Quintuple meter
Encyclopedia
Quintuple meter or quintuple time (chiefly Brit.) is a musical meter
characterized by 5 beats in a measure. Like the more common duple
, triple, and quadruple
meters, it may be simple, with each beat divided in half, or compound, with each beat divided into thirds. The most common time signature
s for simple quintuple meter are 5/4 and 5/8, and compound quintuple meter is most often written in 15/8. A time signature of 15/8, however, does not necessarily mean that the bar is a quintuple meter with each beat divided into three. It may, for example, be used to indicate a bar of triple meter in which each beat is subdivided into five parts. In this case, the meter is sometimes characterized as "triple quintuple time". It is also possible for a 15/8 time signature to be used for an irregular, or "additive
" metrical pattern, such as groupings of 3 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 2 + 2 eighth notes or, for example in the Hymn to the Sun and Hymn to Nemesis by Mesomedes of Crete
, 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 2, which may alternatively be given the composite signature (8+7)/8. Quintuple meter can also be notated by using regularly alternating bars of triple and duple meters, for example 2/4 + 3/4, or 6/8 + 9/8, or through the use of "compound meters", in which two or three numerals take the place of the expected numerator 5, for example, (2 + 3)/8, or (2 + 1 + 2)/8. Conversely, the presence of a 5/4 or 5/8 meter signature does not necessarily mean that the music is in quintuple meter. The regular alternation of 5/4 and 4/4 in Bruce Hornsby's "The Tango King" (from the album Hot House), for example, results in an overall nonuple meter (5 + 4 = 9).
Rhythm in ancient Greek music was closely tied to poetic meter, and included what are understood today as quintuple patterns. The two Delphic Hymns
from the second century BC both provide examples. The First Delphic Hymn, by Athenaeus, son of Athenaeus, is in the quintuple Cretic
meter throughout. The first nine of the ten sections of the Second Hymn, by Limenius
, are also in Cretic meter. In addition to the Cretic meter, which consisted of a long-short-long pattern, ancient Greek music had seven other quintuple meters: Bacchic (L-L-S ), Palimbacchic (or antibacchic: S-L-L), four species of Paeanic (L-S-S-S, S-L-S-S, S-S-L-S—which is a composite of pyrrhic
and trochee
—and S-S-S-L), and hyporchema
tic (S-S-S-S-S).
(ca 801–ca 866), who divided them into two broad categories, ṯẖaqīl ("heavy", meaning slow) and khafīf ("light", meaning quick). Two of his ṯẖaqīl modes—ṯẖaqīl thānī ("second heavy", S-S-L-S) and ramal (L-S-L)—and one khafīf mode are quintuple. The most important writers of the later Abbasid period (AD 900–1258) were Abū Naṣr al-Fārābī
(d. 950) and Ibn Sīnā
(d. 1037). Al-Fārābī elaborated the rhythmic system established a century earlier by another important early-Abbasid musician, Isḥāq al-Mawṣilī, who had based it on local traditions, without any knowledge of classical Greek music theory. Isḥāq’s and al-Fārābī's system consisted of eight rhythmic modes, the third and fourth of which were quintuple: called ṯẖaqīl thānī ("second heavy"), and khafīf al-ṯẖaqīl thānī ("second light heavy"), both of which are short-short-short-long, in slow and fast tempo, respectively. This terminology and these definitions continued to be found as late as the 12th century in Muslim Spain
, for example in a document by Abd-Allāh ibn Muḥammad ib al-Ṣīd al-Baṭaliawsī.
In the Moroccon Malḥūn repertory—an urban song style closely associated with Andalusian music
—5/8 rhythms are sometimes introduced into the basic metre of 2/4. Turkish classical music employs a system of rhythmic modes (called usul), which include units ranging from two to ten time units. The five-beat meter is called türk aksağı.
The cyclically repeating fixed time cycles of Carnatic
and Hindustani
classical music, called tālas
, include both fast and slow quintuple patterns, as well as binary, ternary, and septuple cycles. In the Carnatic system, there is a complex "formal" system of tālas which is of great antiquity, and a more recent, rather simpler "informal" system, comprising selected tālas from the "formal" system, plus two fast tālas called Cāpu. The slow quintuple tāla, called Jhampā is from the formal system, and consists of a pattern of 7 + 1 + 2 beats; the fast quintuple tāla is called khaṇḍa Cāpu or ara Jhampā, and consists of 2 + 1 + 2 beats. However, the pattern of beats marking the rotation of the cycle does not necessarily indicate the internal rhythmic organization. For example, although the Jhampā tāla, in its most common miśra variety, is governed by 7 + 1 + 2, the most characteristic rhythm of melodies in this tāla is (2 + 3) + (2 + 3).
The tālas in Hindustani music are somewhat more complicated. To begin with, they are not systematically codified, but rather comprise a miscellany of patterns from a number of different repertories. Secondly, the counting units (mātrā) of each tāla are grouped into segments called vibhāg, which constitute slower "beats" of from 1½ to 5 of those counting units. Third, in addition to the sounded vibhāg, marked by hand-claps (tālī), there are also vibhāg marked only by a wave of the hand—the so-called khālī beats. The two quintuple tālas in these repertories are Jhaptāl—2 + 3 + (2) + 3—and Sūltāl—2 + (2) + 2 + 2 + (2). Both are measured by ten mātrā units, but Jhaptāl is divided into four unequal vibhāg (the third being a khālī beat) in two halves of five mātrā each, and Sūltāl is divided into five equal vibhāg, the second and fifth of which are khālī.
The kasa
repertory of traditional Korean court music
often employs cycles in quintuple time, even though Korean traditional music terminology has no specific term for it, and the meter is rarely found in Korean folk music. This repertory can be traced back in some cases to the fifteenth century, and quintuple is the oldest surviving traditional Korean meter.
, where a 5/8 measure is occasionally inserted into songs with a basic duple or four-beat pattern.
, Masuria
, and northern Podlaskie), five-beat bars are frequently found in wedding songs, with rather slow tempos and not accompanied by dancing. In the south, the dance ozwodny has five-bar phrases. Traditional Russian wedding songs also are in quintuple time. The Poles and Russians share this proclivity for quintuple meter with the Finns, Sames
(Lapps), Estonians, and Latvians. In Finland, the Kalevala
ic "runometric
" songs are the most distinctive feature of folk music, and the most common melody of these epic songs is in quintuple meter. This melody was described in the oldest study of runo singing in 1766, but first published in a musical transcription only about 20 years later. One South Slavic example is recorded in a manual published in 1714 by the Venetian dancing master Gregorio Lambranzi. It is a forlana
titled "Polesana", probably meaning "From Pola
", a city in Istria
—today a part of Croatia but a Venetian possession until 1947. Although Lambranzi notated this dance in 6/8 time, its recurring phrase structure shows it to be in compound-quintuple time, so that its correct form is actually written in 15/8.
Spanish folk music is also noted for the use of quintuple meter, particularly well-known examples being the Castilian
rueda and the Basque zortziko
, but it is also found in the music of Extremadura
, Aragon
, Valencia, and Catalonia
. Some types of the folk dances collectively referred to as gavotte
s, and stemming from Lower Brittany in France are in 5/8 metre, though 4/4, 2/4, and 9/8 are also found. In the Alsatian
region of Kochersberg
, a peasant dance called the Kochersberger Tanz is in 5/8 time, and is similar to a dance of the Upper Palatinate
in Bavaria
called Der Zwiefache
or Gerad und Ungerad, because it alternates even and uneven bars (2/8 and 3/8).
period, quintuple passages occur which are long enough to regard as an established meter. For example, in the secunda pars of an anonymous two-voice Fortune (MS Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale ital. 568, fol. 3), a "clear and definite rhythm" in the upper part creates a 5/8 meter set against the 6/8 of the lower part. The earliest complete European compositions in quintuple time, however, appear to be seven villancicos in the Cancionero Musical de Palacio
, which were composed between 1516 and 1520. Notation of the quintuple meter in these seven pieces is achieved in various ways:
Other examples from the 16th century include the In Nomine
"Trust" by Christopher Tye
, the "Qui tollis" section of Jacob Obrecht
’s Missa "Je ne demande", the "Sanctus" from the Missa Paschalis by Heinrich Isaac
, and the final "Agnus Dei" of Antoine Brumel
's Missa "Bon temps". Keyboard examples from this period include the first half of an English setting of the offertory Felix namque from about 1530, and a passage in no. 41 of the Libro de tientos (1626) by Francisco Correa de Arauxo
.
and Classical
eras quintuple meter is, if anything, even less frequently encountered than in the Renaissance
. Two brief passages of 5/8 occur in the "mad scene" (act 2, scene 11) from Handel's
opera Orlando
(1732), first at the words "Già solco l’onde" ("Already I am cleaving the waves") when the demented hero believes he has embarked on Charon
’s boat on the Styx
, and then again two bars later. Charles Burney
found this whole scene admirable, as a portrait of Orlando's madness, but observed that "Handel has endeavoured to describe the hero's perturbation of intellect by fragments of symphony in 5/8, a division of time which can only be borne in such a situation". Burney's German contemporary, Johann Kirnberger
, also felt that "No one can repeat groups of five and even less of seven equal pulses in succession without wearisome strain". Another exceptional 18th-century example is an entire aria composed in 5/4 time, "Se la sorte mi condanna" found in Andrea Adolfati
's opera Arianna (1750), but the English theatre composer William Reeve
, with the last movement of his Gypsy's Glee (1796), to the words "Come, stain your cheeks with nut or berry" (in 5/4 time) is credited with having composed an example in true quintuple time, "for instead of the usual division of the bar into two parts, such as might be expressed by alternate bars of 3-4 and 2-4, or 2-4 and 3-4, there are five distinct beats in every bar, each consisting of an accent and a non-accent. This freedom from the ordinary alternation of two and three is well expressed by the grouping of the accompaniment, which varies throughout the movement…"
, which often invokes folk-music elements. In any case, quintuple time becomes much more frequent (though still not common) in the 19th century. Early examples include Fugue 20 (Allegretto) from Anton Reicha
’s Trente-six fugues
for piano (1805), the tenor aria "Viens, gentille dame" from act 2 of François-Adrien Boieldieu
’s opera La dame blanche
(1825), and the third movement (Larghetto, con molta espressione), from Frederic Chopin
’s Piano Sonata No. 1 in C minor, op. 4 (1828). Although Reicha's fugue probably falls into the category of technical skill, the composer does mention taking as a model for the meter the Alsatian Kochersberger Tanz. Nationalistic influence is clearer in the operas of the Russian composer Mikhail Glinka
. The "Nuptial chorus and scene" from act 3 of the opera A Life for the Tsar
(1834–36) was the first time a composer of art music set the pentasyllabic hemistich
s of Russian wedding songs in quintuple meter instead of adapting it to a more conventional one. In his next opera, Ruslan and Lyudmila
(1837–42) Glinka repeated the effect in the opening of act 1, where the chorus sings an epithalamium to Lel’, the Slavonic god of love, once again in quintuple time. Later Russian examples are found in Tchaikovsky
's folk-song settings: Fifty Russian Folk Songs for piano four-hands (1868–69), Children's Ukrainian and Russian Folksongs (book 1: 1872, book 2: 1877), and Sixty-Six Russian Folk Songs for voice and piano (1872), where quintuple meter is notated by regularly alternating signatures, usually 3/4 and 2/4.
Shorter passages also occur in the music of Hector Berlioz
: La tempête (1830), has "quintuple metre for a whole section, notated in compound duple; 'bars' of 15/4 are defined by a recurring rhythmic pattern and by accents (six 'bars' covering bars 289–306 in the 6/4 notation)", and the "Combat de ceste" (No. 5), from Les troyens
(1856–58), has "an attractive 5/8 section, only eight bars long".
From around the middle of the century, there is Carl Loewe's ballad for voice and piano, Prinz Eugen, der edle Ritter, op. 92 (to the poem by Ferdinand Freiligrath
, 1844), which is in 5/4 time throughout Ferdinand Hiller
's Piano Trio No. 4, op. 64 (1855) and Rhythmische Studien for piano, and a String Trio by K. J. Bischoff, which was awarded a prize by the Deutsche Tonhalle in 1853. The piano virtuoso Valentin Alkan showed an interest in unusual rhythmic devices, and composed at least four keyboard pieces in quintuple time: the first three of the Deuxième recueil d’impromptus, op. 32, no. 2 (1849), Andantino, Allegretto, and Vivace (the fourth and last piece in this collection is in septuple meter
), and a 5/4 "Zorzico dance" episode in the Petit Caprice, réconciliation, op. 42 (1857). In opera, Wagner
, inserted several 5/4 bars in "Tristan, der Held, in jubelnder Kraft", in act 3 of Tristan und Isolde
(1856–59). Another instance from around this same time is found in Anton Rubinstein
's "sacred opera" Der Thurm zu Babel (The Tower of Babel), op. 80 (1868–69).
Three of the best-known examples of quintuple meter in the symphonic
repertoire are from late in the neoromantic
(or post-romantic) period, which reaches from the mid-19th century through World War I: the second movement, "Allegro con grazia", of Tchaikovsky's
Symphony No. 6 in B minor, "Pathétique", op. 74
(1893), Rachmaninoff's
The Isle of the Dead
, op. 29 (1908), and the opening movement, "Mars, the Bringer of War", of The Planets
(1914–16) by Gustav Holst
. The Finnish composer Jean Sibelius
used a pattern of quintuple meter in the third movement of Kullervo
(1891–92), where “the orchestra maintains a pattern of five beats in a bar, while the chorus elongates its lines to phrases of fifteen, ten, eight, and twelve beats, respectively”. These are Karelian
rhythms, reflecting nationalism in Sibelius's music. He used these quintuple meters as well in several male-chorus works: “Venematka” (no. 3 from Six Partsongs, op. 18, 1893), the third movement, “Hyvääiltaa, Vintuseri”, from Rakastava, op. 14 (1894), and “Sortunutääni” (no. 1 from Six Partsongs, op. 18, 1898).
In 1895, the British composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor
wrote the second movement, "Serenade", of his Fantasiestücke, op. 5, for string quartet in 5/4 time.
