris Commune
Paris Commune
The Paris Commune was a government that briefly ruled Paris from March 18 to May 28, 1871. It existed before the split between anarchists and Marxists had taken place, and it is hailed by both groups as the first assumption of power by the working class during the Industrial Revolution...
(1871) . The term “political psychology” was first introduced by the ethnologist Adolph Bastian in his book Man in History (1860). The philosopher Hippolyte Taine
Hippolyte Taine
Hippolyte Adolphe Taine was a French critic and historian. He was the chief theoretical influence of French naturalism, a major proponent of sociological positivism, and one of the first practitioners of historicist criticism. Literary historicism as a critical movement has been said to originate...
(1828-1893) applied the theories developed by Bastian to the founding and development of the Third Republic
Third Republic
Third Republic may refer to:* French Third Republic * Third Republic of South Korea * Third and current Democratic Republic of the Congo * Third and current Hellenic Republic of Greece...
in his works The Origins of Contemporary France (1875-1893). Taine was subsequently involved in founding the Ecole Libre de Sciences Politiques. Emile Boutmy
Émile Boutmy
Émile Boutmy was a French political scientist and sociologist who was a native of Paris.He studied law in Paris, and from 1867 to 1870 gave lectures on the history and culture of civilizations pertaining to architecture at the École Spéciale d'Architecture...
(1835-1906) was the head of ecole Libre de Sciences Politiques. She explored social, political and geographical concepts of national interactions, contributing various works on political psychology such as The English People; A study of their Political Psychology (1901) and The American People; Elements of Their Political Psychology (1902). The physician and evolutionary anthropologist Gustave LeBon (1841-1931) contributed the crowd theory to the understanding of socialism and nationalism, suggesting that crowd activity subdued will and rational thought, resulting in the effect of uncontrollable impulses and emotions. He suggested in his works Psychology of Socialism (1896) and Political Psychology and Social Defense (1910) that in the uncontrollable state of a crowd people were more vulnerable to submission and leadership, and therefore nationalism
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
should be embraced.
Meanwhile in Italy, the Risorgimento (1870) instigated various social reforms and voting rights. A large divide in class during this period led the lawyer Gaetano Mosca
Gaetano Mosca
Gaetano Mosca was an Italian political scientist, journalist and public servant. He is credited with developing the Theory of Elitism and the doctrine of the Political class and is one of the three members constituting the Italian School of Elitists together with Vilfredo Pareto and Robert...
(1858-1914) to publish his work The Ruling Class: Elements of Political Science (1896), theorizing the presence of a ruling and a ruled class in all societies . Vilfredo Pareto
Vilfredo Pareto
Vilfredo Federico Damaso Pareto , born Wilfried Fritz Pareto, was an Italian engineer, sociologist, economist, political scientist and philosopher. He made several important contributions to economics, particularly in the study of income distribution and in the analysis of individuals' choices....
(1828-1923), inspired by Mosca’s concepts, contributed The Rise and Fall of the Elites (1901) and The Socialist System (1902-1903) to the discipline of political psychology, theorizing on the role of class and social systems. His work The Mind and Society
The Mind and Society
The Mind and Society is the English title of the seminal sociological work Trattato di Sociologia Generale by the Italian sociologist and economist Vilfredo Pareto ....
(1916) offers a sociology treatise
Treatise
A treatise is a formal and systematic written discourse on some subject, generally longer and treating it in greater depth than an essay, and more concerned with investigating or exposing the principles of the subject.-Noteworthy treatises:...
. Mosca and Pareto’s texts of the Italian elite contributed to the theories of Robert Michels (1875-1936). Michels was a German socialist fascinated by the distinction between the largely lower class run parliament in Germany and upper class run parliament in Italy. He wrote Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchic Tendencies of Modern Democracy (1911).
A large psychoanalytical influence was contributed to the discipline political psychology by Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud , born Sigismund Schlomo Freud , was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis...
