Science and technology in Pakistan
Encyclopedia
In Pakistan
, science
and technology
served as an important part of national politics
, practices, and extreme national identities. From 1960s till the present, both science and technology were immediately linked to national ideology and practical functioning of Pakistan, notably the Pakistan Armed Forces. While, science and technology is a growing and flourishing field in Pakistan. Many scientists, who worked in India
and United Kingdom
(like, e.g. Razi Siddiqui
and Salim Siddiqui
), migrated to Pakistan and would gave birth to Pakistan science. Since its independence from Great Britain
in 1947, the newly-found nation of Pakistan
has seen a large influx of scientists, engineers, doctors, and technicians assuming an active role in Pakistan's fields of science and technology. Lyakat Ali-Khan (office: 14 August 1947 – 16 October 1951), the first Prime minister
, invited hundreds of scientists from India and made various reforms were initiated for improvement in high education and scientific research.
Marked by highly developed pure sciences and innovation at theoretical level, interpretation and application fell short. Physics
(theoretical
, nuclear
, particle
, laser
, and Quantum physics), Material science, Metallurgy
(Engineering), Biology
, Chemistry
(Organic
), and Mathematics
, are the fields that Pakistan citizens excelled. During the 1960s till the present, the Pakistan government made the development and advancement of science a national priority and showered top scientists with honours. With government making efforts to make science as part of national politics, there are several examples of budge cuts in the science funds where corruption
remains a vital part of Pakistan politics. In the most notorious case, the government dissolved the Higher Education Commission — an administrative body that supervise the research in science — in 2011. Mega science projects such as Black-Garden Dam
, Thar Coal programme
, and the Reko Dique gold mine programme
were severely undermined by the political forces in Pakistan which contributed in halting the science research in the country.
Pakistan scientists won acclaim in several fields. They were at the cutting edge of science in fields such as mathematics and in several branches of physical science, notably theoretical and nuclear physics, chemistry, and astronomy. Professor Abdus Salam
, a theoretical physicist, was the first and remain the only Pakistan citizen to have won the prestigious Nobel Prize
in 1979. Pakistan technology is mostly high developed in the fields of nuclear physics and explosives engineering
, where the arms race with the India
convinced policy makers to set aside sufficient resources for research. Due to a crash programme directed by Munir Ahmad Khan
and the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission
(PAEC), Pakistan is the seventh nation to developed an atomic bomb, which the global intelligence community believes, Pakistan had developed the device in 1983 (see Kirana-I), nine years after the India
(see Pokhran-I). Pakistan first publicly tested its devices (see Chagai-I
and Chagai-II) on 28 and 30 May 1998, a mere two weeks after the Republic of India carried its own (See Pokhran-II
). Space exploration
was hastily well developed in 1990 Pakistan launched Badr-I followed by Badr-II
in 2001. Since 1980s, the space programme dedicated itself to the military technologies (Space weapons programme and Integrated missile systems), and maintains a strong programme developed for the military applications.
, majority of the research programmes are conducted not at the institutions (such as universities) but at the specially set up research facilities and institutes. These institutes are performed under the government Ministry of Science
that overlooks the development and promotion of science in the country, while others are performed under Pakistan Academy of Sciences
or other specialized academies or even the research arms of various government ministries. At first, the core of fundamental science was the Pakistan Academy of Sciences, originally set up in 1953 and moved from Karachi to Islamabad in 1964. The Pakistan Academy of Sciences consists are large percentage of researchers in natural sciences, particularly physics. Since 1947 until 1971, the research was being conducted independently with no government influence. The High Tension Laboratories (HTL) at the GCU
was established by R.M. Chaudhrie with funds received by British Government in 1950s. In 1967, Abdus Salam led the foundation of Institute of Physics at the Quaid-e-Azam University, and the also led establishment of Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology
and the Centre for Nuclear Studies, all were independently established by Pakistan's academic scientists with financial assistance provided by European countries. However, after Zulfikar Ali Bhutto became President later Prime minister, the Zulfikar Ali Bhutto took over the control of science research in 1972 as part of his intensified socialist reforms and policies
. With advice taken from dr. Mubascher Hassan
, Bhutto established the Ministry of Science with Ishrat Hussain Usmani
, a bureacrat with a doctorate in atomic physics.