In the piano repertoire, the "Promenade", from Modest Mussorgsky
's Pictures at an Exhibition
(1874), has five versions, in each of which 5/4 is mixed with other metres, regularly or irregularly: (1) 5/4 alternates with 6/4 for eight bars, then two 6/4s and one pair of 5/4 + 6/4, ending with twelve bars of 6/4; (2) 5/4 alternates regularly with 6/4 throughout (effectively 11/4); (3) regular alternation of 5/4 and 6/4 until the final two bars, which are 5/4 and C; (4) irregular mixture of 5/4, 6/4, and 7/4, with a single 3/4 bar at the end; (5) four pairs of regularly alternating 5/4 and 6/4, then an irregular mixture of 5/4, 6/4, and 7/4 to the end. To this same period (and to the Russian tradition) also belongs "Prizrak" (Phantom), in 5/8 time, which is no. 4 of Sergei Prokofiev
's Four Pieces for Piano, op. 3 (1911).
These examples are all simple quintuple time. Compound quintuple meter is less frequent, but an instance is found in the middle section of the third movement, "Andante grazioso", of Johannes Brahms
's Trio No. 3 in C minor for Piano, Violin, and Violoncello, op. 101 (1886), which is in 15/8 with 9/8 turnarounds
. "Fêtes", the second movement of Claude Debussy
's Nocturnes for orchestra, also has a recurring passage of two 15/8 bars, embedded in a context of mainly compound triple (9/8) bars.
's Orchestra Suite No. 1, Op. 9 (1903), "In Mixolydian Mode", "Bulgarian Rhythm (2)", and the third of "Six Dances in Bulgarian Rhythm", nos. 48, 115, and 150 from Béla Bartók
's Mikrokosmos (1926, 1932–39), the "Chanson épique", no. 2 from Maurice Ravel
's song cycle Don Quichotte a Dulcinée (1932–33), and the first theme group of Carlos Chávez
's Sinfonía India (1935–36), which is predominantly in 5/8 time, but mixed with other meters. Another impulse for the use of quintuple meter was to evoke pagan and specifically Ancient Greek culture. The 5/4 meter of the bacchanalia
n "Danse générale" concluding Ravel's ballet Daphnis et Chloé
(1909–12) is a particularly well-known example. In his First Symphony, the Sinfonía de Antígona (1933), Carlos Chávez reworked incidental music he had composed in 1932 for a production of Sophocles
' Antigone
in the adaptation by Jean Cocteau
. In this symphony Chávez made extensive use of the Greek paeonic (or cretic) meter, notated in 5/8 time in the score.
A third example from Ravel is a particularly intense, if brief use of quintuples for symbolic purposes. This is Frontispice for two pianos (1918), written at the request of Ricciotto Canudo
to accompany a philosophical meditation on World War I
, titled S.P. 503, le poème du Vardar. Canudo's title bears the numerical designation of the postal sector of his combat division, and Ravel used the numbers as the basis of his composition. Five staves of music, "‘progressing’ vertically from flats through naturals to sharps, are played by five hands (three players) in metres of 15/8 (i.e., 3 × 5; 3 + 5) and 5/4".
Igor Stravinsky
's name is often associated with rhythmic innovation in the 20th century, and quintuple meter is sometimes found in his music—for example, the fugato variation in the second movement of his Octet
(1922–23) is written almost uniformly in 5/8 time. Much more characteristically, however, quintuple bars in Stravinsky's scores are found in a context of constantly changing meters, as for example in his ballet The Rite of Spring
(1911–13), where the object appears to be the combination of two- and three-note subdivisions in irregular groupings.
This treatment of rhythm subsequently became so habitual for Stravinsky that, when he composed his Symphony in C
in 1938–40, he found it worth observing that the first movement had no changes of meter at all (though the metrical irregularities in the third movement of the same work were amongst the most extreme in his entire output).
So many other composers followed Stravinsky's example in the use of irregular meters that the occasional occurrence of quintuple-time bars becomes unremarkable from the 1920s onward. This is as true for composers regarded as conservative as for those labeled "progressive" or "avant garde". Examples in conservative styles include Gustav Holst
's A Choral Fantasia, op. 51 (1930), where bars 23–24 and 199–200 are in 5/4, Benjamin Britten
's String Quartet No. 2, op. 35 (1945), where the eleventh bar after rehearsal K in the first movement, "Allegro calmo senza rigore", is in 5/4, and all three movements of Samuel Barber
’s String Quartet, op. 11 (1936): 5/4 bars are found in the outer movements—bars 28, 49, 55, 174, and 180 of the opening "Molto allegro e appassionato", and bar 19 of the "Molto allegro (come prima)" finale—and three 5/2 bars (4, 31, and 60) in the central "Molto adagio"—the well-known Adagio for Strings
. Examples in more progressive styles are found in the works of the Argentine Alberto Ginastera
, both in his early, nationalistic works, and in his later, "neo-expressionist" style: The four bars preceding rehearsal 66 in "Los peones de hacienda", from the ballet Estancia, op. 8 (1941) are in 5/8, bars 16 and 21 of "In the First Pentatonic Major Mode (En el 1er modo pentáfono mayor)", no. 12 from 12 American Preludes for piano (1944) is in 5/2), and bar 179 of the third movement, "Vivace", of the Harp Concerto, op. 25 (1956–65) is in 5/16.
Amongst entire movements with a constant five-to-a-bar rhythm is the second-movement "Lament" of the Double Concerto for Two Violins and Orchestra, op. 49 (1929), by Gustav Holst. One particularly notable pre–World War II quintuple-meter composition is the popular first movement, "Aria (Cantilena)" (1938), of the Bachianas Brasileiras no. 5
by Heitor Villa-Lobos
(the second movement was added only in 1945). The opening and closing parts of this aria for soprano and orchestra of cellos is predominantly in 5/4, and the middle section is entirely in that meter.
In the post-war period, Benjamin Britten set "Green Leaves Are We, Red Rose Our Golden Queen", the opening chorus from his opera Gloriana
, op. 53 (1952–53, rev. 1966), in 5/4 time. Dmitri Shostakovich
set Fugues 12, 17, and 19 from his Twenty-Four Preludes and Fugues for piano, op. 87 (1950–51) entirely in 5/4 time, as well as interspersed this time signature with other meters in Preludes 9, 20, and 24, and in Fugues 15 and 16 from the same collection.
Quintuple meter is sometimes employed to characterize particular variations of works in variation form. Examples include the third movement, "Variations on a Ground", from the Double Concerto for Two Violins and Orchestra, op. 49 (1929), by Gustav Holst (11th and 18th variations in 5/4), "Variation IV: Più mosso" (in 5/8 time), in Part I of The Age of Anxiety: Symphony No. 2 (1949) by Leonard Bernstein
. Britten composed his Canticle III ("Still Falls the Rain"), op. 55 (1954), in variation form, with the "Theme", "Variation IV", and "Variation VI" all in 5/4. In a similar fashion, extended single-movement compositions may set off large sections by using contrasting meters. Quintuple meter is used in this way by Rob du Bois
in his Concerto for Two Violins and Orchestra (1979), where bars 160–75 and 227–77 are in 5/8.
and popular music. When in 1944, Stravinsky was commissioned by Billy Rose
to compose a fifteen-minute dance component to be incorporated into his Broadway revue, The Seven Lively Arts, Stravinsky composed Scènes de ballet, to be choreographed by Anton Dolin
. Rose was enthusiastic about the new score when initially he saw the piano reduction made by Ingolf Dahl
, but later was dismayed by the sound of the orchestra, and offended the composer by telegraphing the suggestion that Stravinsky should allow the scoring to be "retouched" by Robert Russell Bennett
, who "orchestrates even the works of Cole Porter
". Whole sections of the score had to be cut for the Philadelphia premiere, because the New York pit musicians
, accustomed to the conventions of Broadway musicals
of that period, were unable to manage the 5/8 bars that feature in Stravinsky's score. A dozen years later, things were changing in musical theater in New York. Leonard Bernstein
's Candide
opened on Broadway in December 1956, and featured a variety of meters that Billy Rose's musicians would have found as impossible as Stravinsky's. In act 1, the quartet "Universal Good" is a chorale in 5/4 time, and the main verses of "Ballad of Eldorado" in act 2 are in 5/8, with turnarounds in 7/8 or 3/4 + 7/8. Later examples in musical theatre include the song "Everything's Alright", from Jesus Christ Superstar
, by Andrew Lloyd Webber
, which is mainly in 5/4.
In 1959, the Dave Brubeck Quartet released a jazz album with music in unusual meters. It included Paul Desmond
's "Take Five
", in 5/4 time. Against all expectations, the album went platinum
, and "Take Five" became a jazz standard
. Brubeck had studied with the French composer Darius Milhaud
, who in turn had been strongly influenced by Stravinsky, and is credited with the systematic introduction of asymmetrical and shifting rhythms that sparked a far-reaching surge of interest in jazz and popular music in the 1960s. Starting in 1964, the trumpeter and band leader Don Ellis
sought to fuse traditional big-band styles with rhythms borrowed from Indian and Near Eastern music. One of his largest works, for example, Variations for Trumpet, is divided into six sections with meters including 5/4, 9/4, 7/4, and 32/8. Two other Ellis compositions are entirely in 5/4 time: "Indian Lady" and "5/4 Getaway". In 1966, the popular American television drama series "Mission: Impossible
began a five-season run, with "the most famous TV theme ever composed in 5/4 time
", by Lalo Schifrin
. Thirty years later, it remained his most famous composition.
In the late 1960s, quintuple meters began to appear with some frequency in rock-music contexts as well, where exploration of meters other than 4/4 became one of the hallmarks of progressive rock
. One of the earliest examples is "Within You Without You
" by George Harrison
, recorded on The Beatles
' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
LP of 1967. In the next two years, 5/4 meter occurred in two more Beatles songs, both by John Lennon
and Paul McCartney
: "Happiness Is a Warm Gun
" and "Across the Universe
". Under the spell of Brubeck, Keith Emerson
of Emerson, Lake and Palmer began exploring unusual meters at about this same time. His first quintuple-meter piece was "Azrael, the Angel of Death", written in 1968, and the meter cropped up again three years later in the opening instrumental section, "Eruption", of the title track
and some later passages from the album Tarkus
.
Meter (music)
Meter or metre is a term that music has inherited from the rhythmic element of poetry where it means the number of lines in a verse, the number of syllables in each line and the arrangement of those syllables as long or short, accented or unaccented...
characterized by 5 beats in a measure. Like the more common duple
Duple meter
Duple meter is a musical metre characterized by a primary division of 2 beats to the bar, usually indicated by 2 and multiples or 6 and multiples in the upper figure of the time signature, with 2/2 , 2/4, and 6/8 being the most common examples...
, triple, and quadruple
Quadruple meter
Quadruple meter is a musical meter characterized in modern practice by a primary division of 4 beats to the bar , usually indicated by 4 in the upper figure of the time signature, with 4/4 being the most common example.-References:*Anon. 2001. "Quadruple Time"...
meters, it may be simple, with each beat divided in half, or compound, with each beat divided into thirds. The most common time signature
Time signature
The time signature is a notational convention used in Western musical notation to specify how many beats are in each measure and which note value constitutes one beat....
s for simple quintuple meter are 5/4 and 5/8, and compound quintuple meter is most often written in 15/8. A time signature of 15/8, however, does not necessarily mean that the bar is a quintuple meter with each beat divided into three. It may, for example, be used to indicate a bar of triple meter in which each beat is subdivided into five parts. In this case, the meter is sometimes characterized as "triple quintuple time". It is also possible for a 15/8 time signature to be used for an irregular, or "additive
Additive meter
In music, additive meter refers to a pattern of beats that subdivide into smaller, irregular groups. This is opposed to "divisive" or "multiplicative" rhythms or meters, which are produced by multiplying some integer unit into regular groupings forming beats of equal length...
" metrical pattern, such as groupings of 3 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 2 + 2 eighth notes or, for example in the Hymn to the Sun and Hymn to Nemesis by Mesomedes of Crete
Mesomedes
Mesomedes of Crete was a Greek lyric poet and composer of the early 2nd century.He was a freedman of the Emperor Hadrian, on whose favorite Antinous he is said to have written a panegyric, specifically called a Citharoedic Hymn . Two epigrams by him in the Greek Anthology Mesomedes of Crete was a...
, 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 2, which may alternatively be given the composite signature (8+7)/8. Quintuple meter can also be notated by using regularly alternating bars of triple and duple meters, for example 2/4 + 3/4, or 6/8 + 9/8, or through the use of "compound meters", in which two or three numerals take the place of the expected numerator 5, for example, (2 + 3)/8, or (2 + 1 + 2)/8. Conversely, the presence of a 5/4 or 5/8 meter signature does not necessarily mean that the music is in quintuple meter. The regular alternation of 5/4 and 4/4 in Bruce Hornsby's "The Tango King" (from the album Hot House), for example, results in an overall nonuple meter (5 + 4 = 9).
History
Before the 20th century, quintuple time was rare in European concert music, but is more commonly found in other world cultures.Ancient Greek music
Delphic Hymns
The Delphic Hymns are two musical compositions from Ancient Greece, which survive in substantial fragments. They were long regarded as being dated circa 138 BCE and 128 BCE, respectively, but recent scholarship has shown it likely they were both written for performance at the Athenian...
from the second century BC both provide examples. The First Delphic Hymn, by Athenaeus, son of Athenaeus, is in the quintuple Cretic
Cretic
A cretic is a metrical foot containing three syllables: long, short, long. In Greek poetry, the cretic was usually a form of paeonic or aeolic verse. However, any line mixing iambs and trochees could employ a cretic foot as a transition...
meter throughout. The first nine of the ten sections of the Second Hymn, by Limenius
Limenius
Limenius was an Athenian musician and the creator of the Second Delphic Hymn in 128 BC. He is the earliest known composer in recorded history for a surviving piece of music...