(1856-1939). His texts Totem and Taboo
Totem and Taboo
Totem and Taboo: Resemblances Between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics is a book by Sigmund Freud published in German in 1913 under the title Totem und Tabu: Einige Übereinstimmungen im Seelenleben der Wilden und der Neurotiker...
(1913) and Group psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (1921) link psychoanalysis with politics. Freud and Bullit (1967) developed the first psychobiography explaining how the personality characteristics of President Wilson affected his decision making during WW1. Wilhelm Reich
Wilhelm Reich
Wilhelm Reich was an Austrian-American psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, known as one of the most radical figures in the history of psychiatry...
(1897-1957) inspired by the effects of WW2 was interested in whether personality types varied according to epoch, culture and class. He implicated the bidirectional effect of group, society and the environment on personality. He combined Freudian and Marxist theories in his book The Mass Psychology of Fascism
The Mass Psychology of Fascism
The Mass Psychology of Fascism, originally Die Massenpsychologie des Faschismus in German, was a book written by Wilhelm Reich in 1933...
(1933) although it was banned at the time. He also edited the Journal for Political Psychology and Sexual Economy (1934-1935) which was the first journal implicating political psychology in a principal western language .
In Germany novice political alterations and fascist control during WW2 spurred research into authoritarianism from The Frankfurt school. The philosopher Herbert Marcuse
Herbert Marcuse
Herbert Marcuse was a German Jewish philosopher, sociologist and political theorist, associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory...
(1898-1979) opened up issues concerning freedom and authority, implicating in Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory (1941) that groups compromised individual rights. Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) also investigated authoritarian individuals and anti-Semitism, attempting to determine the type of personality to have a propensity to follow fascism and anti-democratic propaganda in his report The Authoritarian Personality
The Authoritarian Personality
The Authoritarian Personality is an influential sociology book by Theodor W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel Levinson, and Nevitt Sanford, researchers working at the University of California, Berkeley, during and shortly after World War II.TAP "invented a set of criteria by which to define...
(1950). Nazi movements during WW2 also spurred controversial psychologists such as Poppelreuter (1932) to lecture and write about political psychology that identified with Hitler. The psychologist Eric Jaensch (1883-1940) published the racist book The Anti-Type (1933).
In the UK the discipline political psychology was introduced through courses on “The Sciences of the Man” at Oxford
Oxford
The city of Oxford is the county town of Oxfordshire, England. The city, made prominent by its medieval university, has a population of just under 165,000, with 153,900 living within the district boundary. It lies about 50 miles north-west of London. The rivers Cherwell and Thames run through...
and Cambridge
Cambridge
The city of Cambridge is a university town and the administrative centre of the county of Cambridgeshire, England. It lies in East Anglia about north of London. Cambridge is at the heart of the high-technology centre known as Silicon Fen – a play on Silicon Valley and the fens surrounding the...
, during the turn of the century, along with the foundation of the Psychological society (1901) and the Sociological society (1904) . The Oxford historian G. B. Grundy (1861-1948) noted political psychology in 1917 as a sub-discipline of history. The science was intended to instrument the clarification of mistaken beliefs about others intentions based on mistaken beliefs about ourselves . Grundy was motivated by social and political behavior during WW1 to suggest a new branch of historical science deemed “the psychology of men acting in masses” . The intellectual Graham Wallace (1859-1932) implicated the significance in studying psychology in politics in Human Nature in Politics (1908). Wallace stated the importance of enlightening politicians and the public to unconscious psychological processes to help to guard oneself against exploitation and to control ones own psychological processes intellectually. He suggested in The Great Society
The Great Society
The Great Society were a 1960s San Francisco rock band that existed between 1965 and 1966, and were closely associated with the burgeoning Bay Area acid rock scene...
(1917) that recognition of such processes could help to build a more functional humanity.
Across the Atlantic the first American to be considered a political psychologist was Harold Lasswell (1902-1978) who’s research was also spurred by a sociological fascination of WW1. His work Propaganda Technique in the World War (1927) implicated the significant psychological effects and techniques of propaganda . Lasswell moved to Europe shortly after where he started to tie Freudian and Adler personality theories to politics and published Psychopathology and Politics (1930). His major theories involved the motives of the politically active and the relation between propaganda and personality.