During 1950s and 1960s, both West-Pakistan
and East-Pakistan
had their own academies of science, with the East-Pakistan economically relying on West-Pakistan to allot the funds. Medical research is coordinated and funded by the Health Ministry
and agriculture research is led by Agriculture Ministry
and the research on environmental sciences are taken care by the Environment Ministry
.
As an aftermath of 1971 Indo-Pakistan Winter War
, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
funded around more than 200% funding of science, dedicated to the military research and development. Bhutto, with the help of his Science Adviser Dr. Salam, gathered hundreds of scientists working abroad to developed what becomes an atom bomb. This crash programme was directed at first by Dr. Abdus Salam
until 1974 and then directed and led by Munir Ahmad Khan
from 1974 until 1991. For the first time an effort was built by government when Pakistan's citizens made pure advancement in nuclear physics, theoretical physics and mathematics. In 1980s, General Zia-ul-Haq radicalized the science with enforcing pseudoscience by his Muslim fundamentalists as adminisrators, in Pakistan's schools and universities. One of the premiers were Mazhar Mahmood Qurashi
, a physicist educated in United Kingdom, and a Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood
, a nuclear engineer also educated in United Kingdom, played a major role in radicalizing the science in Pakistan. General Zia-ul-Haq later promoted Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan
to export the sensitive industrial (military) technologies to Libya
, Iran
, and North Korea
. Because of the government control, the academic research remains highly classified and unknown to the international scientific community. There has been several failed attempts made by Foreign powers to infiltrate into the research facilities to acquire how much research advanced and clandestine knowledge gained by Pakistan's scientific community. One of the notable case was in 1970s, when Libyan intelligence made an unsuccessful attempt to gained knowledge on critical aspects of nuclear
physics, and crucial mathematical
calculations in theoretical physics
, but was thwarted by ISI Directorate for Joint Intelligence Technical (JIT). Onwards 1980s, both Russian intelligence and the Central Intelligence Agency
made several foiled and failed attempt in Pakistan's research facilities but because of ISI, they were unable to gain any information. From the period 1980 to 2004, the research in science fell short until General Pervez Mushrraf established the Higher Education Commission (HEC) which heightened the contribution of science and technology in Pakistan. Major research was undertaken by Pakistan's institutes in the field of natural sciences. However, with the present situation, the research fell short and declined. In 2011, the Government dissolved the HEC and control of education was undertaken under the control of the governmental ministries.
(Order of Crescent).
, Sitara-i-Imtiaz
, and Tamgha-e-Imtiaz occupies a unique role and importance in Pakistan's civil society.
(1960–2000) remains a vital and strong foreign policy component of Pakistan. In 1961, international achievements first recorded in 1961 when Pakistan became third Asian country and tenth in the world when the Rehbar-I
— a solid fuel expandable rocket— was launched from Sonmani Spaceport. The Rehbar-I was launched and developed under the leadership of dr. W. J. M. Turowicz, a renowned Polish-Pakistani scientist and then-project-director of this program. Since then, the program began taking flights which continued until 1970s.
However, a major-breakthrough was internationally recorded in 1979, when the Nobel Prize Committee announced to award the prestigious Nobel Prize
in Physics to Abdus Salam for formulating the Electroweak Theory
— a theory that provides the basis of unification of weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force. In 1990, Suparco launched her first and locally designed communication satellite, Badr-I, from Xichang Satellite Launch Center
of the Peoples Republic of China
. With launch of this satellite, Pakistan became first Muslim majority country
to have been succeeded to developed artificial robotic satellite, and was the second South Asian state to have launched its satellite, second to India.