, are also in Cretic meter. In addition to the Cretic meter, which consisted of a long-short-long pattern, ancient Greek music had seven other quintuple meters: Bacchic (L-L-S ), Palimbacchic (or antibacchic: S-L-L), four species of Paeanic (L-S-S-S, S-L-S-S, S-S-L-S—which is a composite of pyrrhic
Pyrrhic
A pyrrhic is a metrical foot used in formal poetry. It consists of two unaccented, short syllables. It is also known as a dibrach.Tennyson used pyrrhics and spondees quite frequently, for example, in In Memoriam: "When the blood creeps and the nerves prick." "When the" and "and the" in the second...
and trochee
Trochee
A trochee or choree, choreus, is a metrical foot used in formal poetry consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one...
—and S-S-S-L), and hyporchema
Hyporchema
The hyporchema was a lively kind of mimic dance which accompanied the songs used in the worship of Apollo, especially among the Dorians. It was performed by men and women...
tic (S-S-S-S-S).
Asia and the Middle East
Arabic theorists already in the early Abbasid period (AD 750–900) described modal rhythmic cycles (īqā‘āt), that included quintuple meters, though taxonomies and terminology vary amongst writers. The first figure to describe these rhythms was Abū Yūsuf Ya‘qūb al-KindīAl-Kindi
' , known as "the Philosopher of the Arabs", was a Muslim Arab philosopher, mathematician, physician, and musician. Al-Kindi was the first of the Muslim peripatetic philosophers, and is unanimously hailed as the "father of Islamic or Arabic philosophy" for his synthesis, adaptation and promotion...
(ca 801–ca 866), who divided them into two broad categories, ṯẖaqīl ("heavy", meaning slow) and khafīf ("light", meaning quick). Two of his ṯẖaqīl modes—ṯẖaqīl thānī ("second heavy", S-S-L-S) and ramal (L-S-L)—and one khafīf mode are quintuple. The most important writers of the later Abbasid period (AD 900–1258) were Abū Naṣr al-Fārābī
Al-Farabi
' known in the West as Alpharabius , was a scientist and philosopher of the Islamic world...
(d. 950) and Ibn Sīnā
Avicenna
Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā , commonly known as Ibn Sīnā or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persian polymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived...
(d. 1037). Al-Fārābī elaborated the rhythmic system established a century earlier by another important early-Abbasid musician, Isḥāq al-Mawṣilī, who had based it on local traditions, without any knowledge of classical Greek music theory. Isḥāq’s and al-Fārābī's system consisted of eight rhythmic modes, the third and fourth of which were quintuple: called ṯẖaqīl thānī ("second heavy"), and khafīf al-ṯẖaqīl thānī ("second light heavy"), both of which are short-short-short-long, in slow and fast tempo, respectively. This terminology and these definitions continued to be found as late as the 12th century in Muslim Spain
Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus was the Arabic name given to a nation and territorial region also commonly referred to as Moorish Iberia. The name describes parts of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania governed by Muslims , at various times in the period between 711 and 1492, although the territorial boundaries...
, for example in a document by Abd-Allāh ibn Muḥammad ib al-Ṣīd al-Baṭaliawsī.
In the Moroccon Malḥūn repertory—an urban song style closely associated with Andalusian music
Andalusian classical music
Andalusian classical music is a style of Moorish music found across North Africa in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It originates out of the music of Al-Andalus between the 9th and 15th centuries....
—5/8 rhythms are sometimes introduced into the basic metre of 2/4. Turkish classical music employs a system of rhythmic modes (called usul), which include units ranging from two to ten time units. The five-beat meter is called türk aksağı.
The cyclically repeating fixed time cycles of Carnatic
Carnatic music
Carnatic music is a system of music commonly associated with the southern part of the Indian subcontinent, with its area roughly confined to four modern states of India: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu...
and Hindustani
Hindustani classical music
Hindustani classical music is the Hindustani or North Indian style of Indian classical music found throughout the northern Indian subcontinent. The style is sometimes called North Indian Classical Music or Shāstriya Sangeet...
classical music, called tālas
Tala (music)
Tāla, Taal or Tal is the term used in Indian classical music for the rhythmic pattern of any composition and for the entire subject of rhythm, roughly corresponding to metre in Western music, though closer conceptual equivalents are to be found in other Asian classical systems such as the notion...
, include both fast and slow quintuple patterns, as well as binary, ternary, and septuple cycles. In the Carnatic system, there is a complex "formal" system of tālas which is of great antiquity, and a more recent, rather simpler "informal" system, comprising selected tālas from the "formal" system, plus two fast tālas called Cāpu. The slow quintuple tāla, called Jhampā is from the formal system, and consists of a pattern of 7 + 1 + 2 beats; the fast quintuple tāla is called khaṇḍa Cāpu or ara Jhampā, and consists of 2 + 1 + 2 beats. However, the pattern of beats marking the rotation of the cycle does not necessarily indicate the internal rhythmic organization. For example, although the Jhampā tāla, in its most common miśra variety, is governed by 7 + 1 + 2, the most characteristic rhythm of melodies in this tāla is (2 + 3) + (2 + 3).
The tālas in Hindustani music are somewhat more complicated. To begin with, they are not systematically codified, but rather comprise a miscellany of patterns from a number of different repertories. Secondly, the counting units (mātrā) of each tāla are grouped into segments called vibhāg, which constitute slower "beats" of from 1½ to 5 of those counting units. Third, in addition to the sounded vibhāg, marked by hand-claps (tālī), there are also vibhāg marked only by a wave of the hand—the so-called khālī beats. The two quintuple tālas in these repertories are Jhaptāl—2 + 3 + (2) + 3—and Sūltāl—2 + (2) + 2 + 2 + (2). Both are measured by ten mātrā units, but Jhaptāl is divided into four unequal vibhāg (the third being a khālī beat) in two halves of five mātrā each, and Sūltāl is divided into five equal vibhāg, the second and fifth of which are khālī.
The kasa
Gasa (poetry)
Gasa was a form of poetry popular during the Joseon Dynasty in Korea. They were commonly sung, and were popular among yangban women. Jeong Cheol, a poet of the 16th century, is regarded as having perfected the form, which consisted of parallel lines, each broken into two four-syllable units...
repertory of traditional Korean court music
Korean court music
Korean court music refers to the music developed in the Joseon Dynasty . Very little is known about the court music of earlier Korean kingdoms and dynasties.It was partly modeled on the court music of China, known as yayue...
often employs cycles in quintuple time, even though Korean traditional music terminology has no specific term for it, and the meter is rarely found in Korean folk music. This repertory can be traced back in some cases to the fifteenth century, and quintuple is the oldest surviving traditional Korean meter.
Australia
Quintuple meter occurs as a variation in some women's dance songs of Indigenous AustraliansIndigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. The Aboriginal Indigenous Australians migrated from the Indian continent around 75,000 to 100,000 years ago....
, where a 5/8 measure is occasionally inserted into songs with a basic duple or four-beat pattern.
European folk music
Many European folk and traditional repertories also feature quintuple meter. This is particularly true of Slavic cultural groups. In north-eastern Poland, for example (especially in KurpieKurpie
Kurpie is one of a number of ethnic regions in Poland, noted for its unique traditional customs, such as its own types of traditional costume, traditional dance, and distinctive type of architecture and livelihoods...
, Masuria
Masuria
Masuria is an area in northeastern Poland famous for its 2,000 lakes. Geographically, Masuria is part of two adjacent lakeland districts, the Masurian Lake District and the Iława Lake District...
, and northern Podlaskie), five-beat bars are frequently found in wedding songs, with rather slow tempos and not accompanied by dancing. In the south, the dance ozwodny has five-bar phrases. Traditional Russian wedding songs also are in quintuple time. The Poles and Russians share this proclivity for quintuple meter with the Finns, Sames
Sami people
The Sami people, also spelled Sámi, or Saami, are the arctic indigenous people inhabiting Sápmi, which today encompasses parts of far northern Sweden, Norway, Finland, the Kola Peninsula of Russia, and the border area between south and middle Sweden and Norway. The Sámi are Europe’s northernmost...
(Lapps), Estonians, and Latvians. In Finland, the Kalevala
Kalevala
The Kalevala is a 19th century work of epic poetry compiled by Elias Lönnrot from Finnish and Karelian oral folklore and mythology.It is regarded as the national epic of Finland and is one of the most significant works of Finnish literature...
ic "runometric
Trochaic tetrameter
Trochaic tetrameter is a meter in poetry. It refers to a line of four trochaic feet. The word "tetrameter" simply means that the poem has four trochees...
" songs are the most distinctive feature of folk music, and the most common melody of these epic songs is in quintuple meter. This melody was described in the oldest study of runo singing in 1766, but first published in a musical transcription only about 20 years later. One South Slavic example is recorded in a manual published in 1714 by the Venetian dancing master Gregorio Lambranzi. It is a forlana
Furlana
The furlana is an Italian folk dance from the Italian region of Friuli Venezia Giulia. In Friulian, furlane means Friulian, in this case Friulian Dance...
titled "Polesana", probably meaning "From Pola
Pula
Pula is the largest city in Istria County, Croatia, situated at the southern tip of the Istria peninsula, with a population of 62,080 .Like the rest of the region, it is known for its mild climate, smooth sea, and unspoiled nature. The city has a long tradition of winemaking, fishing,...
", a city in Istria
Istria
Istria , formerly Histria , is the largest peninsula in the Adriatic Sea. The peninsula is located at the head of the Adriatic between the Gulf of Trieste and the Bay of Kvarner...
—today a part of Croatia but a Venetian possession until 1947. Although Lambranzi notated this dance in 6/8 time, its recurring phrase structure shows it to be in compound-quintuple time, so that its correct form is actually written in 15/8.
Spanish folk music is also noted for the use of quintuple meter, particularly well-known examples being the Castilian
Castile and León
Castile and León is an autonomous community in north-western Spain. It was so constituted in 1983 and it comprises the historical regions of León and Old Castile...
rueda and the Basque zortziko
Zortziko
The zortziko is a dance rhythm that originates in the Basque Country. It is also used as an accompaniment rhythm for vocal melodies.The zortziko has a distinctive 5/8 time signature, consisting of three subdivisions of 1, 2, and 2 beats...
, but it is also found in the music of Extremadura
Extremadura
Extremadura is an autonomous community of western Spain whose capital city is Mérida. Its component provinces are Cáceres and Badajoz. It is bordered by Portugal to the west...
, Aragon
Aragon
Aragon is a modern autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. Located in northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces : Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza...
, Valencia, and Catalonia
Catalonia
Catalonia is an autonomous community in northeastern Spain, with the official status of a "nationality" of Spain. Catalonia comprises four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its capital and largest city is Barcelona. Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an...
. Some types of the folk dances collectively referred to as gavotte
Gavotte
The gavotte originated as a French folk dance, taking its name from the Gavot people of the Pays de Gap region of Dauphiné, where the dance originated. It is notated in 4/4 or 2/2 time and is of moderate tempo...
s, and stemming from Lower Brittany in France are in 5/8 metre, though 4/4, 2/4, and 9/8 are also found. In the Alsatian
Alsace
Alsace is the fifth-smallest of the 27 regions of France in land area , and the smallest in metropolitan France. It is also the seventh-most densely populated region in France and third most densely populated region in metropolitan France, with ca. 220 inhabitants per km²...
region of Kochersberg
Kochersberg
The Kochersberg is a natural region of the french département of Bas-Rhin in Alsace and is a part of the hills found along the eastern side of the Vosges mountains...
, a peasant dance called the Kochersberger Tanz is in 5/8 time, and is similar to a dance of the Upper Palatinate
Upper Palatinate
The Upper Palatinate is one of the seven administrative regions of Bavaria, Germany, located in the east of Bavaria.- History :The region took its name first in the early 16th century, because it was by the Treaty of Pavia one of the main portions of the territory of the Wittelsbach Elector...
in Bavaria
Bavaria
Bavaria, formally the Free State of Bavaria is a state of Germany, located in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the largest state by area, forming almost 20% of the total land area of Germany...
called Der Zwiefache
Zwiefacher
The Zwiefacher is a south German folk dance with a quick tempo and changing beat patterns.- Location :The Zwiefacher is danced primarily in Bavaria, especially Lower Bavaria, Hallertau and Upper Palatinate; it is also known in the Black Forest, Austria, Alsace, the Czech Republic and Sudetenland.-...
or Gerad und Ungerad, because it alternates even and uneven bars (2/8 and 3/8).
Medieval and Renaissance
In European art music it only became possible in the 14th century to notate quintuple rhythms unambiguously, through the use of minor or reversed coloration. In some instances from the late-14th-century Ars subtiliorArs subtilior
Ars subtilior is a musical style characterized by rhythmic and notational complexity, centered around Paris, Avignon in southern France, also in northern Spain at the end of the fourteenth century. The style also is found in the French Cypriot repertory...
period, quintuple passages occur which are long enough to regard as an established meter. For example, in the secunda pars of an anonymous two-voice Fortune (MS Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale ital. 568, fol. 3), a "clear and definite rhythm" in the upper part creates a 5/8 meter set against the 6/8 of the lower part. The earliest complete European compositions in quintuple time, however, appear to be seven villancicos in the Cancionero Musical de Palacio
Cancionero de Palacio
The Cancionero de Palacio , or Cancionero Musical de Palacio , also known as Cancionero de Barbieri, is a Spanish manuscript of Renaissance music...
, which were composed between 1516 and 1520. Notation of the quintuple meter in these seven pieces is achieved in various ways:
- Juan del EncinaJuan del EncinaJuan del Enzina – the spelling he used – or Juan del Encina – modern Spanish spelling – was a composer, poet and playwright, often called the founder of Spanish drama...
uses the mensuration 5/1 in "Amor con fortuna", but in "Tan buen ganadico", he uses a signature of 32/52. - Juan de AnchietaJuan de AnchietaJuan de Anchieta was a leading Spanish Basque composer of the Renaissance, at the Royal Court Chaplaincy in Granada of Queen Isabel I of Castile.-History:...
uses 5/1, the proportio quintupla, in both "Con amores, mi madre", and "Dos ánades, madre". - The anonymous "Pensad ora’n al" uses the mensuration C5/2.
- "Las mis penas madre" by Pedro de EscobarPedro de EscobarPedro de Escobar , a.k.a. Pedro do Porto, was a Portuguese composer of the Renaissance, mostly active in Spain. He was one of the earliest and most skilled composers of polyphony in the Iberian Peninsula, whose music has survived.-Life:He was born at Oporto, Portugal, but nothing is known of his...
and "De ser mal casada" by Diego Fernández both use just the proportion sign 5/2.
