Racialization of Labour in the Okanagan
Encyclopedia
The continued growth and operation of the agricultural industry in the Okanagan
absolutely depends on the employment of temporary migrant worker
s.
In 2009, there were 3,000 Mexican migrant labourers working in the Okanagan.
of labour involves the segregation
and appointment of workers based on perceived ethnic differences. It produces a hierarchical arrangement which limits employee agency
and mobility based on their race. The process of racialization is reinforced through presupposed, stereotypical
qualities which are imposed upon the racialized person by the racializer. It is then normalized by the promotion of ‘colourblindness’ through the use of “soft” language which avoids highlighting ethnic differences.
as a very fashionable endeavour. It is through this rather successful promotional scheme that the Okanagan came to be known for its "whiteness", an issue that the area continues to be beset with today. With the influx of British ‘settlers’ many with the goal of establishing fruit orchard
s, migrant seasonal labour became a pressing issue as there were not enough settlers able or willing to do the manual labour involved in harvesting. The settler’s solution to this issue was to employ those of other ‘races’ or ethnicities believed by the white population to be better suited to do menial labour, and hence the beginning of the racialization of agricultural labour in the Okanagan was born.
There were various waves or periods when people of a certain ethnic category, or ‘race’ were more heavily employed as agricultural labourers then others, largely reflecting the political climate
of the day. The first racialized groups to be employed as agricultural labourers were First Nations
people and the Chinese
, with First Nations employment beginning around the 1880s to the present and the Chinese from the early 1900s to the 1930s. Local First Nations groups were often used during the harvesting season of June to October, in addition to migrant First Nations from Washington State. After the construction of the railway by Chinese migrant workers, many were left with no work in a foreign land where racist
fears severely limited the type of work Chinese migrants could do. It is for this reason that migrant Chinese were segregated into manual agricultural labour until the introduction of the $500 head tax
that effectively stemmed further Chinese migration to Canada.
When the Chinese and First Nations could no longer fulfil the demands of orchardists, they switched to alternate racialized groups. During the interwar
and WWII
era these groups were predominantly the Doukhobor
s and the Japanese
. With many young men off to war there was a gap in agricultural labour that needed to be filled. Reluctantly white orchardists opted to use the forced labour of interned Japanese-Canadians and migrant Doukhobor labour. Once the Japanese began to move back to the coast after the war and the Doukhobors began to migrate back to their settlements in the Nelson
area, an agricultural labour gap was once again apparent and in need of filling.
This time it was the Portuguese
who became the next racialized agricultural group in the Okanagan agricultural industry. However, the Portuguese were not nearly as discriminated against as the previous groups had been, largely due to their country of origin, which was less feared and more acceptable to the primarily white settler population in the Okanagan. From about the 1960s when Portuguese agricultural labour began to decline, migrant labour of young "Québécois"French Canadian
s began to be prominent in the Okanagan agricultural sector. However, this labour force too eventually waned, leaving yet another agricultural labour gap. This time labour is coming from much farther away, however, many of the same issues that characterized the Racialized labour of the 20th century remain in the migrant labour needs of fruit tree
agriculture of the Okanagan.
n migrant workers began to arrive in British Columbia
to work in the agricultural industry. The primary reason for the arrival of workers from as far away as Mexico
is to fill the gap the Canadian
farm workers refuse or are unable to fill. As a result, Mexican migrant workers face hardships in the Okanagan agricultural industry. These include, but are not limited to, housing, hours of work, employment benefits, and wages. In addition, an agreement between the Canadian and Mexican governments was signed and in accordance to this agreement Mexico is to provide Canada with agricultural workers on a seasonal basis. The period lasts for approximately eight months and occurs annually.
s as the Mexican migrant workers (see Couture, 2009 cited below for an ethnography of the Young Quebec fruit picker phenomenon). Through the agreement between the Canadian and Mexican governments, migrant workers from Mexico travel to Canada to work, however, once in Canada mobility is made very difficult. Therefore, the men and women who undertake the jobs available in the Canadian agricultural industry cannot change jobs in an effort to earn more to support their families back home.
in late June, followed by apricot
s and peach
es in July, the continuation of peaches, prune
s, and some varieties of pear
s in August, pears, apple
s, grape
s in September, and finally more grapes in October”. Migrant labour is only need during these various harvesting periods for relatively short periods of time. While many of these same fruits continue to be grown in the Okanagan today a much larger focus has been given to vineyard
s with the burgeoning of the wine
industry in the Okanagan in recent years. Cherries and apple production continue to remain dominant in agricultural production in the Okanagan Valley as well.