One of the widely reported achievement was internationally recorded in 1998, when country joined the elite Nuclear club. In response of India's nuclear tests on May 11 and May 13 of 1998, under codename Operation Shakti, in long-constructed Indian Army
Pokhran Test Range (PTR). Pakistan
under the leadership of Prime minister
Navaz Scharief
, the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission
(PAEC), conducted five simultaneous tests at the Chagai Hills
under codename Chagai-I
on May 28 of 1998. To even the score with India, the PAEC carried another and test at the Kharan Desert, under Chaga-II, making it has tested a total of six devices in under one week. With the testing of these atomic devices, Pakistan became 7th nuclear power country in the world, and the only Muslim-majority country to have mastered the technology. In August 13 of 2011, the Suparco launched its first and indigenously developed geosynchronous satellite, Paksat-IR from Xichang Satellite Launch Centre of the People's Republic of China.
, a Lahore-based company, has developed a video game called Cricket Revolution
which also won the Cricket Gaming Awards 2010.
who became the first Pakistan winner of Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1979. Abdus Salam was the father of scientific research in Pakistan. Under the watchful direction of Salam, mathematicians and physicists tackled the greatest and outstanding problems in physics and mathematics. From 1960 to 1974, Salam was responsible for leading the research at its maximum point. This prompted the international recognition of Pakistani mathematicians and physicists, that resulted the for the Pakistani scientists and mathematicians to conduct their research at CERN. This period is often regarded as the Golden age of Physics in Pakistan, where physicists, particularly from Pakistan, had shared and applied an effort to the advancement of physics and mathematics. Abdus Salam and his students (Riazuddin, Fayyazuddin and others) revolutionized the particle and theoretical physics, are thought to be modern pioneers of particle physics at all aspect of it. A pure research was taken in Quantum electrodynamics
, Quantum field theory
, protonic decay
and major fields in physics, were pioneered by Pakistan's scientists. With the establishment of nuclear and neutron institutes in the country, Pakistan's mathematicians introduced complex mathematical applications to study and examine the behaviors of elements during the fission process. Salimuzzaman Siddiqui is the pioneering personality for studying the isolation of unique chemical compounds from the Neem (Azadirachta indica)
, Rauwolfia
, and various other flora
.
The 1960s and the 1970s period is regarded as the rise of Pakistan's science, which gained an international reputation in the different science communities of the world. During this period, scientists contributed to the fields of, particularly, Theoretical
, Particle
, Mathematical
, and the Nuclear physics
, and other major and sub fields of Physics. The research was preceded by such key physicists as Riazuddin, Ishfaq Ahmad
, Pervez Hoodbhoy
and Samar Mubarakmand
, among others.
and engineers, as well as a fair amount of its new influx of software engineers who have been actively contributing to Pakistan's potential in the Information Technology industry. However due to present situation in Pakistan, around 3,000 Pakistani doctors emigrate to Western economies in search of suitable employment opportunities and hence contribute intellectually to the health sector of developed countries and at the same time leaving the effects of a brain drain
in Pakistan.
Despite some progressive scientific achievements, Dr. Pervez Hoodbhoy
published a report on scientific output in Pakistan
in which he pointed out that research and scientific activities are significantly lower than many other developing countries Hoodbhoy cites that Pakistan has produces far fewer paper
s than neighboring India
. In terms of the number of published scientific research
papers, together with the citation
s to them, Hoodbhoy demonstrates that the output of Pakistan
for physics papers, over the period from 1 January 1997 to 28 February 2007, together with the total number of publications in all scientific fields, is substantially lower than Brazil
, India
, China
, and the United States
. Hoodbhoy attributes this dearth to militant Islam in Pakistan and the promotion of pseudoscience
by Muslim fundamentalists in Pakistani school
s and universities.