Another contributing factor to the development of Political Psychology was the introduction of psychometrics and The Measurement of Attitude by Thurstone and Chave (1929). A methodological revolution in social science gave quantitative grounds and therefore more credibility to Political Psychology. Research into political preference during campaigns was spurred by George Gallup
George Gallup
George Horace Gallup was an American pioneer of survey sampling techniques and inventor of the Gallup poll, a successful statistical method of survey sampling for measuring public opinion.-Biography:...
(1901-1984), who founded the American Institute of Public Opinion. The 1940’s election in America drew a lot of attention being at the start of WW2. Gallup, Roper and Crossley instigated research into the chances of Roosevelt being re-elected. Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet (1944) also conducted a famous panel study “The People’s Choice” into the 1940’s election campaign. These studies drew attention to the possibility of measuring political techniques using psychological theories . The entry of the US into WW2 spiraled vast research into fields such as war technique, propaganda, group moral, psycho-biography and culture conflict to name a few, with the U.S. army and Navy recruiting young psychologists . Thus the discipline quickly developed and gained international accreditation.
Personality and Politics
The study of personalityPersonality
Personality is the particular combination of emotional, attitudinal, and behavioral response patterns of an individual.-Psychology:* Personality development, the concept that personality is affected by various sources* Personality disorder...
in political psychology focuses on the effects of leadership personality on decision-making, and the consequences of mass personality on leadership boundaries. Key personality approaches utilized in political psychology are psychoanalytic theories, trait-based theories and motive-based theories .
Sigmund Freud made significant contributions to the study of personality in political psychology through his psychoanalytic theories of the unconscious motives of behavior. Freud suggested that a leaders behavior and decision making skill was largely determined by the interaction in their personality of the id
ID
ID, I.D. or id may refer to:* The id, ego, and super-ego comprise the psychic apparatus defined in Sigmund Freud's structural model of the psyche- Abbreviations :...
, ego
EGO
See also Egoism Ego is a Latin word meaning "I", cognate with the Greek "Εγώ " meaning "I", often used in English to mean the "self", "identity" or other related concepts.It may also refer to:...
and superego, and their control of the pleasure principle
Pleasure principle
Pleasure Principle may refer to:* Pleasure principle , a psychoanalytical term coined by Sigmund Freud* Pleasure Principle , a New York-based fashion label designed by Diva Pittala and Adrian Cowen...
and reality principle
Reality principle
In Freudian psychology, the reality principle is the psychoanalytic concept describing circumstantial reality compelling a man or a woman to defer instant gratification...
. The psychoanalytic approach has also been used extensively in psychobiography
Psychobiography
Psychobiography aims to understand historically significant individuals such as artists, political leaders, and so on, through the application of psychological theory and research...
’s of political leaders. Psychobiography’s draw inferences from personal, social and political development, starting from childhood, to understand behavior patterns that can be implemented to predict decision-making motives and strategies.
Trait theory
Trait theory
In psychology, Trait theory is a major approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. According to this perspective, traits are relatively stable over...
has also been a key influence in political psychology. Traits are personality characteristics that show to be stable over time and in different situations creating predispositions to perceive and respond in particular ways . Gordon Allport
Gordon Allport
Gordon Willard Allport was an American psychologist. Allport was one of the first psychologists to focus on the study of the personality, and is often referred to as one of the founding figures of personality psychology...
(1897-1967) realized the study of traits introducing central, secondary, cardinal and common traits. These four distinctions suggest that people demonstrate traits to varying degrees, and further that there is a difference between individual and common traits that are recognized within a society. Hans Eysneck (1916-1997) presented three major traits. Currently Costa and McCrae’s (1992) “ The Big Five” personality dimensions are the most recognized. These include; neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience and conscientiousness . Theories in political psychology induce that one’s combination of these traits has implications for leadership style and capacity. For example individuals who score highly on extroversion are demonstrated as having superior leadership skills .