Other examples from the 16th century include the In Nomine
In Nomine
In Nomine is a title given to a large number of pieces of English polyphonic, predominantly instrumental music, first composed during the 16th century....
"Trust" by Christopher Tye
Christopher Tye
Christopher Tye was an English composer and organist, who studied at Cambridge University and in 1545 became a Doctor of Music both there and at Oxford.He was choirmaster of Ely Cathedral from about 1543 and also organist there from 1559...
, the "Qui tollis" section of Jacob Obrecht
Jacob Obrecht
Jacob Obrecht was a Flemish composer of the Renaissance. He was the most famous composer of masses in Europe in the late 15th century, being eclipsed by only Josquin des Prez after his death.-Life:...
’s Missa "Je ne demande", the "Sanctus" from the Missa Paschalis by Heinrich Isaac
Heinrich Isaac
Heinrich Isaac was a Franco-Flemish Renaissance composer of south Netherlandish origin. He wrote masses, motets, songs , and instrumental music. A significant contemporary of Josquin des Prez, Isaac influenced the development of music in Germany...
, and the final "Agnus Dei" of Antoine Brumel
Antoine Brumel
Antoine Brumel was a French composer. He was one of the first renowned French members of the Franco-Flemish school of the Renaissance, and, after Josquin des Prez, was one of the most influential composers of his generation....
's Missa "Bon temps". Keyboard examples from this period include the first half of an English setting of the offertory Felix namque from about 1530, and a passage in no. 41 of the Libro de tientos (1626) by Francisco Correa de Arauxo
Francisco Correa de Arauxo
Francisco Correa de Araujo was a notable Spanish organist, composer, and theorist of the late Renaissance.-Life:...
.
Baroque and Classical
In the BaroqueBaroque music
Baroque music describes a style of Western Classical music approximately extending from 1600 to 1760. This era follows the Renaissance and was followed in turn by the Classical era...
and Classical
Classical period (music)
The dates of the Classical Period in Western music are generally accepted as being between about 1750 and 1830. However, the term classical music is used colloquially to describe a variety of Western musical styles from the ninth century to the present, and especially from the sixteenth or...
eras quintuple meter is, if anything, even less frequently encountered than in the Renaissance
Renaissance music
Renaissance music is European music written during the Renaissance. Defining the beginning of the musical era is difficult, given that its defining characteristics were adopted only gradually; musicologists have placed its beginnings from as early as 1300 to as late as the 1470s.Literally meaning...
. Two brief passages of 5/8 occur in the "mad scene" (act 2, scene 11) from Handel's
George Frideric Handel
George Frideric Handel was a German-British Baroque composer, famous for his operas, oratorios, anthems and organ concertos. Handel was born in 1685, in a family indifferent to music...
opera Orlando
Orlando (opera)
Orlando is an opera seria in three acts by George Frideric Handel written for the Royal Academy of Music . The Italian-language libretto was adapted from Carlo Sigismondo Capece's L'Orlando after Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, which was also the source of Handel's operas Alcina and...
(1732), first at the words "Già solco l’onde" ("Already I am cleaving the waves") when the demented hero believes he has embarked on Charon
Charon (mythology)
In Greek mythology, Charon or Kharon is the ferryman of Hades who carries souls of the newly deceased across the rivers Styx and Acheron that divided the world of the living from the world of the dead. A coin to pay Charon for passage, usually an obolus or danake, was sometimes placed in or on...
’s boat on the Styx
Styx
In Greek mythology the Styx is the river that forms the boundary between the underworld and the world of the living, as well as a goddess and a nymph that represents the river.Styx may also refer to:-Popular culture:...
, and then again two bars later. Charles Burney
Charles Burney
Charles Burney FRS was an English music historian and father of authors Frances Burney and Sarah Burney.-Life and career:...
found this whole scene admirable, as a portrait of Orlando's madness, but observed that "Handel has endeavoured to describe the hero's perturbation of intellect by fragments of symphony in 5/8, a division of time which can only be borne in such a situation". Burney's German contemporary, Johann Kirnberger
Johann Kirnberger
Johann Philipp Kirnberger was a musician, composer , and music theorist. A pupil of Johann Sebastian Bach, he became a violinist at the court of Frederick II of Prussia in 1751. He was the music director to the Prussian Princess Anna Amalia from 1758 until his death. Kirnberger greatly admired J.S...
, also felt that "No one can repeat groups of five and even less of seven equal pulses in succession without wearisome strain". Another exceptional 18th-century example is an entire aria composed in 5/4 time, "Se la sorte mi condanna" found in Andrea Adolfati
Andrea Adolfati
Andrea Adolfati was an Italian composer who is particularly remembered for his output of opera serias. His works are generally conventional and stylistically similar to the operas of his teacher Baldassare Galuppi...
's opera Arianna (1750), but the English theatre composer William Reeve
William Reeve
William Reeve was an English theatre composer and organist.-Biography:Reeve was born in London. He initially studied to be a law stationer but abandoned his studies in order to study the organ with a Mr Richardson of St James's, Westminster. He became an organist in Totnes, Devon in 1781...
, with the last movement of his Gypsy's Glee (1796), to the words "Come, stain your cheeks with nut or berry" (in 5/4 time) is credited with having composed an example in true quintuple time, "for instead of the usual division of the bar into two parts, such as might be expressed by alternate bars of 3-4 and 2-4, or 2-4 and 3-4, there are five distinct beats in every bar, each consisting of an accent and a non-accent. This freedom from the ordinary alternation of two and three is well expressed by the grouping of the accompaniment, which varies throughout the movement…"
19th century
There appear to have been several motivations for composers to use quintuple time: (1) to demonstrate technical skill, as in the Tye and Correa de Arauxo examples, (2) to produce an atmospheric effect, or to suggest unease or unusual excitement, as in Handel's Orlando. In the 19th century, a third motivation arises with the rise of nationalistic musicNationalism (music)
Musical nationalism refers to the use of musical ideas or motifs that are identified with a specific country, region, or ethnicity, such as folk tunes and melodies, rhythms, and harmonies inspired by them...
, which often invokes folk-music elements. In any case, quintuple time becomes much more frequent (though still not common) in the 19th century. Early examples include Fugue 20 (Allegretto) from Anton Reicha
Anton Reicha
Anton Reicha was a Czech-born, later naturalized French composer. A contemporary and lifelong friend of Beethoven, Reicha is now best remembered for his substantial early contribution to the wind quintet literature and his role as a teacher – his pupils included Franz Liszt and Hector Berlioz...
’s Trente-six fugues
36 Fugues (Reicha)
36 Fugues, sometimes assigned opus number 36, is a cycle of fugues for piano composed by Anton Reicha. It was first published by the composer in 1803 and served as an illustration of a nouveau système Reicha invented for fugue composition...
for piano (1805), the tenor aria "Viens, gentille dame" from act 2 of François-Adrien Boieldieu
François-Adrien Boïeldieu
François-Adrien Boieldieu was a French composer, mainly of operas, often called "the French Mozart".-Biography:...
’s opera La dame blanche
La Dame blanche
La dame blanche is an opéra comique in three acts by the French composer François-Adrien Boieldieu. The libretto was written by Eugène Scribe and is based on episodes from no less than five of the works by Scottish writer Sir Walter Scott, including his novels The Monastery, Guy Mannering, and The...
(1825), and the third movement (Larghetto, con molta espressione), from Frederic Chopin
Frédéric Chopin
Frédéric François Chopin was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist. He is considered one of the great masters of Romantic music and has been called "the poet of the piano"....
’s Piano Sonata No. 1 in C minor, op. 4 (1828). Although Reicha's fugue probably falls into the category of technical skill, the composer does mention taking as a model for the meter the Alsatian Kochersberger Tanz. Nationalistic influence is clearer in the operas of the Russian composer Mikhail Glinka
Mikhail Glinka
Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka , was the first Russian composer to gain wide recognition within his own country, and is often regarded as the father of Russian classical music...
. The "Nuptial chorus and scene" from act 3 of the opera A Life for the Tsar
A Life for the Tsar
A Life for the Tsar , as it is known in English, although its original name was Ivan Susanin is a "patriotic-heroic tragic opera" in four acts with an epilogue by Mikhail Glinka. The original Russian libretto, based on historical events, was written by Nestor Kukolnik, Georgy Fyodorovich Rozen,...
(1834–36) was the first time a composer of art music set the pentasyllabic hemistich
Hemistich
A hemistich is a half-line of verse, followed and preceded by a caesura, that makes up a single overall prosodic or verse unit. In Classical poetry, the hemistich is generally confined to drama. In Greek tragedy, characters exchanging clipped dialogue to suggest rapidity and drama would speak in...
s of Russian wedding songs in quintuple meter instead of adapting it to a more conventional one. In his next opera, Ruslan and Lyudmila
Ruslan and Lyudmila
Ruslan and Lyudmila is an opera in five acts composed by Mikhail Glinka between 1837 and 1842. The opera is based on the 1820 poem of the same name by Alexander Pushkin. The Russian libretto was written by Valerian Shirkov, Nestor Kukolnik and N. A. Markevich, among others...
(1837–42) Glinka repeated the effect in the opening of act 1, where the chorus sings an epithalamium to Lel’, the Slavonic god of love, once again in quintuple time. Later Russian examples are found in Tchaikovsky
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (Russian: Пётр Ильи́ч Чайко́вский ; often "Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky" in English. His names are also transliterated "Piotr" or "Petr"; "Ilitsch", "Il'ich" or "Illyich"; and "Tschaikowski", "Tschaikowsky", "Chajkovskij"...
's folk-song settings: Fifty Russian Folk Songs for piano four-hands (1868–69), Children's Ukrainian and Russian Folksongs (book 1: 1872, book 2: 1877), and Sixty-Six Russian Folk Songs for voice and piano (1872), where quintuple meter is notated by regularly alternating signatures, usually 3/4 and 2/4.
Shorter passages also occur in the music of Hector Berlioz
Hector Berlioz
Hector Berlioz was a French Romantic composer, best known for his compositions Symphonie fantastique and Grande messe des morts . Berlioz made significant contributions to the modern orchestra with his Treatise on Instrumentation. He specified huge orchestral forces for some of his works; as a...
: La tempête (1830), has "quintuple metre for a whole section, notated in compound duple; 'bars' of 15/4 are defined by a recurring rhythmic pattern and by accents (six 'bars' covering bars 289–306 in the 6/4 notation)", and the "Combat de ceste" (No. 5), from Les troyens
Les Troyens
Les Troyens is a French opera in five acts by Hector Berlioz. The libretto was written by Berlioz himself, based on Virgil's epic poem The Aeneid...
(1856–58), has "an attractive 5/8 section, only eight bars long".
From around the middle of the century, there is Carl Loewe's ballad for voice and piano, Prinz Eugen, der edle Ritter, op. 92 (to the poem by Ferdinand Freiligrath
Ferdinand Freiligrath
Ferdinand Freiligrath was a German poet, translator and liberal agitator.-Biography:Freiligrath was born in Detmold, Principality of Lippe. His father was a teacher. He left a Detmold gymnasium at 16 to be trained for a commercial career in Soest...
, 1844), which is in 5/4 time throughout Ferdinand Hiller
Ferdinand Hiller
Ferdinand Hiller was a German composer, conductor, writer and music-director.-Biography:Ferdinand Hiller was born to a wealthy Jewish family in Frankfurt am Main, where his father Justus was a merchant in English textiles – a business eventually continued by Ferdinand’s brother Joseph...
's Piano Trio No. 4, op. 64 (1855) and Rhythmische Studien for piano, and a String Trio by K. J. Bischoff, which was awarded a prize by the Deutsche Tonhalle in 1853. The piano virtuoso Valentin Alkan showed an interest in unusual rhythmic devices, and composed at least four keyboard pieces in quintuple time: the first three of the Deuxième recueil d’impromptus, op. 32, no. 2 (1849), Andantino, Allegretto, and Vivace (the fourth and last piece in this collection is in septuple meter
Septuple meter
Septuple meter or septuple time is a meter with each measure divided into 7 notes of equal duration, usually 7/4 or 7/8 . The stress pattern can be 2+2+3, 3+2+2, or occasionally 2+3+2...
), and a 5/4 "Zorzico dance" episode in the Petit Caprice, réconciliation, op. 42 (1857). In opera, Wagner
Richard Wagner
Wilhelm Richard Wagner was a German composer, conductor, theatre director, philosopher, music theorist, poet, essayist and writer primarily known for his operas...
, inserted several 5/4 bars in "Tristan, der Held, in jubelnder Kraft", in act 3 of Tristan und Isolde
Tristan und Isolde
Tristan und Isolde is an opera, or music drama, in three acts by Richard Wagner to a German libretto by the composer, based largely on the romance by Gottfried von Straßburg. It was composed between 1857 and 1859 and premiered in Munich on 10 June 1865 with Hans von Bülow conducting...
(1856–59). Another instance from around this same time is found in Anton Rubinstein
Anton Rubinstein
Anton Grigorevich Rubinstein was a Russian-Jewish pianist, composer and conductor. As a pianist he was regarded as a rival of Franz Liszt, and he ranks amongst the great keyboard virtuosos...
's "sacred opera" Der Thurm zu Babel (The Tower of Babel), op. 80 (1868–69).
Three of the best-known examples of quintuple meter in the symphonic
Orchestra
An orchestra is a sizable instrumental ensemble that contains sections of string, brass, woodwind, and percussion instruments. The term orchestra derives from the Greek ορχήστρα, the name for the area in front of an ancient Greek stage reserved for the Greek chorus...
repertoire are from late in the neoromantic
Neoromanticism (music)
Neoromanticism in music is a return to the emotional expression associated with nineteenth-century Romanticism. Since the mid-1970s the term has come to be identified with neoconservative postmodernism, especially in Germany, Austria, and the United States, with composers such as Wolfgang Rihm and...
(or post-romantic) period, which reaches from the mid-19th century through World War I: the second movement, "Allegro con grazia", of Tchaikovsky's
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (Russian: Пётр Ильи́ч Чайко́вский ; often "Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky" in English. His names are also transliterated "Piotr" or "Petr"; "Ilitsch", "Il'ich" or "Illyich"; and "Tschaikowski", "Tschaikowsky", "Chajkovskij"...