. Science in Pakistan served as an extreme level national pride and from junior scientists to top scientists are bestowed with national prizes and honors each and every year. However, these honors are not roughly restricted to Pakistan's academic scientists. Foreign scientists are also bestowed with these honors and publicly televised their achievements. The word "Professor" occupies a unique role in Pakistan's society and its roughly equivalent to "General" or "Admiral" rank in the society. Each and every year, the Government of Pakistan delegated and invited scientists from all over the world, by issuing special visas, to attend seven day long International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics where scientists, from all over the world, are visited in specially designated hotels especially made for scientists by the government. Despite its strained and trouble
relations with India, Government of Pakistan issues special visas to Indian scientists.
Pakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
, science
Science
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
and technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
served as an important part of national politics
Politics of Pakistan
Politics of Pakistan have taken place in the framework of a federal republic, where the system of government has at times been parliamentary, presidential, or semi-presidential. In the current parliamentary system, the President of Pakistan is the largely ceremonial head of state, the Prime...
, practices, and extreme national identities. From 1960s till the present, both science and technology were immediately linked to national ideology and practical functioning of Pakistan, notably the Pakistan Armed Forces. While, science and technology is a growing and flourishing field in Pakistan. Many scientists, who worked in India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
and United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
(like, e.g. Razi Siddiqui
Raziuddin Siddiqui
Dr. Professor Muhammad Raziuddin Siddiqui , , also known as Dr. Razi, was an eminent Pakistani theoretical physicist and a renowned mathematician who played an instrumental and an influential role in Pakistan's education system and Pakistan's integrated nuclear detterence development...
and Salim Siddiqui
Salimuzzaman Siddiqui
Salimuzzaman Siddiqui , HI, MBE, SI, D.Phil., FPAS, FRS. was a leading Pakistani scientist in Natural Product Chemistry. He is credited for pioneering the isolation of unique chemical compounds from the Neem , Rauwolfia, and various other flora. As the founder director of H.E.J...
), migrated to Pakistan and would gave birth to Pakistan science. Since its independence from Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
in 1947, the newly-found nation of Pakistan
Pakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
has seen a large influx of scientists, engineers, doctors, and technicians assuming an active role in Pakistan's fields of science and technology. Lyakat Ali-Khan (office: 14 August 1947 – 16 October 1951), the first Prime minister
Prime Minister of Pakistan
The Prime Minister of Pakistan , is the Head of Government of Pakistan who is designated to exercise as the country's Chief Executive. By the Constitution of Pakistan, Pakistan has the parliamentary democratic system of government...
, invited hundreds of scientists from India and made various reforms were initiated for improvement in high education and scientific research.
Marked by highly developed pure sciences and innovation at theoretical level, interpretation and application fell short. Physics
Physics
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...
(theoretical
Theoretical physics
Theoretical physics is a branch of physics which employs mathematical models and abstractions of physics to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena...
, nuclear
Nuclear physics
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those...
, particle
Particle physics
Particle physics is a branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation. In current understanding, particles are excitations of quantum fields and interact following their dynamics...
, laser
Laser Physics
Laser Physics is an international scientific journal published by Nauka/Interperiodica. It is distributed through the Springer.-Topics covered:The journal specializes in laser physics, but also publishes papers about:...
, and Quantum physics), Material science, Metallurgy
Metallurgy
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. It is also the technology of metals: the way in which science is applied to their practical use...
(Engineering), Biology
Biology
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...
, Chemistry
Chemistry
Chemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....
(Organic
Organic chemistry
Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives...
), and Mathematics
Mathematics
Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...
, are the fields that Pakistan citizens excelled. During the 1960s till the present, the Pakistan government made the development and advancement of science a national priority and showered top scientists with honours. With government making efforts to make science as part of national politics, there are several examples of budge cuts in the science funds where corruption
Corruption in Pakistan
Corruption in Pakistan is a well established phenomenon. The country has had a consistently poor ranking in the Corruption Perceptions Index, being 143rd with a score of 2.3 out of 10 in 2010.-History:...
remains a vital part of Pakistan politics. In the most notorious case, the government dissolved the Higher Education Commission — an administrative body that supervise the research in science — in 2011. Mega science projects such as Black-Garden Dam
Kalabagh Dam
The Kalabagh dam is a proposed hydroelectric dam on the Indus River at Kalabagh in Mianwali District of the Punjab province in Pakistan. The project has been controversial since its inception.-History:...