The Myers-Briggs Type indicator (MBTI) is another personality assessment scale commonly used in the study of political personality and for job profiling.
In terms of political psychology motivation
Motivation
Motivation is the driving force by which humans achieve their goals. Motivation is said to be intrinsic or extrinsic. The term is generally used for humans but it can also be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation...
is viewed as a goal-orientated behavior driven by a need for three things; power
Power
-Physics:*Power , the rate at which work is performed or energy is converted*Electric power, the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by a circuit*Human power, the rate of work performed by a human*Motive power, an agent used to create motion...
, affiliation intimacy, and achievement
Achievement
An achievement is similar to an accomplishment.Achievement may refer to:*Armorial achievement or coat of arms, a design belonging to a particular person or group of people...
. These categories were grouped by Winter
Winter
Winter is the coldest season of the year in temperate climates, between autumn and spring. At the winter solstice, the days are shortest and the nights are longest, with days lengthening as the season progresses after the solstice.-Meteorology:...
(1996) from Murray
Murray
-People with the name Murray:*Murray — see that page for a list of people with the surname.*Murray Ball, New Zealand cartoonist*Murray Deaker, New Zealand sports broadcaster*Murray Goldberg, Canadian eLearning pioneer...
’s (1938) 20 suggested common human goals. Need for power affects the style in which a leader performs, and it has been suggested that motivations between a leader and those whom they are ruling need to be consistent. Motives have been shown to be correlated more highly with situation and time since last goal-fulfillment, rather than consistent traits . The Thematic Apperception Test
Thematic Apperception Test
The Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT, is a projective psychological test. Historically, it has been among the most widely researched, taught, and used of such tests...
(TAT) is commonly used for assessing motives. However in the case of leadership assessment this test is more difficult to implement therefore more applicable tests are often used such as; content analysis of speeches and interviews. Winter and Stewart (1977) suggested that leaders high in power and low in need of affiliation intimacy make better presidents. Affiliation-motivated leaders alternatively tend to collaborate joint efforts in the absence of threat. Lastly, achievement motivation has demonstrated to not correspond with political success, especially if it is higher than power motivation (Winter, 2002) .
Frameworks for Assessing Personality
The authoritarian personalityAuthoritarian personality
-Historical Origins:Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswick, Levinson and Sanford compiled a large body of research and theory , which attempted to characterize a personality type that described the “potentially fascistic individual”...
is a syndrome theory that was developed by the researchers Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswick, Levinson and Sanford (1950) at The University of California. It was also developed into a book that was subsidized by the American Jewish Committee since it revolved around ideas developed from WWII events. Adorno (1950) explained the authoritarian personality type from a psychoanalytic point of view suggesting it to be a result of highly controlled and conventional parenting. Adorno explained that individuals with and authoritarian personality type had been stunted in terms of developing an ability to control the sexual and aggressive id impulses, yet being afraid of them and thus creating defense mechanisms to avoid confronting them . Authoritarian personality types are persons described as swinging between depending on yet resenting authority. The syndrome was theorized to encompass nine characteristics; conventionalism, authoritarian submission, authoritarian aggression, anti-intraception, superstition and stereotypy, power and “toughness”, destructiveness and cynicism, sex obsession, and projectivity. The authoritarian personality type is suggested to be; ethnocentric, ego-defensive, mentally rigid, conforming and conventional, adverse to the out of the ordinary, and as having conservative political views. The book introduces several scales based on different authoritarian personality types. These are; theF-scale
F-scale
The F-scale is a 1947 personality test, designed by Theodor W. Adorno and others to measure the authoritarian personality. The "F" stands for "fascist." The F-scale measures responses on several different components of authoritarianism, including conventionalism, authoritarian submission,...
which measures from where and to what degree fascist attitudes develop, the anti-Semitism scale, the ethnocentrism scale and the politico economic conservatism scale. The F-scale however, is the only scale that is expected to measure implicit authoritarian personality tendencies.
Altmeyer (1996) deconstructed the authoritarian personality using trait analysis. He developed a Right Wing Authoritarianism
Right Wing Authoritarianism
Right-wing authoritarianism is a personality and ideological variable studied in political, social, and personality psychology. It is defined by three attitudinal and behavioral clusters which correlate together:...