Symphony No. 6 in B minor, "Pathétique", op. 74
Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)
The Symphony No. 6 in B minor, Op. 74, Pathétique is Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's final completed symphony, written between February and the end of August 1893. The composer led the first performance in Saint Petersburg on 16/28 October of that year, nine days before his death...
(1893), Rachmaninoff's
Sergei Rachmaninoff
Sergei Vasilievich Rachmaninoff was a Russian composer, pianist, and conductor. Rachmaninoff is widely considered one of the finest pianists of his day and, as a composer, one of the last great representatives of Romanticism in Russian classical music...
The Isle of the Dead
Isle of the Dead (Rachmaninoff)
Isle of the Dead, Op. 29, is a symphonic poem composed by Sergei Rachmaninoff. Rachmaninoff was inspired by Arnold Böcklin's painting, Isle of the Dead, which he saw in Paris in 1907. He concluded the composition while staying in Dresden in 1908...
, op. 29 (1908), and the opening movement, "Mars, the Bringer of War", of The Planets
The Planets
The Planets, Op. 32, is a seven-movement orchestral suite by the English composer Gustav Holst, written between 1914 and 1916. Each movement of the suite is named after a planet of the Solar System and its corresponding astrological character as defined by Holst...
(1914–16) by Gustav Holst
Gustav Holst
Gustav Theodore Holst was an English composer. He is most famous for his orchestral suite The Planets....
. The Finnish composer Jean Sibelius
Jean Sibelius
Jean Sibelius was a Finnish composer of the later Romantic period whose music played an important role in the formation of the Finnish national identity. His mastery of the orchestra has been described as "prodigious."...
used a pattern of quintuple meter in the third movement of Kullervo
Kullervo (Sibelius)
Kullervo, Op. 7 is an early symphonic poem for soloists, chorus and orchestra, written by the Finnish composer Jean Sibelius.The work, based on the character of Kullervo from the epic poem Kalevala, premiered to great critical acclaim on 28 April 1892. The soloists at the premiere were Emmy Achté...
(1891–92), where “the orchestra maintains a pattern of five beats in a bar, while the chorus elongates its lines to phrases of fifteen, ten, eight, and twelve beats, respectively”. These are Karelian
Karelia
Karelia , the land of the Karelian peoples, is an area in Northern Europe of historical significance for Finland, Russia, and Sweden...
rhythms, reflecting nationalism in Sibelius's music. He used these quintuple meters as well in several male-chorus works: “Venematka” (no. 3 from Six Partsongs, op. 18, 1893), the third movement, “Hyvääiltaa, Vintuseri”, from Rakastava, op. 14 (1894), and “Sortunutääni” (no. 1 from Six Partsongs, op. 18, 1898).
In 1895, the British composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor
Samuel Coleridge-Taylor
Samuel Coleridge-Taylor was an English composer who achieved such success that he was once called the "African Mahler".-Early life and education:...
wrote the second movement, "Serenade", of his Fantasiestücke, op. 5, for string quartet in 5/4 time.
Modest Mussorgsky
Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky was a Russian composer, one of the group known as 'The Five'. He was an innovator of Russian music in the romantic period...
's Pictures at an Exhibition
Pictures at an Exhibition
Pictures at an Exhibition is a suite in ten movements composed for piano by Russian composer Modest Mussorgsky in 1874.The suite is Mussorgsky's most famous piano composition, and has become a showpiece for virtuoso pianists...
(1874), has five versions, in each of which 5/4 is mixed with other metres, regularly or irregularly: (1) 5/4 alternates with 6/4 for eight bars, then two 6/4s and one pair of 5/4 + 6/4, ending with twelve bars of 6/4; (2) 5/4 alternates regularly with 6/4 throughout (effectively 11/4); (3) regular alternation of 5/4 and 6/4 until the final two bars, which are 5/4 and C; (4) irregular mixture of 5/4, 6/4, and 7/4, with a single 3/4 bar at the end; (5) four pairs of regularly alternating 5/4 and 6/4, then an irregular mixture of 5/4, 6/4, and 7/4 to the end. To this same period (and to the Russian tradition) also belongs "Prizrak" (Phantom), in 5/8 time, which is no. 4 of Sergei Prokofiev
Sergei Prokofiev
Sergei Sergeyevich Prokofiev was a Russian composer, pianist and conductor who mastered numerous musical genres and is regarded as one of the major composers of the 20th century...
's Four Pieces for Piano, op. 3 (1911).
These examples are all simple quintuple time. Compound quintuple meter is less frequent, but an instance is found in the middle section of the third movement, "Andante grazioso", of Johannes Brahms
Johannes Brahms
Johannes Brahms was a German composer and pianist, and one of the leading musicians of the Romantic period. Born in Hamburg, Brahms spent much of his professional life in Vienna, Austria, where he was a leader of the musical scene...
's Trio No. 3 in C minor for Piano, Violin, and Violoncello, op. 101 (1886), which is in 15/8 with 9/8 turnarounds
Turnaround (music)
In jazz, a turnaround is a passage at the end of a section which leads to the next section. This next section is most often the repetition of the previous section or the entire piece or song...
. "Fêtes", the second movement of Claude Debussy
Claude Debussy
Claude-Achille Debussy was a French composer. Along with Maurice Ravel, he was one of the most prominent figures working within the field of impressionist music, though he himself intensely disliked the term when applied to his compositions...
's Nocturnes for orchestra, also has a recurring passage of two 15/8 bars, embedded in a context of mainly compound triple (9/8) bars.
20th century
The common occurrence of quintuple meter in many folk-music traditions caused an increase in its appearance in the works of composers with nationalistic tendencies in the early 20th century. Examples are the Prelude in the Unison from George EnescuGeorge Enescu
George Enescu was a Romanian composer, violinist, pianist, conductor and teacher.-Biography:Enescu was born in the village of Liveni , Dorohoi County at the time, today Botoşani County. He showed musical talent from early in his childhood. A child prodigy, Enescu created his first musical...
's Orchestra Suite No. 1, Op. 9 (1903), "In Mixolydian Mode", "Bulgarian Rhythm (2)", and the third of "Six Dances in Bulgarian Rhythm", nos. 48, 115, and 150 from Béla Bartók
Béla Bartók
Béla Viktor János Bartók was a Hungarian composer and pianist. He is considered one of the most important composers of the 20th century and is regarded, along with Liszt, as Hungary's greatest composer...
's Mikrokosmos (1926, 1932–39), the "Chanson épique", no. 2 from Maurice Ravel
Maurice Ravel
Joseph-Maurice Ravel was a French composer known especially for his melodies, orchestral and instrumental textures and effects...
's song cycle Don Quichotte a Dulcinée (1932–33), and the first theme group of Carlos Chávez
Carlos Chávez
Carlos Antonio de Padua Chávez y Ramírez was a Mexican composer, conductor, music theorist, educator, journalist, and founder and director of the Mexican Symphonic Orchestra. He was influenced by native Mexican cultures. Of his six Symphonies, his Symphony No...
's Sinfonía India (1935–36), which is predominantly in 5/8 time, but mixed with other meters. Another impulse for the use of quintuple meter was to evoke pagan and specifically Ancient Greek culture. The 5/4 meter of the bacchanalia
Bacchanalia
The bacchanalia were wild and mystic festivals of the Greco-Roman god Bacchus , the wine god. The term has since come to describe any form of drunken revelry.-History:...
n "Danse générale" concluding Ravel's ballet Daphnis et Chloé
Daphnis et Chloé
Daphnis et Chloé is a ballet with music by Maurice Ravel. Ravel described it as a "symphonie choréographique" . The scenario was adapted by Michel Fokine from an eponymous romance by the Greek writer Longus thought to date from around the 2nd century AD...
(1909–12) is a particularly well-known example. In his First Symphony, the Sinfonía de Antígona (1933), Carlos Chávez reworked incidental music he had composed in 1932 for a production of Sophocles
Sophocles
Sophocles is one of three ancient Greek tragedians whose plays have survived. His first plays were written later than those of Aeschylus, and earlier than or contemporary with those of Euripides...
' Antigone
Antigone (Sophocles)
Antigone is a tragedy by Sophocles written in or before 442 BC. Chronologically, it is the third of the three Theban plays but was written first...
in the adaptation by Jean Cocteau
Jean Cocteau
Jean Maurice Eugène Clément Cocteau was a French poet, novelist, dramatist, designer, playwright, artist and filmmaker. His circle of associates, friends and lovers included Kenneth Anger, Pablo Picasso, Jean Hugo, Jean Marais, Henri Bernstein, Marlene Dietrich, Coco Chanel, Erik Satie, María...
. In this symphony Chávez made extensive use of the Greek paeonic (or cretic) meter, notated in 5/8 time in the score.
A third example from Ravel is a particularly intense, if brief use of quintuples for symbolic purposes. This is Frontispice for two pianos (1918), written at the request of Ricciotto Canudo
Ricciotto Canudo
Ricciotto Canudo was an early Italian film theoretician who lived primarily in France. He saw cinema as "plastic art in motion". He gave cinema the label "the Seventh Art", which is still current in French....
to accompany a philosophical meditation on World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, titled S.P. 503, le poème du Vardar. Canudo's title bears the numerical designation of the postal sector of his combat division, and Ravel used the numbers as the basis of his composition. Five staves of music, "‘progressing’ vertically from flats through naturals to sharps, are played by five hands (three players) in metres of 15/8 (i.e., 3 × 5; 3 + 5) and 5/4".
Igor Stravinsky
Igor Stravinsky
Igor Fyodorovich Stravinsky ; 6 April 1971) was a Russian, later naturalized French, and then naturalized American composer, pianist, and conductor....
's name is often associated with rhythmic innovation in the 20th century, and quintuple meter is sometimes found in his music—for example, the fugato variation in the second movement of his Octet
Octet (Stravinsky)
The Octet for wind instruments is a chamber-music composition by Igor Stravinsky, completed in 1923.Stravinsky’s Octet is scored for an unusual combination of woodwind and brass instruments: flute, clarinet in B and A, two bassoons, trumpet in C, trumpet in A, tenor trombone, and bass trombone...
(1922–23) is written almost uniformly in 5/8 time. Much more characteristically, however, quintuple bars in Stravinsky's scores are found in a context of constantly changing meters, as for example in his ballet The Rite of Spring
The Rite of Spring
The Rite of Spring, original French title Le sacre du printemps , is a ballet with music by Igor Stravinsky; choreography by Vaslav Nijinsky; and concept, set design and costumes by Nicholas Roerich...
(1911–13), where the object appears to be the combination of two- and three-note subdivisions in irregular groupings.
Symphony in C
Symphony in C may refer to:* a number of symphonies written in the key of C major** symphonies referred to by their key exclusively:*** Symphony in C major - Richard Wagner's Symphony in C...
in 1938–40, he found it worth observing that the first movement had no changes of meter at all (though the metrical irregularities in the third movement of the same work were amongst the most extreme in his entire output).
So many other composers followed Stravinsky's example in the use of irregular meters that the occasional occurrence of quintuple-time bars becomes unremarkable from the 1920s onward. This is as true for composers regarded as conservative as for those labeled "progressive" or "avant garde". Examples in conservative styles include Gustav Holst
Gustav Holst
Gustav Theodore Holst was an English composer. He is most famous for his orchestral suite The Planets....
's A Choral Fantasia, op. 51 (1930), where bars 23–24 and 199–200 are in 5/4, Benjamin Britten
Benjamin Britten
Edward Benjamin Britten, Baron Britten, OM CH was an English composer, conductor, and pianist. He showed talent from an early age, and first came to public attention with the a cappella choral work A Boy Was Born in 1934. With the premiere of his opera Peter Grimes in 1945, he leapt to...
's String Quartet No. 2, op. 35 (1945), where the eleventh bar after rehearsal K in the first movement, "Allegro calmo senza rigore", is in 5/4, and all three movements of Samuel Barber
Samuel Barber
Samuel Osborne Barber II was an American composer of orchestral, opera, choral, and piano music. His Adagio for Strings is his most popular composition and widely considered a masterpiece of modern classical music...
’s String Quartet, op. 11 (1936): 5/4 bars are found in the outer movements—bars 28, 49, 55, 174, and 180 of the opening "Molto allegro e appassionato", and bar 19 of the "Molto allegro (come prima)" finale—and three 5/2 bars (4, 31, and 60) in the central "Molto adagio"—the well-known Adagio for Strings
Adagio for Strings
Adagio for Strings is a work by Samuel Barber, arranged for string orchestra from the second movement of his String Quartet, Op. 11. Barber finished the arrangement in 1936, the same year as he wrote the quartet...
. Examples in more progressive styles are found in the works of the Argentine Alberto Ginastera
Alberto Ginastera
Alberto Evaristo Ginastera was an Argentine composer of classical music. He is considered one of the most important Latin American classical composers.- Biography :...
, both in his early, nationalistic works, and in his later, "neo-expressionist" style: The four bars preceding rehearsal 66 in "Los peones de hacienda", from the ballet Estancia, op. 8 (1941) are in 5/8, bars 16 and 21 of "In the First Pentatonic Major Mode (En el 1er modo pentáfono mayor)", no. 12 from 12 American Preludes for piano (1944) is in 5/2), and bar 179 of the third movement, "Vivace", of the Harp Concerto, op. 25 (1956–65) is in 5/16.
Amongst entire movements with a constant five-to-a-bar rhythm is the second-movement "Lament" of the Double Concerto for Two Violins and Orchestra, op. 49 (1929), by Gustav Holst. One particularly notable pre–World War II quintuple-meter composition is the popular first movement, "Aria (Cantilena)" (1938), of the Bachianas Brasileiras no. 5
Bachianas Brasileiras
The Bachianas Brasileiras constitute a series of nine suites by the Brazilian composer Heitor Villa-Lobos, written for various combinations of instruments and voices between 1930 and 1945...
by Heitor Villa-Lobos
Heitor Villa-Lobos
Heitor Villa-Lobos was a Brazilian composer, described as "the single most significant creative figure in 20th-century Brazilian art music". Villa-Lobos has become the best-known and most significant Latin American composer to date. He wrote numerous orchestral, chamber, instrumental and vocal works...