, Thar Coal programme
Thar Coalfield
The Thar coalfield is located in Thar Desert, Tharparkar District of Sindh province in Pakistan. The deposits - 134th largest coal reserves in the world, were discovered in 1991 by Geological Survey of Pakistan and the United State Agency for International Development.Pakistan has emerged as one...
, and the Reko Dique gold mine programme
Reko Diq
Reko Diq is a small town in Chagai District, Balochistan, Pakistan, in a desert area, 70 kilometres north-west of Naukundi, close to Pakistan's border with Iran and Afghanistan...
were severely undermined by the political forces in Pakistan which contributed in halting the science research in the country.
Pakistan scientists won acclaim in several fields. They were at the cutting edge of science in fields such as mathematics and in several branches of physical science, notably theoretical and nuclear physics, chemistry, and astronomy. Professor Abdus Salam
Abdus Salam
Mohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk Mohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk Mohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk (Urdu: محمد عبد السلام, pronounced , (January 29, 1926– November 21, 1996) was a Pakistani theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate in Physics for his work on the electroweak unification of the...
, a theoretical physicist, was the first and remain the only Pakistan citizen to have won the prestigious Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize
The Nobel Prizes are annual international awards bestowed by Scandinavian committees in recognition of cultural and scientific advances. The will of the Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, established the prizes in 1895...
in 1979. Pakistan technology is mostly high developed in the fields of nuclear physics and explosives engineering
Explosives engineering
Explosives engineering is the field of science and engineering which is related to examining the behavior and usage of explosive materials.- Topics :Some of the topics that explosives engineers study, research, and work on include:...
, where the arms race with the India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
convinced policy makers to set aside sufficient resources for research. Due to a crash programme directed by Munir Ahmad Khan
Munir Ahmad Khan
Munir Ahmad Khan , HI, was a Pakistani nuclear engineer and a scientist who served as the Chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission from 1972 to 1991...
and the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission
The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, , is an administrative governmental and autonomous science and technology governmental department of Pakistan, responsible for development of nuclear energy and development of nuclear power sector in Pakistan...
(PAEC), Pakistan is the seventh nation to developed an atomic bomb, which the global intelligence community believes, Pakistan had developed the device in 1983 (see Kirana-I), nine years after the India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
(see Pokhran-I). Pakistan first publicly tested its devices (see Chagai-I
Chagai-I
The Chagai-I was a codename referring to the five underground nuclear tests conducted by Pakistan at 15:15hrs in 28th May of 1998. It was named Chagai-I, as the tests were conducted in the Chagai District...
and Chagai-II) on 28 and 30 May 1998, a mere two weeks after the Republic of India carried its own (See Pokhran-II
Pokhran-II
Pokharan-II refers to test explosions of five nuclear devices, three on 11 May and two on 13 May 1998, conducted by India at the Pokhran test range. These nuclear tests resulted in a variety of sanctions against India by a number of major states....
). Space exploration
Space exploration
Space exploration is the use of space technology to explore outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights and by robotic spacecraft....
was hastily well developed in 1990 Pakistan launched Badr-I followed by Badr-II
Badr-B
Badr-B The Badr-B payload was equipped with several CCD cameras, compact dosimeter, a telemetry system, charge detector and a temperature control unit...
in 2001. Since 1980s, the space programme dedicated itself to the military technologies (Space weapons programme and Integrated missile systems), and maintains a strong programme developed for the military applications.
State controlled science
Unlike some Western countriesWestern Europe
Western Europe is a loose term for the collection of countries in the western most region of the European continents, though this definition is context-dependent and carries cultural and political connotations. One definition describes Western Europe as a geographic entity—the region lying in the...