(RWA) scale based on the traits; authoritarian submission, authoritarian aggression, and conventionalism. Altmeyer (1996) suggested that those who score high on the F-scale have a low ability for critical thinking and therefore are less able to contradict authority. Altmeyer’s theories also incorporate the psychodynamic point of view, suggesting that authoritarian personality types were taught by their parents to believe that the world was as dangerous place and thus their impulses lead them to make impulsive, emotional and irrational decisions. The beliefs and behavior of an authoritarian are suggested to be easily manipulated by authority instead of being based on internal values. Altmeyer also theorized that leaders with authoritarian personality types were more susceptible to the fundamental attribution error
Fundamental attribution error
In social psychology, the fundamental attribution error describes the tendency to over-value dispositional or personality-based explanations for the observed behaviors of others while under-valuing situational explanations for those behaviors...
. There are many weaknesses associated with this syndrome, although it may have been more relevant during the period in which it was produced being shortly after WWII. The authoritarian personality is generally related to a fascist image howeverit is suggested to exist in all political fields.
Trait-based frameworks excluding the Freudian approach were suggested by James Barber
James Barber
James Barber was a Canadian cookbook author and host of Urban Peasant, a CBC cooking show.Born in the United Kingdom, Barber worked as an engineer before becoming a food critic for the Vancouver Sun. His lifelong interest in food and writing and his increased knowledge in these areas naturally led...
(1930-2004) in The Presidential Character (1972) who highlighted the importance of psychobiography
Psychobiography
Psychobiography aims to understand historically significant individuals such as artists, political leaders, and so on, through the application of psychological theory and research...
in political personality analysis. Barber suggested that leadership personality was comprised of three dimensions; “character”, “world view”, and “style”. Barber also proposed that leadership typology follows a pattern leading from an individuals first political success and that it is includes two variables; the effort that a leader puts in and the personal satisfaction that the leader gains. This typology is fairly limited in its dimensions.
Etheredge (1978) proposed the importance of the traits; “dominance”, “interpersonal trust”, “self-esteem” and “introversion-extroversion” in leadership views and policy shaping. Etheredge found that studies drawn from leaders of the Soviet Union showed leaders who scored highly on dominance to support the use of force during debate settlement. He found that the trait introversion can lead to a lack of co-operation, and that extroversion usually leads to cooperation and negotiation. Further he suggested that interpersonal trust and self-esteem were more closely related to not advocating force .
Margaret Hermann (1976) introduced the Leader Trait Assessment (LTA) and advocated the development of the Profiler-Plus. The profiler plus is a computer system that codes spontaneous interview answers for seven major characteristics; need for power, cognitive complexity, task-interpersonal emphasis, self-confidence, locus of control, distrust of others, and ethnocentrism. This method can profile large bodies of leadership related text whilst removing any subjective bias from content analysis. It is efficient and has high reliability.
Herman and Preston (1994) suggested 5 distinct variables of leadership style; their involvement in policy making, their willingness to tolerate conflict, their level and reasons for motivation, their information managing strategies, and their conflict resolving strategies .
An alternative approach is the Operational Code method introduced by Nathan Leites (1951) and restructured by Alexander George
Alexander George
Alexander George may refer to:*Alex George, Australian botanist*Alexander L. George , American political scientist*Alexander George , American philosopher*Alex George , Scottish Grand Prix motorcycle racer...
(1979). The code is based on five philosophical beliefs and five instrumental beliefs. A Verbs In Context (VIC) coding system employed through the Profiler-Plus computer program once again allows substantial bodies of written and spoken speech, interviews and writings to be analyzed subjectively. The method attempts to be able to predict behavior thorough applying knowledge of various beliefs.
Although political behavior is governed and represented by a leader the consequential influence of the leader largely depends upon the context in which they are placed and in which type of political climate they are running. For this reason group behavior is also instrumental for understanding sociopolitical environments.