(the second movement was added only in 1945). The opening and closing parts of this aria for soprano and orchestra of cellos is predominantly in 5/4, and the middle section is entirely in that meter.
In the post-war period, Benjamin Britten set "Green Leaves Are We, Red Rose Our Golden Queen", the opening chorus from his opera Gloriana
Gloriana
Gloriana is an opera in three acts by Benjamin Britten to an English libretto by William Plomer, based on Elizabeth and Essex by Lytton Strachey...
, op. 53 (1952–53, rev. 1966), in 5/4 time. Dmitri Shostakovich
Dmitri Shostakovich
Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich was a Soviet Russian composer and one of the most celebrated composers of the 20th century....
set Fugues 12, 17, and 19 from his Twenty-Four Preludes and Fugues for piano, op. 87 (1950–51) entirely in 5/4 time, as well as interspersed this time signature with other meters in Preludes 9, 20, and 24, and in Fugues 15 and 16 from the same collection.
Quintuple meter is sometimes employed to characterize particular variations of works in variation form. Examples include the third movement, "Variations on a Ground", from the Double Concerto for Two Violins and Orchestra, op. 49 (1929), by Gustav Holst (11th and 18th variations in 5/4), "Variation IV: Più mosso" (in 5/8 time), in Part I of The Age of Anxiety: Symphony No. 2 (1949) by Leonard Bernstein
Leonard Bernstein
Leonard Bernstein August 25, 1918 – October 14, 1990) was an American conductor, composer, author, music lecturer and pianist. He was among the first conductors born and educated in the United States of America to receive worldwide acclaim...
. Britten composed his Canticle III ("Still Falls the Rain"), op. 55 (1954), in variation form, with the "Theme", "Variation IV", and "Variation VI" all in 5/4. In a similar fashion, extended single-movement compositions may set off large sections by using contrasting meters. Quintuple meter is used in this way by Rob du Bois
Rob du Bois
Rob du Bois is a Dutch composer, pianist, and jurist.-Background and education:Rob du Bois was born in Amsterdam. His French ancestry can be seen from his name, and he maintains a sympathy for the French mentality and language...
in his Concerto for Two Violins and Orchestra (1979), where bars 160–75 and 227–77 are in 5/8.
Jazz and popular music
Until after the Second World War, quintuple time was virtually unheard of in the American genres of jazzJazz
Jazz is a musical style that originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States. It was born out of a mix of African and European music traditions. From its early development until the present, jazz has incorporated music from 19th and 20th...
and popular music. When in 1944, Stravinsky was commissioned by Billy Rose
Billy Rose
William "Billy" Rose was an American impresario, theatrical showman and lyricist. He is credited with many famous songs, notably "Me and My Shadow" , "It Happened in Monterey" and "It's Only a Paper Moon"...
to compose a fifteen-minute dance component to be incorporated into his Broadway revue, The Seven Lively Arts, Stravinsky composed Scènes de ballet, to be choreographed by Anton Dolin
Anton Dolin
Sir Anton Dolin was an English ballet dancer and choreographer.Dolin was born in Slinfold in Sussex as Sydney Francis Patrick Chippendall Healey-Kay but was generally known as Patrick Kay. He joined Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes in 1921, was a principal there from 1924, and was a principal...
. Rose was enthusiastic about the new score when initially he saw the piano reduction made by Ingolf Dahl
Ingolf Dahl
Ingolf Dahl was a German-born American composer, pianist, conductor, and educator.-Biography:Born in Hamburg, Germany to a German father and a Swedish mother, his birth name was Walter Ingolf Marcus. He studied with Philipp Jarnach at the Hochschule für Musik Köln...
, but later was dismayed by the sound of the orchestra, and offended the composer by telegraphing the suggestion that Stravinsky should allow the scoring to be "retouched" by Robert Russell Bennett
Robert Russell Bennett
Robert Russell Bennett was an American composer and arranger, best known for his orchestration of many well-known Broadway and Hollywood musicals by other composers such as Irving Berlin, George Gershwin, Jerome Kern, Cole Porter, and Richard Rodgers. In 1957 and 2008, Bennett received Tony Awards...
, who "orchestrates even the works of Cole Porter
Cole Porter
Cole Albert Porter was an American composer and songwriter. Born to a wealthy family in Indiana, he defied the wishes of his domineering grandfather and took up music as a profession. Classically trained, he was drawn towards musical theatre...
". Whole sections of the score had to be cut for the Philadelphia premiere, because the New York pit musicians
Pit orchestra
A pit orchestra is a type of orchestra that accompanies performers in musicals, operas, and other shows involving music. In performances of operas and ballets, the pit orchestra is typically similar in size to a symphony orchestra, though it may contain smaller string and brass sections, depending...
, accustomed to the conventions of Broadway musicals
Broadway theatre
Broadway theatre, commonly called simply Broadway, refers to theatrical performances presented in one of the 40 professional theatres with 500 or more seats located in the Theatre District centered along Broadway, and in Lincoln Center, in Manhattan in New York City...
of that period, were unable to manage the 5/8 bars that feature in Stravinsky's score. A dozen years later, things were changing in musical theater in New York. Leonard Bernstein
Leonard Bernstein
Leonard Bernstein August 25, 1918 – October 14, 1990) was an American conductor, composer, author, music lecturer and pianist. He was among the first conductors born and educated in the United States of America to receive worldwide acclaim...
's Candide
Candide (operetta)
Candide is an operetta with music composed by Leonard Bernstein, based on the novella of the same name by Voltaire. The operetta was first performed in 1956 with a libretto by Lillian Hellman; but since 1974 it has been generally performed with a book by Hugh Wheeler which is more faithful to...
opened on Broadway in December 1956, and featured a variety of meters that Billy Rose's musicians would have found as impossible as Stravinsky's. In act 1, the quartet "Universal Good" is a chorale in 5/4 time, and the main verses of "Ballad of Eldorado" in act 2 are in 5/8, with turnarounds in 7/8 or 3/4 + 7/8. Later examples in musical theatre include the song "Everything's Alright", from Jesus Christ Superstar
Jesus Christ Superstar
Jesus Christ Superstar is a rock opera by Andrew Lloyd Webber, with lyrics by Tim Rice. The musical started off as a rock opera concept recording before its first staging on Broadway in 1971...
, by Andrew Lloyd Webber
Andrew Lloyd Webber
Andrew Lloyd Webber, Baron Lloyd-Webber is an English composer of musical theatre.Lloyd Webber has achieved great popular success in musical theatre. Several of his musicals have run for more than a decade both in the West End and on Broadway. He has composed 13 musicals, a song cycle, a set of...
, which is mainly in 5/4.
In 1959, the Dave Brubeck Quartet released a jazz album with music in unusual meters. It included Paul Desmond
Paul Desmond
Paul Desmond , born Paul Emil Breitenfeld, was a jazz alto saxophonist and composer born in San Francisco, best known for the work he did in the Dave Brubeck Quartet and for penning that group's greatest hit, "Take Five"...
's "Take Five
Take Five
"Take Five" is a jazz piece written by Paul Desmond and performed by The Dave Brubeck Quartet on their 1959 album Time Out. Recorded at Columbia's 30th Street Studios in New York City on June 25, July 1, and August 18, 1959, this piece became one of the group's best-known records, famous for its...
", in 5/4 time. Against all expectations, the album went platinum
Music recording sales certification
Music recording sales certification is a system of certifying that a music recording has shipped or sold a certain number of copies, where the threshold quantity varies by type and by nation or territory .Almost all countries follow variations of the RIAA certification categories,...
, and "Take Five" became a jazz standard
Jazz standard
Jazz standards are musical compositions which are an important part of the musical repertoire of jazz musicians, in that they are widely known, performed, and recorded by jazz musicians, and widely known by listeners. There is no definitive list of jazz standards, and the list of songs deemed to be...
. Brubeck had studied with the French composer Darius Milhaud
Darius Milhaud
Darius Milhaud was a French composer and teacher. He was a member of Les Six—also known as The Group of Six—and one of the most prolific composers of the 20th century. His compositions are influenced by jazz and make use of polytonality...
, who in turn had been strongly influenced by Stravinsky, and is credited with the systematic introduction of asymmetrical and shifting rhythms that sparked a far-reaching surge of interest in jazz and popular music in the 1960s. Starting in 1964, the trumpeter and band leader Don Ellis
Don Ellis
Don Ellis was an American jazz trumpeter, drummer, composer and bandleader. He is best known for his extensive musical experimentation, particularly in the area of unusual time signatures...
sought to fuse traditional big-band styles with rhythms borrowed from Indian and Near Eastern music. One of his largest works, for example, Variations for Trumpet, is divided into six sections with meters including 5/4, 9/4, 7/4, and 32/8. Two other Ellis compositions are entirely in 5/4 time: "Indian Lady" and "5/4 Getaway". In 1966, the popular American television drama series "Mission: Impossible
Mission: Impossible
Mission: Impossible is an American television series which was created and initially produced by Bruce Geller. It chronicled the missions of a team of secret American government agents known as the Impossible Missions Force . The leader of the team was Jim Phelps, played by Peter Graves, except in...
began a five-season run, with "the most famous TV theme ever composed in 5/4 time
Theme from Mission: Impossible
"Theme from Mission: Impossible" was the theme tune of the TV series Mission: Impossible . The theme was written and composed by Lalo Schifrin and has since gone on to appear in several other works of the Mission: Impossible franchise, including the 1988 TV series, the film series and the video...
", by Lalo Schifrin
Lalo Schifrin
Lalo Schifrin is an Argentine composer, pianist and conductor. He is best known for his film and TV scores, such as the "Theme from Mission: Impossible". He has received four Grammy Awards and six Oscar nominations...
. Thirty years later, it remained his most famous composition.
In the late 1960s, quintuple meters began to appear with some frequency in rock-music contexts as well, where exploration of meters other than 4/4 became one of the hallmarks of progressive rock
Progressive rock
Progressive rock is a subgenre of rock music that developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s as part of a "mostly British attempt to elevate rock music to new levels of artistic credibility." John Covach, in Contemporary Music Review, says that many thought it would not just "succeed the pop of...
. One of the earliest examples is "Within You Without You
Within You Without You
"Within You Without You" is a song written by George Harrison, released on The Beatles' 1967 album, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.-Composition:...
" by George Harrison
George Harrison
George Harrison, MBE was an English musician, guitarist, singer-songwriter, actor and film producer who achieved international fame as lead guitarist of The Beatles. Often referred to as "the quiet Beatle", Harrison became over time an admirer of Indian mysticism, and introduced it to the other...
, recorded on The Beatles
The Beatles
The Beatles were an English rock band, active throughout the 1960s and one of the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed acts in the history of popular music. Formed in Liverpool, by 1962 the group consisted of John Lennon , Paul McCartney , George Harrison and Ringo Starr...
' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band is the eighth studio album by the English rock band The Beatles, released on 1 June 1967 on the Parlophone label and produced by George Martin...
LP of 1967. In the next two years, 5/4 meter occurred in two more Beatles songs, both by John Lennon
John Lennon
John Winston Lennon, MBE was an English musician and singer-songwriter who rose to worldwide fame as one of the founding members of The Beatles, one of the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed acts in the history of popular music...
and Paul McCartney
Paul McCartney
Sir James Paul McCartney, MBE, Hon RAM, FRCM is an English musician, singer-songwriter and composer. Formerly of The Beatles and Wings , McCartney is listed in Guinness World Records as the "most successful musician and composer in popular music history", with 60 gold discs and sales of 100...
: "Happiness Is a Warm Gun
Happiness Is a Warm Gun
"Happiness Is a Warm Gun" is a song by The Beatles, featured on the eponymous double-disc album The Beatles, also known as The White Album...
" and "Across the Universe
Across the Universe
"Across the Universe" is a song by the English group The Beatles. It was written by John Lennon, and credited to Lennon–McCartney. The song first appeared on the various artists charity compilation album No One's Gonna Change Our World in December 1969, and later, in different form, on Let It Be,...
". Under the spell of Brubeck, Keith Emerson
Keith Emerson
Keith Noel Emerson is an English keyboard player and composer. Formerly a member of the Keith Emerson Trio, John Brown's Bodies, The T-Bones, V.I.P.s, P.P. Arnold's backing band, and The Nice , he was a founder of Emerson, Lake & Palmer , one of the early supergroups, in 1970...
of Emerson, Lake and Palmer began exploring unusual meters at about this same time. His first quintuple-meter piece was "Azrael, the Angel of Death", written in 1968, and the meter cropped up again three years later in the opening instrumental section, "Eruption", of the title track
Tarkus (song)
"Tarkus" is the title track of Emerson, Lake & Palmer's second album. The progressive rock epic clocks in at 20:35. It was the longest studio song by the band until the three impressions of Karn Evil 9 and their concert performances. The name "Tarkus" refers to the armadillo-tank from the William...
and some later passages from the album Tarkus
Tarkus
Tarkus is the second album by the British progressive rock band Emerson, Lake & Palmer, released in 1971.In 1993 the album was digitally remastered by Joseph M. Palmaccio...
.
Other examples of quintuple meter in popular music
- "Dance of the Little Fairies", by English group SkySky (band)Sky was a British instrumental group that specialised in fusing a variety of musical styles including light rock, progressive rock, classical and jazz. The group's best known members were classical guitarist John Williams, bass player Herbie Flowers Sky was a British instrumental group that...
(five beats in the bar). - "Do What You Like", by Ginger Baker.
- "English Roundabout", by XTCXTCXTC were a New Wave band from Swindon, England, active between 1976 and 2005. The band enjoyed some chart success, including the UK and Canadian hits "Making Plans for Nigel" and "Senses Working Overtime" , but are perhaps even better known for their long-standing critical success.- Early years:...
. - "15 Step15 Step15 Step is a song by English alternative rock band Radiohead.It was featured during the closing credits to the movie Twilight and is the first track on Radiohead's 2007 album In Rainbows. In 2009, the song was performed live for the 51st Annual Grammy Awards, at the Staples Center in Los Angeles,...