, majority of the research programmes are conducted not at the institutions (such as universities) but at the specially set up research facilities and institutes. These institutes are performed under the government Ministry of Science
Ministry of Science and Technology (Pakistan)
The Ministry of Science and Technology , is a Cabinet-level ministry of government of Pakistan concerned with science and technology in Pakistan and in general, Pakistan's science policies, planning, coordination and directing of efforts to initiate and launch scientific and technological programs...
that overlooks the development and promotion of science in the country, while others are performed under Pakistan Academy of Sciences
Pakistan Academy of Sciences
The Pakistan Academy of Sciences The Pakistan Academy of Sciences The Pakistan Academy of Sciences (Urdu: پاکستان اكيڈ مى ﺁف سائس; shortened to PAS, is a learned society for science and technology based in Pakistan. The academy consisted and served as the network of science across the Pakistan as...
or other specialized academies or even the research arms of various government ministries. At first, the core of fundamental science was the Pakistan Academy of Sciences, originally set up in 1953 and moved from Karachi to Islamabad in 1964. The Pakistan Academy of Sciences consists are large percentage of researchers in natural sciences, particularly physics. Since 1947 until 1971, the research was being conducted independently with no government influence. The High Tension Laboratories (HTL) at the GCU
Government College University
Government College University, Lahore is a co-educational public university located on The Mall in Lahore, Pakistan...
was established by R.M. Chaudhrie with funds received by British Government in 1950s. In 1967, Abdus Salam led the foundation of Institute of Physics at the Quaid-e-Azam University, and the also led establishment of Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology
Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology
The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, or commonly known as "PINSTECH", is a multi-program science and technology national research institute managed by the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. The PINSTECH offers a post-graduate and post-doctoral research in the field of nuclear...
and the Centre for Nuclear Studies, all were independently established by Pakistan's academic scientists with financial assistance provided by European countries. However, after Zulfikar Ali Bhutto became President later Prime minister, the Zulfikar Ali Bhutto took over the control of science research in 1972 as part of his intensified socialist reforms and policies
Socialist Democracy
Socialist Democracy can refer to any of several political parties. Groups using this name tend to have a connection to the reunified Fourth International, reflecting its distinctive position on socialist democracy :*Socialist Democracy...
. With advice taken from dr. Mubascher Hassan
Mubashir Hassan
Mubashir Hassan PhD, is a Pakistani civil engineer and science administrator known for his work in Hydraulics and his political role in the development of the atom bomb project....
, Bhutto established the Ministry of Science with Ishrat Hussain Usmani
Ishrat Hussain Usmani
Ishrat Hussain Usmani, , , , best known as Dr. I. H. Usmani, was a Pakistani bureaucrat and an atomic physicist who was the chairman of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission from 1960 to 1972; as well as the Co-chairman of the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission...
, a bureacrat with a doctorate in atomic physics.
During 1950s and 1960s, both West-Pakistan
West Pakistan
West Pakistan , common name West-Pakistan , in the period between its establishment on 22 November 1955 to disintegration on December 16, 1971. This period, during which, Pakistan was divided, ended when East-Pakistan was disintegrated and succeeded to become which is now what is known as Bangladesh...
and East-Pakistan
East Pakistan
East Pakistan was a provincial state of Pakistan established in 14 August 1947. The provincial state existed until its declaration of independence on 26 March 1971 as the independent nation of Bangladesh. Pakistan recognized the new nation on 16 December 1971. East Pakistan was created from Bengal...
had their own academies of science, with the East-Pakistan economically relying on West-Pakistan to allot the funds. Medical research is coordinated and funded by the Health Ministry
Ministry of Health (Pakistan)
The Ministry of Health of Pakistan is a government agency responsible for Pakistan's health system. It is a branch of the Government, that is the department for provision of medical services, responsible to frame the health policies and to enforce the same at a national level...