The Political Psychology of Groups
Group behavior is an intricate study including the many variables that are consequential for the formation of groups and how decisions are processed in groups. Individual behavior deviates substantially from group behavior therefore it is difficult to determine group behavior by looking solely at the individuals that comprise the group. Group form is based upon several variables; size, structure, the purpose that the groups serves, and composition.Group size has various consequences. In smaller groups individuals are more committed (Patterson and Schaeffer, 1997) and there is a lower turnover rate (Widmeyer, Brawley and Carron, 1990) . Large groups display greater levels of divergence (O’Dell, 1968) and less conformity (Olson and Caddell, 1994). Group performance also diminishes with size increase due to decreased co-ordination and free riding . The size of a political party or nation can therefore have consequential effects on their ability to co-ordinate and progress.
Group member diversity also largely affects its efficiency. Diversity has proven to demonstrate less communication and therefore to increase conflict (Maznevski, 1994) . This has implications for political parties based in strongly colonial or multiracial nations.
Status, role allocation and role strain within a group can cause disagreement. The maintenance of group cohesion is significantly affected by several factors; the amount of time members spend in the group, the amount that members like one another, the amount of reward that the group offers, the amount of external threat to the group and the level of warmth offered by leaders . These factors should be considered when attempting to form an efficient political group. President decision efficiency for example is affected by the degree to which members of the advisory group have a hierarchical status and by the roles that each member is assigned.
The formation of a group, whether it is formed for a “functional” purpose or an “interpersonal attraction” purpose (Mackie and Goethals, 1987) also affects the efficiency of the group.
Group development tends to happen in several stages; forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning (Tuckman, 1965). Group awareness of these stages is important in order for members to acknowledge that a process is taking place and that certain stages such as storming are part of progression and that they should not be discouraged or case instability. Awareness of group development also allows for models to be implemented in order to manipulate different stages. External influences upon a group will have different effects depending upon which stage the group is at in its course.
The study of group influence is key for political groups in the application of theories such as conformity. Decision making within a group is largely influenced by conformity. It is theorized to occur based on two motives; normative social influence
Normative Social Influence
Normative social influence is one form of conformity. It is "the influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them." This often leads to public compliance—but not necessarily private acceptance—of the group's social norms. When people tend to conform to...
and informational social influence (Asch
Asch
Asch may refer to:In People:*Frank Asch , American writer*Moe Asch , founder of Folkways Records, son of Sholem Asch*Nathan Asch , American writer*Peter Asch , American water polo player...
, 1955) . Conformity is also influenced by several factors. An increase in group size increases chance of conformity but only to a certain degree at which it plateaus. Chance of conformity is also increased by degree of unanimity and commitment to the group. Therefore the degree of popularity of a political group can be influenced by its existing size and the believed unanimity and commitment by the public of the already existing members. The degree by which the group conforms as a whole can also be influenced by the degree of individuation of its members .
Power is another influential factor within a group or between separate groups. The critical bases of power developed by French and Raven (1959) allocates the following types of power as the most successful; reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, referent power
Referent power
Referent power is individual power of a Leader over the Team or Followers, based on a high level of identification with, admiration of, or respect for the powerholder/ leader....
and expert power .
The way in which power is exerted upon a group can have repercussive outcomes for popularity. Referent power results in greater popularity of a political group or leader than coercive power (Shaw and Condelli, 1986) . This has implications for leaders in manipulating others to identify with them rather than enforcing consequential punishments. However if coercive power is enforced success and a trusted leader (Friedland, 1976) are necessary in order for group conflict not to escalate . Extrinsic punishment and reward also detracts from intrinsic motivation therefore a sense of freedom must be advocated to the group .
Consistency is also a key aspect in a group for success (Wood, 1994).
Applied psychology theories to improve productivity of political groups include implementing “team development” techniques, “quality circles” and autonomous work groups .