" and "Morning Bell (from Kid AKid AKid A is the fourth studio album by the English rock band Radiohead, released in October 2000 by the Parlophone label. A commercial success worldwide, Kid A went platinum in its first week of release in the United Kingdom. Despite the lack of an official single or music video as publicity, Kid A...
)" by RadioheadRadioheadRadiohead are an English rock band from Abingdon, Oxfordshire, formed in 1985. The band consists of Thom Yorke , Jonny Greenwood , Ed O'Brien , Colin Greenwood and Phil Selway .Radiohead released their debut single "Creep" in 1992...
(5/4). - "Here Come The Bastards", by PrimusPrimus (band)Primus is an American rock band based in San Francisco, California, currently composed of bassist/vocalist Les Claypool, guitarist Larry "Ler" LaLonde and drummer Jay Lane. Primus originally formed in 1984 with Claypool and guitarist Todd Huth, later joined by Lane, though the latter two departed...
(5/4). - "Hold Fast Hope" by ThriceThriceThrice is an American rock band from Irvine, California, formed in 1998. The group was founded by guitarist/vocalist Dustin Kensrue and guitarist Teppei Teranishi while they were in high school....
(5/4). - "Isengard theme" from The Lord of the Rings film trilogyThe Lord of the Rings film trilogyThe Lord of the Rings is an epic film trilogy consisting of three fantasy adventure films based on the three-volume book of the same name by English author J. R. R. Tolkien. The films are The Fellowship of the Ring , The Two Towers and The Return of the King .The films were directed by Peter...
, by Howard ShoreHoward ShoreHoward Leslie Shore is a Canadian composer, notable for his film scores. He has composed the scores for over 80 films, most notably the scores for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, for which he won three Academy Awards. He is also a consistent collaborator with director David Cronenberg,...
. - "Kamisama no Shitauchi", by AkeboshiAkeboshi, more commonly known as Akeboshi, is a Japanese pop and folk singer. He is mainly known for the song "Wind", which was used in the hit anime series Naruto. His surname means "bright star," while his given name means "fine man."...
(5/4). - "Last Night", by Vanessa Hudgens
- "Living in the PastLiving in the Past (Jethro Tull song)"Living in the Past" is the title of one of British progressive rock group Jethro Tull's best-known songs. It is notable for being written in the unusual 5/4 time signature...
" by Jethro TullJethro Tull (band)Jethro Tull are a British rock group formed in 1967. Their music is characterised by the vocals, acoustic guitar, and flute playing of Ian Anderson, who has led the band since its founding, and the guitar work of Martin Barre, who has been with the band since 1969.Initially playing blues rock with...
(5/4). - "River Man", by Nick DrakeNick DrakeNicholas Rodney "Nick" Drake was an English singer-songwriter and musician. Though he is best known for his sombre guitar based songs, Drake was also proficient at piano, clarinet and saxophone...
(5/4). - "Silver and Fire" and "Come to My Senses", by M.Craft
- "Seven Days", by Sting (5/4).
- "Wind", by AkeboshiAkeboshi, more commonly known as Akeboshi, is a Japanese pop and folk singer. He is mainly known for the song "Wind", which was used in the hit anime series Naruto. His surname means "bright star," while his given name means "fine man."...
(5/4). - "WTF?WTF? (song)"WTF?" is an alternative rock song by OK Go, and was released as the first single taken from their 2010 album Of the Blue Colour of the Sky. The song is in 5/4 time, and the band has revealed that the song is inspired by Prince.-Music video:...
" by OK GoOK GoOK Go is a rock band originally from Chicago, Illinois, USA, now residing in Los Angeles, California, USA. The band is composed of Damian Kulash , Tim Nordwind , Dan Konopka and Andy Ross , who joined them in 2005, replacing Andy Duncan...
(5/4)
Partially in quintuple time
- "Agitated" by MuseMuse (band)Muse are an English alternative rock band from Teignmouth, Devon, formed in 1994. The band consists of school friends Matthew Bellamy , Christopher Wolstenholme and Dominic Howard...
from their EP Random 1-8Random 1-8-Release details:-External links:**...
has a section in 5/4. - "Erotomania" (part I of III of the suite called A Mind Beside Itself) from AwakeAwake (Dream Theater album)Awake is the third studio album by American progressive metal band Dream Theater, released on October 4, 1994 by East West Records. It was the last Dream Theater album to feature keyboardist Kevin Moore, who announced his decision to leave the band during the recording of the album.Much of the...
, by Dream TheaterDream TheaterDream Theater is an American progressive metal band formed in 1985 under the name Majesty by John Petrucci, John Myung, and Mike Portnoy while they attended Berklee College of Music in Massachusetts. They subsequently dropped out of their studies to further concentrate on the band that would...
. Begins with 5/4 + 5/4 + 5/4 + 9/8, then 5/4 + 5/4 + 5/4 + 3/4 + 3/4 + 2/4, then 11/8 + 10/8 etc. - "5/4" by GorillazGorillazGorillaz is an English musical project created in 1998 by Damon Albarn and Jamie Hewlett. This project consists of Gorillaz music itself and an extensive fictional universe depicting a "virtual band" of cartoon characters...
. - "Four SticksFour SticksNot to be confused with Four Kicks."Four Sticks" is a song by the English rock band Led Zeppelin from their fourth album, released in 1971. The title came from the fact that drummer John Bonham played with two sets of two drumsticks, totalling four...
" by Led ZeppelinLed ZeppelinLed Zeppelin were an English rock band, active in the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s. Formed in 1968, they consisted of guitarist Jimmy Page, singer Robert Plant, bassist/keyboardist John Paul Jones, and drummer John Bonham...
. Verses alternate 5/4 and 3/4 passages; choruses are in 3/4. - "The Grudge" by ToolTool (band)Tool is an American rock band from Los Angeles, California. Formed in 1990, the group's line-up has included drummer Danny Carey, guitarist Adam Jones, and vocalist Maynard James Keenan. Since 1995, Justin Chancellor has been the band's bassist, replacing their original bassist Paul D'Amour...
. The first bass riff during the intro and the verses is in 5/4. - "Moon" by BjörkBjörkBjörk Guðmundsdóttir , known as Björk , is an Icelandic singer-songwriter. Her eclectic musical style has achieved popular acknowledgement and popularity within many musical genres, such as rock, jazz, electronic dance music, classical and folk...
. - "MotherMother (Pink Floyd song)"Mother" is a song by Pink Floyd. It appeared on The Wall album in 1979. The song is notable for its varied use of time signatures.-Composition:...
" by Pink FloydPink FloydPink Floyd were an English rock band that achieved worldwide success with their progressive and psychedelic rock music. Their work is marked by the use of philosophical lyrics, sonic experimentation, innovative album art, and elaborate live shows. Pink Floyd are one of the most commercially...
from the album The WallThe WallThe Wall is the eleventh studio album by English progressive rock group Pink Floyd. Released as a double album on 30 November 1979, it was subsequently performed live with elaborate theatrical effects, and adapted into a feature film, Pink Floyd—The Wall.As with the band's previous three...
and Pink Floyd's "Two Suns in the SunsetTwo Suns in the Sunset"Two Suns in the Sunset" is the final song on Pink Floyd's 1983 concept album The Final Cut. Partway through the song, the lyric "the sun is in the east, even though the day is done" refers to the glowing fireball of a nuclear explosion....
" from the album The Final CutThe Final Cut (album)The Final Cut is the twelfth studio album by English progressive rock group Pink Floyd. It was released in March 1983 by Harvest Records in the United Kingdom, and several weeks later by Columbia Records in the United States. A concept album, The Final Cut is the last of the band's releases to...
(5/4). - "My WaveMy Wave"My Wave" is a song by the American rock band Soundgarden. Featuring lyrics written by frontman Chris Cornell and music co-written by Cornell and guitarist Kim Thayil, "My Wave" was released in 1994 as the fourth single from the band's fourth studio album, Superunknown...
" by "SoundgardenSoundgardenSoundgarden is an American rock band formed in Seattle, Washington in 1984 by singer Chris Cornell, lead guitarist Kim Thayil, and bassist Hiro Yamamoto...
", verse in 5/4. - "Red" by King Crimson, from the album RedRed (King Crimson album)Red is a 1974 album by progressive rock group King Crimson.It was their last studio recording of the 1970s and the last before the lead member Robert Fripp temporarily disbanded the group....
(5/8). - "Sound Chaser" by YesYes (band)Yes are an English rock band who achieved worldwide success with their progressive, art, and symphonic style of rock music. Regarded as one of the pioneers of the progressive genre, Yes are known for their lengthy songs, mystical lyrics, elaborate album art, and live stage sets...
, main theme in 5/4. - "The TreesThe Trees (Rush song)"The Trees" is a song by progressive rock band Rush from their 1978 album Hemispheres. The song is also featured on many of Rush's compilation albums and has been a perennial fan favorite of the band's live shows...
" by RushRush (band)Rush is a Canadian rock band formed in August 1968, in the Willowdale neighbourhood of Toronto, Ontario. The band is composed of bassist, keyboardist, and lead vocalist Geddy Lee, guitarist Alex Lifeson, and drummer and lyricist Neil Peart...
.
Sources
- Anon. n.d.(a). "The Trees by Rush". Songfacts 2011 website. (Accessed 1 January 2011)
- Anon. n.d.(b). "Agitated (song)". MuseWiki (Accessed 18 August 2011).
- Apel, Willi. 1961. The Notation of Polyphonic Music 900–1600, fifth edition, revised and with commentary. The Medieval Academy of America Publication no. 38. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Medieval Academy of America.
- Arlin, Mary I. 2000. "Metric Mutation and Modulation: The Nineteenth-Century Speculations of F.-J. Fétis". Journal of Music Theory 44, no. 2 (Autumn): 261–322.
- Asplund, Anneli. 1985. "Runometriska sånger". Sumlen: Årsbok för vis- och folkmusikforskning: 23–52.
- Barber, Samuel. 1943. String Quartet, op. 11. G. Schirmer’s Edition of Study Scores of Orchestral Works and Chamber Music 28. New York: G. Schirmer.
- Bartók, Béla. 1940. Mikrokosmos: Progressive Piano Pieces = Pièces de piano progressives = Zongoramuzsika a kezdet legkezdetétöl, 6 vols. New York and London: Boosey & Hawkes.
- Bernstein, Leonard. 1993. The Age of Anxiety: Symphony No. 2, for piano and orchestra, after W. H. Auden, revised version, full score, corrected edition. [New York]: Jalni Publications, Inc., Boosey & Hawkes.
- Bernstein, Leonard. 1994. Candide: A Comic Operetta in Two Acts, Scottish Opera edition of the opera-house version (1989). Book by Hugh Wheeler, based on the satire by Voltaire; lyrics by Richard Wilbur, with additional lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, John Latouche, Dorothy Parker, Lillian Hellman, and Leonard Bernstein; edited by Charles Harmon. [New York]: Jalni Publications, Inc.; Boosey & Hawkes.
- Bois, Rob du. 1979. Concert voor twee violen en orkest. Amsterdam: Donemus.
- Brahms, Johannes. 1972. Trios, für Klavier, Violine und Violoncello, nach Eigenschriften, Erstausgaben und Handexemplaren des Komponisten hrsg. von Ernst Herttrich; Fingersatz der Klavierstimme von Hans-Martin Theopold. Munich: G. Henle Verlag.
- Britten, Benjamin. 1946. Quartet No. 2 in C, op. 36. London: Boosey & Hawkes.
- Britten, Benjamin. 1956. Canticle III ('Still Falls the Rain'), op. 55, for tenor, horn, and piano. Words by Edith Sitwell. London, Paris, Bonn, Cape Town, Sydney, Toronto, Buenos Aires, New York: Boosey & Co., Ltd.
- Buchanan, Donna A. 2001. "Bulgaria: II. Traditional Music". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Burney, Charles. 1789. A General History of Music, from the Earliest Ages to the Present Period. To Which Is Prefixed, a Dissertation on the Music of the Ancients, second edition, 4 vols. London: Printed for the author and sold by T. Becket, J. Robson, and G. Robinson.
- Chávez, Carlos. 1948. Sinfonía de Antígona. G. Schirmer's Edition of Study Scores of Orchestral Works and Chamber Music, No. 45. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc.
- Chávez, Carlos. 1950. Sinfonía India. G. Schirmer's Edition of Study Scores of Orchestral Works and Chamber Music, No. 56. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc.
- Chianis, Sotirios, and Rudolph M. Brandl. 2001. "Greece, §IV: Traditional Music". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Chopin, Frédéric. 1976. Sonaten, kritisch revidiert von Herrmann Scholtz, Neue Ausgabe von Bronislaw von Pozniak. Frankfurt and New York: C.F. Peters.
- Condit, Jonathan. 1978. "Uncovering Earlier Melodic Forms from Modern Performance: The Kasa Repertoire". Asian Music 9, no. 2 (Korean Music Issue): 3–20.
- Craft, Robert. 2007. ""Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971): Later Ballets". Liner booklet to Stravinsky, Later Ballets: Jeu de cartes, Danses concertants, Scènes de ballet, Variations, Capriccio for Piano and Orchestra, 4–8. Mark Wait (piano), Philharmonia Orchestra, London Philharmonic Orchestra, Twentieth Century Classics Ensemble, Orchestra of St Lukes; Robert Craft, cond. CD recording. Naxos 8.557506.
- Cunningham, Martin, and Jaume Aiats. 2001. "Spain, §II: Traditional and Popular Music". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Debussy, Claude. 1941. Nocturnes. Hampton Miniature Scores, vol. 7 (Berlioz, Bizet, Debussy), 69–96. New York: Edward B. Marks Music Corporation.
- Dickow, Robert H. 2002. "Ellis, Don(ald Johnson)". The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, second edition, edited by Barry Kernfeld. 3 vols. London: Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 033369189X.
- Doe, Paul (ed.). 1988. Elizabethan Consort Music: II. Musica Britannica 45. London: Stainer and Bell, published for the Musica Britannica Trust.
- Drozdowski, Ted. 2011. "Soundgarden’s Meanest 10 Tunes". Gibson Lifestyle (18 March) (Accessed 22 May 2011).
- Eddie, William Alexander. 2007. Charles Valentin Alkan: His Life and His Music. Aldershot, England; Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate. ISBN 184014260X.