The Migrant workers are assigned to jobs in orchards and vineyards that entail picking, fertilizing and caring for the plants. Also, processing the produce is their tasks. In other words, the migrant workers in the Okanagan agricultural industry have to perform the tedious jobs that the industry offers. Consequently, these migrant workers are not usually assigned administrative tasks.
. In addition to their low wages earned workers have to purchase phone cards, however the transportation to and from the store to make that purchase is not easily accessible. The reason being is that workers are located on the outskirts of town where orchards and vineyards are typically located relying solely on the employer for transportation. In the Okanagan Valley, an employer claimed that he would not pay a driver to take only 15 workers to town to pick up personal items. In other words, workers may have to spend their days off on location unless they all decided to go to town at the same time. The other alternative for them to get needed items from shopping
areas is by way of foot, often at great distances.
to protest unfair treatment of Mexican migrant workers in Canada under the Seasonal Agricultural Workers Program
. According to the United Food and Commercial Workers
Union, the largest private union in Canada, "Under SAWP, migrant agriculture workers are typically paid minimum wage
and are often subject to working and housing conditions that Canadian residents would find intolerable. SAWP workers have historically been hesitant to report dangerous working conditions or hostile employers for fear of being sent home or blacklisted from returning the next season."
Furthermore, the UFCW’s 2009-2010 report on the Status of Migrant Farm Workers in Canada found the conditions under which Mexican temporary workers are employed to be unacceptable.
“The denial of human rights should not be the foundation for Canada’s food supply system,” said UFCW Canada and AWA president Wayne Hanley. “But as the report details, that’s exactly what’s happening to migrant farm workers. Even worse, it’s happening with the blessing of the federal government which turns a blind eye to the dangers and abuse migrants are forced to accept if they want to keep their jobs.”
Okanagan
The Okanagan , also known as the Okanagan Valley and sometimes as Okanagan Country is a region located in the Canadian province of British Columbia defined by the basin of Okanagan Lake and the Canadian portion of the Okanagan River. As of 2009, the region's population is approximately 350,927. The...
absolutely depends on the employment of temporary migrant worker
Migrant worker
The term migrant worker has different official meanings and connotations in different parts of the world. The United Nations' definition is broad, including any people working outside of their home country...
s.
In 2009, there were 3,000 Mexican migrant labourers working in the Okanagan.
Introduction to Racialization of Labour
The racializationRacialization
Racialization refers to processes of the discursive production of racial identities. It signifies the extension of dehumanizing and racial meanings to a previously racially unclassified relationship, social practice, or group...
of labour involves the segregation
Racial segregation in the United States
Racial segregation in the United States, as a general term, included the racial segregation or hypersegregation of facilities, services, and opportunities such as housing, medical care, education, employment, and transportation along racial lines...
and appointment of workers based on perceived ethnic differences. It produces a hierarchical arrangement which limits employee agency
Agency (sociology)
In the social sciences, agency refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices. By contrast, "Structure" refers to the factors of influence that determine or limit an agent and his or her decisions...
and mobility based on their race. The process of racialization is reinforced through presupposed, stereotypical
Stereotype
A stereotype is a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings...
qualities which are imposed upon the racialized person by the racializer. It is then normalized by the promotion of ‘colourblindness’ through the use of “soft” language which avoids highlighting ethnic differences.
History
The racialization of agricultural labour in the Okanagan Valley is not a recent phenomenon. It boasts an extensive history, reaching as far back as early settlement by white, predominantly British, colonials in the 1800s. The first settlers in the Okanagan region focused primarily on cattle ranching, switching to fruit production in about the 1890s. It was this switch to fruit production that started the racialization of agricultural labour in the Okanagan, a lasting legacy that has carried on to the present. Part of its beginnings was the directed promotion of Okanagan Valley towards the wealthier British middle classMiddle class
The middle class is any class of people in the middle of a societal hierarchy. In Weberian socio-economic terms, the middle class is the broad group of people in contemporary society who fall socio-economically between the working class and upper class....
as a very fashionable endeavour. It is through this rather successful promotional scheme that the Okanagan came to be known for its "whiteness", an issue that the area continues to be beset with today. With the influx of British ‘settlers’ many with the goal of establishing fruit orchard
Orchard
An orchard is an intentional planting of trees or shrubs that is maintained for food production. Orchards comprise fruit or nut-producing trees which are grown for commercial production. Orchards are also sometimes a feature of large gardens, where they serve an aesthetic as well as a productive...
s, migrant seasonal labour became a pressing issue as there were not enough settlers able or willing to do the manual labour involved in harvesting. The settler’s solution to this issue was to employ those of other ‘races’ or ethnicities believed by the white population to be better suited to do menial labour, and hence the beginning of the racialization of agricultural labour in the Okanagan was born.