Decision-making is an important political process in influencing the course of a countries policy. Group decision-making is largely influenced by 3 rules; “majority-wins rule”, “truth-wins rule”, and “first-shift rule”. Decision-making is also coerced by conformity. Irrational decisions are generally made during emotional periods . For example an unpopular political party may receive more votes during a period of economic or political instability. Controversial studies by George Marcus
George Marcus
George Marcus is an American anthropologist, founder of the journal and editor of the series.-Biography:Marcus served as the Joseph D. Jamail Professor at Rice University, where he chaired the anthropology department for 25 years...
(2003) however imply that high levels of anxiety can actually cause an individual to analyze information more rationally and carefully, resulting in more well-informed and successful decisions . The psychology of decision-making however must be analyzed in accordance with whether it is within a leadership context or a between group context. The implementation of successful decision-making is often enhanced by group decision-making (Hill, 1982) especially if the decision is important to the group and when the group has been working together for an extended amount of time (Watson, Michaelson and Sharp, 1991). However groups can also hinder decision-making if a correct answer is not clear. Janis (1972) introduced the notion of Groupthink
Groupthink
Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within groups of people. It is the mode of thinking that happens when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without...
that advocates an increased chance of groups making faulty decisions under several conditions; strong group cohesion, isolation of group decision from public review, the presence of a directive leader in the group, and high stress levels.
Group polarization
Group polarization
In social psychology, group polarization refers to the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members. These more extreme decisions are towards greater risk if individual's initial tendency is to be risky and towards greater caution if...
(Janis, 1972) suggests that group decision-making is often more extreme whether is it more risky or cautious.
Techniques to establish more effective decision making skills in political dimensions have been suggested. Hirt and Markman (1995) claim that implementing an individual in the group to find faults and to critique will enable the members to establish alternative view points. George (1980) suggested “multiple advocacy” which implements that a neutral person analyses the pros and cons of various advocate suggestions and thus makes an informed decision.
Inherent bad faith model in international relations and political psychology
The "inherent bad faith modelInherent bad faith model
The inherent bad faith model of information processing is a theory in political psychology that was first put forth by Ole Holsti to explain the relationship between John Foster Dulles’ beliefs and his model of information processing....
" of information processing is a theory in political psychology that was first put forth by Ole Holsti
Ole Holsti
Ole Rudolf Holsti is an American political scientist and academic. He currently holds the position of George V. Allen Professor Emeritus of Political Science at Duke University...
to explain the relationship between John Foster Dulles
John Foster Dulles
John Foster Dulles served as U.S. Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, advocating an aggressive stance against communism throughout the world...
’ beliefs and his model of information processing. It is the most widely studied model of one's opponent. A state is presumed to be implacably hostile, and contra-indicators of this are ignored. They are dismissed as propaganda ploys or signs of weakness. Examples are John Foster Dulles
John Foster Dulles
John Foster Dulles served as U.S. Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, advocating an aggressive stance against communism throughout the world...
’ position regarding the Soviet Union, or Israel’s initial position on the Palestinian Liberation Organization.
Prominent political psychologists
- James David BarberJames David BarberDr. James David Barber was a political scientist whose book The Presidential Character made him famous for his classification of presidents through their worldviews...
- Adolf BastianAdolf BastianAdolf Bastian was a 19th century polymath best remembered for his contributions to the development of ethnography and the development of anthropology as a discipline...
- Francis A. Beer
- Eugene Borgida
- Emile BoutmyÉmile BoutmyÉmile Boutmy was a French political scientist and sociologist who was a native of Paris.He studied law in Paris, and from 1867 to 1870 gave lectures on the history and culture of civilizations pertaining to architecture at the École Spéciale d'Architecture...
- Christopher Federico
- Ofer FeldmanOfer FeldmanOfer Feldman Ofer Feldman Ofer Feldman (オフェル・フェルドマン）(born 1954) is a Professor of Political Psychology and Political Behavior at Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan.Ofer Feldman was born in Israel in 1954 and moved to Japan in 1982. In 1994 he became a Japanese citizen. He received his Ph.D. degree...
- Stanley Feldman
- G.B. Grundy
- Jonathan HaidtJonathan HaidtJonathan Haidt is a professor of psychology at the University of Virginia. His research focuses on the psychological bases of morality across different cultures and political ideology. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1992. He was awarded the Templeton Prize in Positive...