- Emmerson, Keith, Greg Lake, and Carl Palmer. 1980. "Tarkus". [N.p.]: Manticore Music Ltd.
- Engel, Carl. 1876. Musical Myths and Facts, 2 vols. London: Novello, Ewer, & Co.
- Everett, Walter. 2008. The Foundations of Rock: From "Blue Suede Shoes" to "Suite: Judy Blue Eyes". New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195310238.
- Fenlon, Sean. 2002. "The Exotic Rhythms of Don Ellis". DMA diss. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, Peabody Institute. ISBN 0-493-60448-0.
- Fujita, Tetsuya, Yuji Hagino, Hajime Kubo, and Goro Sato (transcribers). 1993. The Beatles Complete Scores. London: Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation. ISBN 0-7935-1832-6.
- García Morillo, Roberto. 1960. Carlos Chávez: vida y obra. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 968-16-0222-6.
- Ginastera, Alberto. 1946. 12 American Preludes (Doce Preludios Americanos), 2 vols. New York: Carl Fischer.
- Ginastera, Alberto. 1955. Estancia: Ballet in One Act and Five Scenes. Reduction for piano. Buenos Aires: Barry Editorial, Com., Ind., S. R. L.; [n.p.]: Boosey & Hawkes.
- Glinka, Mikhail. 1907. Жизнь за царя [Zhizno za tsaria], forward by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov and Alexander Glazunov. Leipzig: M. P. Belaieff.
- Ginastera, Alberto. 1974. Harp Concerto, opus 25. Hawkes Pocket Scores 1185. London: Boosey & Hawkes.
- Gutmann, Peter. 2003. "Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky: Symphony #6 ("Pathetique")" Classical Notes (accessed 2008-03-23).
- Hansell, Sven, and Carlida Steffan. 2001. "Adolfati, Andrea". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Heartz, Daniel. 1999. "A Venetian Dancing Master Teaches the Forlana: Lambranzi's Balli teatrali". Journal of Musicology 17, no. 1 (Winter):136–51.
- Helmore, Rev. Thomas. 1879. "Accent". A Dictionary of Music and Musicians (A.D. 1450-1889) by Eminent Writers, English and Foreign, 2 vols, edited by George Grove, 1:12–18. London: Macmillan.
- Hepokoski, James. 2001. "Sibelius, Jean". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Hiley, David. 2001. “Quintuple Metre”. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
, vol. 20:682–83. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Holst, Gustav. 1973. Double Concerto, op. 49, for two violins and orchestra. Revised edition by Imogen Holst. London: Curwen Edition, Faber Music Ltd.; New York: G. Schirmer Inc. First published in 1930 by J Curwen & Sons Ltd.
- Holst, Gustav. 1977. A Choral Fantasia, op. 51, edited by Imogen Holst. London, Zürich, Mainz, and New York: Ernst Eulenburg Ltd.
- Holst, Gustav. 1979. The Planets: Suite for Large Orchestra, op. 32. New edition prepared by Imogen Holst and Colin Matthews. Hawkes Pocket Scores 22. London: Boosey & Hawkes.
- Hornsby, B[ruce]. R[andall]. 1995. "The Tango King" (sheet music). [N.p.]: WB Music Corp. and Basically Zappo Music.
- Howard, Patricia. 1969. The Operas of Benjamin Britten: An Introduction. New York and Washington: Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers.
- Hudson, Barton. 2001. "Brumel [Brummel, Brommel, Brunel, Brunello], Antoine". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Karger, Dave. 1996. "They Shot, He Scored: We Talk with the Composer About His Decades-Long Career". Entertainment Weekly (7 June). (Accessed 16 March 2011)
- Katzif, Michael. 2008. "Five More in 5/4". NPR Music.
- Kirberger, Johann Philipp. [1776] 1982. The Art of Strict Musical Composition, translated by David Beach and Jirgen Thym, with an introduction and explanatory notes by David Beach. Music Theory Translation Series 4. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300024835.
- Kroetsch, Terence R. 1996. "A Baroque Model in the Twentieth Century: The Preludes and Fuges, Opus 87 of Dmitri Shostakovich". MA thesis. London, ON: The University of Western Ontario.
- Led Zeppelin (musical group). 1973. Led Zeppelin Complete. New York: SuperHype Publishing.
- Lee, Hye-ku (I, Hye-gu). 1981. "Quintuple Meter in Korean Instrumental Music". Asian music: Journal of the Society for Asian Music 13, no. 1: 119–29.
- Little, Meredith Ellis. 2001. "Gavotte". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Lloyd Webber, Andrew (music), and Tim Rice (lyrics). 1970. Jesus Christ Superstar, vocal score, selections. New York: Universal—MCA Music Pub.; Miami: Warner Bros. Publications. ISBN 088188541X.
- Loewe, Carl. [ca. 1900]. Prinz Eugen, der edle Ritter: Ballade, op. 92, edited and revised by Hugo Hartmann. Adolf Kunz's Musikalische Volksbibliothek No. 5699-700. Leipzig: Adolf Kunz's Musikverlag. Score at IMSLP (Accessed 19 May 2011).
- Macan, Edward. 1997. Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195098884.
- Macdonald, HughHugh MacdonaldHugh Macdonald is an English musicologist chiefly known for his work within the music of the 19th century, especially in France. He has been general editor of the Hector Berlioz: New Edition of the Complete Works since its inception in 1967 and has been particularly active in the revival of...
. 2001. "Alkan [Morhange], (Charles-)Valentin". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. - Mathis-Lilley, Ben. 2006. "Secrets of the Radiohead Set List". New YorkNew York (magazine)New York is a weekly magazine principally concerned with the life, culture, politics, and style of New York City. Founded by Milton Glaser and Clay Felker in 1968 as a competitor to The New Yorker, it was brasher and less polite than that magazine, and established itself as a cradle of New...
(18 June): (accessed 23 March 2008). - Mawer, Deborah. 2000a. “Musical Objects and Machines”. In The Cambridge Companion to Ravel, edited by Deborah Mawer, 47–70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64026-1 (cloth) ISBN 0-521-64856-4 (pbk)
- Mawer, Deborah. 2000b. “Ballet and the Apotheosis of the Dance”. In The Cambridge Companion to Ravel, edited by Deborah Mawer, 140–61. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64026-1 (cloth) ISBN 0-521-64856-4 (pbk)
- May, Elizabeth, and Stephen Wild. 1967. "Aboriginal Music on the Laverton Reservation, Western Australia". Ethnomusicology 11, no. 2 (May): 207–17.
- Mussorgsky, Modest Petrovich. 1914. Tableaux d'une exposition (Pictures at an Exhibition): 10 Pieces for Piano, edited by O. Thümer. [N.p.]: Augener; London: Stainer and Bell Ltd; New York: Galaxy Music Corporation.
- Neubauer, Eckhard. 2001. "Isḥāq al-Mawṣilī". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Nice, David. 2003. Prokofiev: From Russia to the West, 1891–1935. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09914-2
- Pöhlmann, Egert, and Martin L. West. 2001. Documents of Ancient Greek Music: The Extant Melodies and Fragments, edited and transcribed with commentary by Egert Pöhlmann and Martin L. West. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815223-X
- Pope, Isabel, and Tess Knighton. 2001. "Fernández, Diego". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Powers, Harold S. 2001. "India, §III, 4: Theory and Practice of Classical Music: Rhythm & Tāla." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Prokofiev, Sergei. 1926. Сказка, Шутка, Марш, Призрак [Skazka, Shutka, Marsh, Prizrak]. (Conte, Badinage, Marche, Fantôme), op. 3, для фортепяно. Moscow: Gos. izd-vo, Muzykal’nyi sektor.
- Primus (musical group). 2000. Primus Anthology, transcribed by Jeff Jacobson, 2 vols. New York: Cherry Lane Music. ISBN 1575601540 (vol. 1); ISBN 1575602164 (vol. 2).
- Ravel, Maurice. 1934. Don Quichotte a Dulcinée. Paris: Editions Durand.
- Ravel, Maurice. 1975. Frontispice: [pour S. P. 503 (poème du Vardar) de R. Canudo]: deux pianos [cinq mains]. Paris and New York: Éditions Salabert.
- Read, Gardner. 1964. Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
- Reicha, Anton. 1973. 36 Fugen für Klavier, edited by Václav Jan Sýkora. Kassel: Bärenreiter.
- Reinhard, Kurt, and Martin Stokes. 2001. "Turkey: IV. Art music, 3. ‘Usul’". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Richards, Paul. 1987. “Africa in the Music of Samuel Coleridge-Taylor”. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 57, no. 4 (“Sierra Leone, 1787-1987”): 566–71.
- Ross, Alex. 2007. "Kullervo in the Woods: Rescuing Sibelius from Silence”. New Yorker (9 July).
- Rushton, Julian. 1983. The Musical Language of Berlioz. Cambridge Studies in Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521242797.
- Salinas, Franciscus. 1577. De musica libri septem. Salamanca: Mathias Gastius. Facsimile reprint, edited by Macario Santiago Kastner. Documenta musicologica 1. Reihe, Druckschriften-Faksimiles 13. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1958. Spanish edition, as Siete libros sobre la música, translated by Ismael Fernández de la CuestaIsmael Fernández de la CuestaIsmael Fernández de la Cuesta is a Spanish vocalist and musicologist specialising in Gregorian chant.He was born in Neila and entered the Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos at a young age...
. Colección Opera Omnia. Madrid: Alpuerto, 1983. ISBN 843810052X. - Sawa, George Dimitri. 2004. "Baghdadi Rhythmic Theories and Practices in Twelfth-Century Andalusia". In Music and Medieval Manuscripts: Paleography and Performance: Essays Dedicated to Andrew Hughes, edited by John Haines and Randall Rosenfeld, 151–81. Aldershot, Hants, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004. ISBN 9780754609919.
- Schmitt, Stephan. 1995. "Die proportio quintupla in einigen villancicos des Cancionero musical de Palacio". Anuario musical: Revista de musicología del C.S.I.C. 50:3–22.
- Schuyler, Philip. 2001. "Morocco." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Shiraki, Scott, and E. E. Bradman. 2001. "Justin Chancellor of Tool: Handy Man: How Justin Chancellor Frames Tool's Metal Madness". Bass Player (May): (Accessed 2 May 2007).
- Sliwa, Richard. 2005. "Sky 2". Plum Cream website (Accessed 5 December 2010).
- Stęszewski, Jan. 2001. "Poland [Polish Republic] II. Traditional Music: 6. Music Regions." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Taruskin, Richard. 1992a. "Life for the Tsar, A [Zhizn’ za tsarya; Ivan Susanin]". The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
. London: Macmillan Press. - Taruskin, Richard. 1992b. "Ruslan and Lyudmila [Ruslan i Lyudmila]". The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
. London: Macmillan Press. - Taylor, Franklin. 1890. "Quintuple Time", in A Dictionary of Music and Musicians (A.D. 1450-1889), in four volumes, edited by Sir George Grove, D.C.L. London and New York: The Macmillan Company.
- Tschaikowsky, Peter Ilich. [n.d.]. Symphony No. 6 (Pathétique) in B Minor, Op. 74. New York: M. Baron Co.
- Tye, Christopher. 1967. The Instrumental Music, edited by Robert W. Weidner. Recent Researches in the Music of the Renaissance 3. New Haven: A-R Editions.
- Villa-Lobos, Heitor. 1947. Bachianas Brasilerias No. 5, for soprano and orchestra of violoncelli (1938) New York: Associated Music Publishers.
- Voicana, Mircea, Clemansa Firca, Alfred Hoffman, and Elena Zottoviceanu, in collaboration with Myriam Marbe, Stefan Niculescu, and Adrian Ratiu. 1971. George Enescu: Monografie, 2 vols. Bucharest: Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste România.
- West, M[artin] L[itchfield]. 1992. Ancient Greek Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814897-6 (cloth); ISBN 0-19-814975-1 (pbk)
- White, Eric Walter. 1979. Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works, second edition. Berkeley and Los Angeles: The University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03985-8.
- Wiehmayer, Theodor. 1917. Musikalische Rhythmik und Metrik. Magdeburg: Heinrichshofen’s Verlag.
- Wright, Owen, and Christian Poché. 2001. "Arab Music, §I: Art Music". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Yes (musical group). 1981. Yes Complete, deluxe edition. New York: Warner Bros Publications. ISBN 0769208657.
Further reading
- Ansorena Miner, José Ignacio. 1993. "El zortziko: La frase de ocho compases y el compás de cinco por ocho". Txistulari, no. 155 (July–September).
- Apel, Willi. 1951. "Anent a Ritornello in Monteverdi's Orfeo". Musica Disciplina 5:213–22.
- Cronshaw, Andrew. 1990. "Trikitixa!". Folk Roots 11, no. 10:82 (April): 28–29, 31.
- Frampton, John Ross. 1926. "Some Evidence for the Naturalness of the Less Usual Rhythms". Musical Quarterly 12, no. 3 (July): 400–405.
- Howes, Frank. 1945. "Anthropology and Music". Man 45 (September–October): 107–108.
- Laborde, Denis. 2001. "Basque Music". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley SadieStanley SadieStanley Sadie CBE was a leading British musicologist, music critic, and editor. He was editor of the sixth edition of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , which was published as the first edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Sadie was educated at St Paul's School,...
and John TyrrellJohn Tyrrell (professor of music)John Tyrrell was born in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia in 1942. He studied at the universities of Cape Town, Oxford and Brno. In 2000 he was appointed Research Professor at Cardiff University....
. London: Macmillan Publishers. - Nettl, Bruno. 1953. "Stylistic Variety in North American Indian Music". Journal of the American Musicological Society 6, no. 2 (Summer): 160–68.
- Nettl, Bruno. 1965. "The Songs of Ishi: Musical Style of the Yahi Indians". Musical Quarterly 51, no. 3 (July): 460–77.
- Sánchez Ekiza, Carlos. 1991a. "En torno al zortziko". Txistulari, no. 146 (July):44–53.
- Sánchez Ekiza, Carlos. 1991b. "En torno al zortziko". Cuadernos de etnología y etnografía de Navarra 23, no. 57 (January–June): 89–103.