There were various waves or periods when people of a certain ethnic category, or ‘race’ were more heavily employed as agricultural labourers then others, largely reflecting the political climate
Political climate
The political climate is the aggregate, current mood and opinions of a populace about political issues that also currently affect that population. It is generally used to describe a state of change in mood and opinions rather than a state of equilibrium...
of the day. The first racialized groups to be employed as agricultural labourers were First Nations
First Nations
First Nations is a term that collectively refers to various Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis. There are currently over 630 recognised First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. The...
people and the Chinese
Chinese people
The term Chinese people may refer to any of the following:*People with Han Chinese ethnicity ....
, with First Nations employment beginning around the 1880s to the present and the Chinese from the early 1900s to the 1930s. Local First Nations groups were often used during the harvesting season of June to October, in addition to migrant First Nations from Washington State. After the construction of the railway by Chinese migrant workers, many were left with no work in a foreign land where racist
Racism
Racism is the belief that inherent different traits in human racial groups justify discrimination. In the modern English language, the term "racism" is used predominantly as a pejorative epithet. It is applied especially to the practice or advocacy of racial discrimination of a pernicious nature...
fears severely limited the type of work Chinese migrants could do. It is for this reason that migrant Chinese were segregated into manual agricultural labour until the introduction of the $500 head tax
Head tax (Canada)
The Chinese head tax was a fixed fee charged to each Chinese person entering Canada. The head tax was first levied after the Canadian parliament passed the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 and was meant to discourage Chinese people from entering Canada after the completion of the Canadian Pacific...
that effectively stemmed further Chinese migration to Canada.
When the Chinese and First Nations could no longer fulfil the demands of orchardists, they switched to alternate racialized groups. During the interwar
Interwar period
Interwar period can refer to any period between two wars. The Interbellum is understood to be the period between the end of the Great War or First World War and the beginning of the Second World War in Europe....
and WWII
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
era these groups were predominantly the Doukhobor
Doukhobor
The Doukhobors or Dukhobors , earlierDukhobortsy are a group of Russian origin.The Doukhobors were one of the sects - later defined as a religious philosophy, ethnic group, social movement, or simply a "way of life" - known generically as Spiritual Christianity. The origin of the Doukhobors is...
s and the Japanese
Japanese people
The are an ethnic group originating in the Japanese archipelago and are the predominant ethnic group of Japan. Worldwide, approximately 130 million people are of Japanese descent; of these, approximately 127 million are residents of Japan. People of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries...
. With many young men off to war there was a gap in agricultural labour that needed to be filled. Reluctantly white orchardists opted to use the forced labour of interned Japanese-Canadians and migrant Doukhobor labour. Once the Japanese began to move back to the coast after the war and the Doukhobors began to migrate back to their settlements in the Nelson
Nelson, British Columbia
Nelson is a city located in the Selkirk Mountains on the extreme West Arm of Kootenay Lake in the Southern Interior of British Columbia, Canada. Known as "The Queen City", and acknowledged for its impressive collection of restored heritage buildings from its glory days in a regional silver rush,...
area, an agricultural labour gap was once again apparent and in need of filling.
This time it was the Portuguese
Portuguese people
The Portuguese are a nation and ethnic group native to the country of Portugal, in the west of the Iberian peninsula of south-west Europe. Their language is Portuguese, and Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion....
who became the next racialized agricultural group in the Okanagan agricultural industry. However, the Portuguese were not nearly as discriminated against as the previous groups had been, largely due to their country of origin, which was less feared and more acceptable to the primarily white settler population in the Okanagan. From about the 1960s when Portuguese agricultural labour began to decline, migrant labour of young "Québécois"French Canadian
French Canadian
French Canadian or Francophone Canadian, , generally refers to the descendents of French colonists who arrived in New France in the 17th and 18th centuries...
s began to be prominent in the Okanagan agricultural sector. However, this labour force too eventually waned, leaving yet another agricultural labour gap. This time labour is coming from much farther away, however, many of the same issues that characterized the Racialized labour of the 20th century remain in the migrant labour needs of fruit tree
Fruit tree
A fruit tree is a tree which bears fruit that is consumed or used by people — all trees that are flowering plants produce fruit, which are the ripened ovaries of flowers containing one or more seeds. In horticultural usage, the term 'fruit tree' is limited to those that provide fruit for...
agriculture of the Okanagan.