- Margaret Hermann
- Ole HolstiOle HolstiOle Rudolf Holsti is an American political scientist and academic. He currently holds the position of George V. Allen Professor Emeritus of Political Science at Duke University...
- David HoughtonDavid HoughtonDavid Laud Houghton is a former Zimbabwean Test cricketer. He captained Zimbabwe in their first four Test matches, losing two and drawing two...
- Leonie Huddy
- Shanto Iyengar
- John Jost
- Jon KrosnickJon KrosnickJon A. Krosnick is the Frederic O. Glover Professor in Humanities and Social Sciences, professor of communication, political science and psychology at Stanford University.Krosnick received a B.A. degree in psychology from Harvard University and M.A. and Ph.D...
- James Kuklinski
- Harold LasswellHarold LasswellHarold Dwight Lasswell was a leading American political scientist and communications theorist. He was a member of the Chicago school of sociology and was a professor at Yale University in law. He was a President of the American Political Science Association and World Academy of Art and Science...
- Howard Lavine
- Gustave LeBon
- Jack Levy
- Milton Lodge
- George MarcusGeorge MarcusGeorge Marcus is an American anthropologist, founder of the journal and editor of the series.-Biography:Marcus served as the Joseph D. Jamail Professor at Rice University, where he chaired the anthropology department for 25 years...
- Rose McDermott
- Robert Jarvis
- Clark McCauleyClark McCauleyClark Richard McCauley is an American social psychologist.McCauley received his Bachelor of Science degree in biology from Providence College in 1965, his Master of Arts degree in psychology from the University of Pennsylvania in 1967, and his Ph.D in social psychology from the University of...
- Kathleen McGraw
- Diana Mutz
- Ashis NandyAshis NandyAshis Nandy is an Indian political psychologist, a social theorist, and a contemporary cultural and political critic. A trained sociologist and clinical psychologist, his body of work covers a variety of topics, including public conscience, mass violence, and dialogues of civilizations.He was...
- Jerrold M. Post
- Felicia Pratto
- Steve ReicherSteve ReicherStephen D Reicher is Professor of Social Psychology and former Head of the School of Psychology at the University of St Andrews....
- Virginia Sapiro
- Mark Schafer
- David SearsDavid SearsDavid Sears II was a prominent 19th century Boston philanthropist, merchant and landowner. He developed a substantial part of nearby Brookline, Massachusetts, including building the Christ's Church in Longwood, and was associated in the erection of the St Paul's Cathedral...
- Jim Sidanius
- John SullivanJohn SullivanJohn Sullivan was the third son of Irish immigrants, a United States general in the Revolutionary War, a delegate in the Continental Congress and a United States federal judge....
- Charles Taber
- Philip Tetlock
- Vamık VolkanVamik VolkanVamık D. Volkan, M.D. is a Turkish-Cypriot emeritus professor of psychiatry at the University of Virginia School of Medicine...
- Dana WardDana WardDana Ward is a professor of Political Studies at Pitzer College, where he founded and maintains the Anarchy Archives and has taught since 1982. He was the Executive Director of The International Society of Political Psychology from July 1998 to the Fall of 2004...
- Steven Walker
See also
- Community psychologyCommunity psychologyCommunity psychology deals with the relationships of the individual to communities and the wider society. Community psychologists seek to understand the quality of life of individuals, communities, and society...
- Experimental political scienceExperimental political scienceExperimental political science is the use in political science of experiments to implement the scientific method.- Usage :Among the areas that it is used in are:...
- Political economyPolitical economyPolitical economy originally was the term for studying production, buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and wealth, including through the budget process. Political economy originated in moral philosophy...
- Public choice
External links
- International Bulletin of Political Psychology
- The Center for the Study of Political Psychology
- The Center for Research in Political Psychology (Queen's University Belfast)
- The International Society of Political Psychology
- Political Psychology at The George Washington University
- Facebook Page in Political Psychology
- Political Psychology