Latin American Migrant Workers
Over the last decade or so, many Latin AmericaLatin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
n migrant workers began to arrive in British Columbia
British Columbia
British Columbia is the westernmost of Canada's provinces and is known for its natural beauty, as reflected in its Latin motto, Splendor sine occasu . Its name was chosen by Queen Victoria in 1858...
to work in the agricultural industry. The primary reason for the arrival of workers from as far away as Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
is to fill the gap the Canadian
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
farm workers refuse or are unable to fill. As a result, Mexican migrant workers face hardships in the Okanagan agricultural industry. These include, but are not limited to, housing, hours of work, employment benefits, and wages. In addition, an agreement between the Canadian and Mexican governments was signed and in accordance to this agreement Mexico is to provide Canada with agricultural workers on a seasonal basis. The period lasts for approximately eight months and occurs annually.
Motivation and Perpetuation
Mexican migrant workers come to the Okanagan to work in the agricultural industry as a mere means of survival. While there are Canadians who come from the east to enjoy the weather and, at the same time, work in the orchards, some employers claim that they do not have the same work ethicWork ethic
Work ethic is a set of values based on hard work and diligence. It is also a belief in the moral benefit of work and its ability to enhance character. An example would be the Protestant work ethic...
s as the Mexican migrant workers (see Couture, 2009 cited below for an ethnography of the Young Quebec fruit picker phenomenon). Through the agreement between the Canadian and Mexican governments, migrant workers from Mexico travel to Canada to work, however, once in Canada mobility is made very difficult. Therefore, the men and women who undertake the jobs available in the Canadian agricultural industry cannot change jobs in an effort to earn more to support their families back home.
Type of Work/Industry
Historically migrant agricultural labour was needed in the Okanagan for tree fruit harvesting, mainly from late June to late October. This typically included the starting of harvest with “cherriesCherry
The cherry is the fruit of many plants of the genus Prunus, and is a fleshy stone fruit. The cherry fruits of commerce are usually obtained from a limited number of species, including especially cultivars of the wild cherry, Prunus avium....
in late June, followed by apricot
Apricot
The apricot, Prunus armeniaca, is a species of Prunus, classified with the plum in the subgenus Prunus. The native range is somewhat uncertain due to its extensive prehistoric cultivation.- Description :...
s and peach
Peach
The peach tree is a deciduous tree growing to tall and 6 in. in diameter, belonging to the subfamily Prunoideae of the family Rosaceae. It bears an edible juicy fruit called a peach...
es in July, the continuation of peaches, prune
Prune
A prune is any of various plum cultivars, mostly Prunus domestica or European Plum, sold as fresh or dried fruit. The dried fruit is also referred to as a dried plum...
s, and some varieties of pear
Pear
The pear is any of several tree species of genus Pyrus and also the name of the pomaceous fruit of these trees. Several species of pear are valued by humans for their edible fruit, but the fruit of other species is small, hard, and astringent....
s in August, pears, apple
Apple
The apple is the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree, species Malus domestica in the rose family . It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits, and the most widely known of the many members of genus Malus that are used by humans. Apple grow on small, deciduous trees that blossom in the spring...
s, grape
Grape
A grape is a non-climacteric fruit, specifically a berry, that grows on the perennial and deciduous woody vines of the genus Vitis. Grapes can be eaten raw or they can be used for making jam, juice, jelly, vinegar, wine, grape seed extracts, raisins, molasses and grape seed oil. Grapes are also...
s in September, and finally more grapes in October”. Migrant labour is only need during these various harvesting periods for relatively short periods of time. While many of these same fruits continue to be grown in the Okanagan today a much larger focus has been given to vineyard
Vineyard
A vineyard is a plantation of grape-bearing vines, grown mainly for winemaking, but also raisins, table grapes and non-alcoholic grape juice...
s with the burgeoning of the wine
Wine
Wine is an alcoholic beverage, made of fermented fruit juice, usually from grapes. The natural chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, or other nutrients. Grape wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using various types of yeast. Yeast...
industry in the Okanagan in recent years. Cherries and apple production continue to remain dominant in agricultural production in the Okanagan Valley as well.
The Migrant workers are assigned to jobs in orchards and vineyards that entail picking, fertilizing and caring for the plants. Also, processing the produce is their tasks. In other words, the migrant workers in the Okanagan agricultural industry have to perform the tedious jobs that the industry offers. Consequently, these migrant workers are not usually assigned administrative tasks.
Separation of Families
There are many problems that Mexican migrant workers face in the agricultural industry in the Okanagan Valley. First, they are separated from their families whom are at times difficult to connect with through the use of the telephoneTelephone
The telephone , colloquially referred to as a phone, is a telecommunications device that transmits and receives sounds, usually the human voice. Telephones are a point-to-point communication system whose most basic function is to allow two people separated by large distances to talk to each other...
. In addition to their low wages earned workers have to purchase phone cards, however the transportation to and from the store to make that purchase is not easily accessible. The reason being is that workers are located on the outskirts of town where orchards and vineyards are typically located relying solely on the employer for transportation. In the Okanagan Valley, an employer claimed that he would not pay a driver to take only 15 workers to town to pick up personal items. In other words, workers may have to spend their days off on location unless they all decided to go to town at the same time. The other alternative for them to get needed items from shopping
Shopping
Shopping is the examining of goods or services from retailers with the intent to purchase at that time. Shopping is an activity of selection and/or purchase. In some contexts it is considered a leisure activity as well as an economic one....
areas is by way of foot, often at great distances.
Recent Developments
On June 15, 2010, three hundred Mexicans marched on the Canadian Embassy in Mexico CityMexico City
Mexico City is the Federal District , capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole...
to protest unfair treatment of Mexican migrant workers in Canada under the Seasonal Agricultural Workers Program
Seasonal Agricultural Workers Program
The Seasonal Agricultural Workers Program is a Canadian government program is intended to allow workers from Mexico and the Caribbean to immigrate to Canada for temporary support during the planting and harvesting seasons, when there is no help available from within Canada.The program is available...
. According to the United Food and Commercial Workers
United Food and Commercial Workers
The United Food and Commercial Workers International Union is a labor union representing approximately 1.3 million workers in the United States and Canada in many industries, including agriculture, health care, meatpacking, poultry and food processing, manufacturing, textile, G4S Security, chemical...
Union, the largest private union in Canada, "Under SAWP, migrant agriculture workers are typically paid minimum wage
Minimum wage
A minimum wage is the lowest hourly, daily or monthly remuneration that employers may legally pay to workers. Equivalently, it is the lowest wage at which workers may sell their labour. Although minimum wage laws are in effect in a great many jurisdictions, there are differences of opinion about...
and are often subject to working and housing conditions that Canadian residents would find intolerable. SAWP workers have historically been hesitant to report dangerous working conditions or hostile employers for fear of being sent home or blacklisted from returning the next season."
Furthermore, the UFCW’s 2009-2010 report on the Status of Migrant Farm Workers in Canada found the conditions under which Mexican temporary workers are employed to be unacceptable.
“The denial of human rights should not be the foundation for Canada’s food supply system,” said UFCW Canada and AWA president Wayne Hanley. “But as the report details, that’s exactly what’s happening to migrant farm workers. Even worse, it’s happening with the blessing of the federal government which turns a blind eye to the dangers and abuse migrants are forced to accept if they want to keep their jobs.”
Works cited
- Luis Aguiar, Patricia Tomic and Ricardo Trumper. "Work Hard, Play Hard: Selling Kelowna, BC, as year-round playground". The Canadian Geographer, vol. 49 no. 2 (2005).
- Lanthier, M., and L. Wong. "Ethnic Agricultural Labour in the Okanagan from the 1880s to the 1960s". Report prepared for the Royal BC Museum (2002). Accessed April 10, 2011.
- Marta Maria Maldonado. "'It is their nature to do menial labour': the racialization of 'Latino/a workers' by agricultural employers". Ethnic and Racial StudiesEthnic and Racial StudiesEthnic and Racial Studies is a peer-reviewed social science academic journal that publishes scholarly articles and book reviews on anthropology, cultural studies, ethnicity and race, and sociology. The editors in chief are Martin Bulmer and John Solomos ....
, vol. 32 no. 6 (July 2009). - Marta Maria Maldonado. "Racial Triangulation of Latino/a Workers by Agricultural Employers". Human OrganizationHuman OrganizationHuman Organization is the journal of the Society for Applied Anthropology. Its primary objective is the scientific investigation of the principles controlling the relations of human beings to one another and the wide application of these principles to practical problems...
, vol. 65 no. 4 (Winter 2006). - Tomic, Patricia, Ricardo Trumper & Luis L. M. Aguiar. "Housing Regulations and Living Conditions of Mexican Migrant Workers in the Okanagan Valley, B.C.". Canadian Issues, 78-82. Accessed April 5, 2011.
- UFCW. "Migrant Workers march to Canada’s embassy in Mexico City". UFCW: Your Voice at Work. Accessed April 18, 2011.
- UFCW. "2010-2011 Migrant farm workers report published". UFCW: Your Voice at Work. Accessed April 18, 2011.