and agriculture research is led by Agriculture Ministry
Ministry of Agriculture (Pakistan)
The Ministry of Agriculture is headed by Agriculture Minister of Pakistan, who must be a member of Parliament of Pakistan. the Minister of Agriculture of Pakistan was Nazar Muhammad Gondal and the Secretary of the Ministry of Agriculture was Muhammad Ziaurrehman.-References:The Ministry of...
and the research on environmental sciences are taken care by the Environment Ministry
Ministry of Environment (Pakistan)
The Ministry of Environment is a federal government agency in Pakistan. The ministry is headed by the Environment Minister of Pakistan. Hameed Ullah Jan Afridi is the current Environment Minister of Pakistan...
.
As an aftermath of 1971 Indo-Pakistan Winter War
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was a military conflict between India and Pakistan. Indian, Bangladeshi and international sources consider the beginning of the war to be Operation Chengiz Khan, Pakistan's December 3, 1971 pre-emptive strike on 11 Indian airbases...
, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was 9th Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977, and prior to that, 4th President of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973. Bhutto was the founder of the Pakistan Peoples Party — the largest and most influential political party in Pakistan— and served as its chairman until his...
funded around more than 200% funding of science, dedicated to the military research and development. Bhutto, with the help of his Science Adviser Dr. Salam, gathered hundreds of scientists working abroad to developed what becomes an atom bomb. This crash programme was directed at first by Dr. Abdus Salam
Abdus Salam
Mohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk Mohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk Mohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk (Urdu: محمد عبد السلام, pronounced , (January 29, 1926– November 21, 1996) was a Pakistani theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate in Physics for his work on the electroweak unification of the...
until 1974 and then directed and led by Munir Ahmad Khan
Munir Ahmad Khan
Munir Ahmad Khan , HI, was a Pakistani nuclear engineer and a scientist who served as the Chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission from 1972 to 1991...
from 1974 until 1991. For the first time an effort was built by government when Pakistan's citizens made pure advancement in nuclear physics, theoretical physics and mathematics. In 1980s, General Zia-ul-Haq radicalized the science with enforcing pseudoscience by his Muslim fundamentalists as adminisrators, in Pakistan's schools and universities. One of the premiers were Mazhar Mahmood Qurashi
Mazhar Mahmood Qurashi
Dr. Prof. Mazhar Mahmood Qurashi or M. M. Qureshi, was a Pakistani physicist and an Islamic scholar who was educated in Lahore and Manchester obtaining Ph.D in X-ray Crystallography in 1949. He was Post Doctoral Fellow in Physics Division with National Research Council of Canada from 1950-1952...
, a physicist educated in United Kingdom, and a Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood
Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood
Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood, otherwise written as, Sultan Bashir-ud-Din Mehmood), and Manchester, United Kingdom. A controversial figure, Bashiruddin Mahmood is widely popular in Pakistan's scientific and religious circles for his scientific interpretation and its relation to Quran...
, a nuclear engineer also educated in United Kingdom, played a major role in radicalizing the science in Pakistan. General Zia-ul-Haq later promoted Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan
Abdul Qadeer Khan
Abdul Qadeer Khan , also known in Pakistan as Mohsin-e-Pakistan , D.Eng, Sc.D, HI, NI , FPAS; more widely known as Dr. A. Q...
to export the sensitive industrial (military) technologies to Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
, Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
, and North Korea
North Korea
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea , , is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea...
. Because of the government control, the academic research remains highly classified and unknown to the international scientific community. There has been several failed attempts made by Foreign powers to infiltrate into the research facilities to acquire how much research advanced and clandestine knowledge gained by Pakistan's scientific community. One of the notable case was in 1970s, when Libyan intelligence made an unsuccessful attempt to gained knowledge on critical aspects of nuclear
Nuclear technology
Nuclear technology is technology that involves the reactions of atomic nuclei. Among the notable nuclear technologies are nuclear power, nuclear medicine, and nuclear weapons...
physics, and crucial mathematical
Mathematics
Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...
calculations in theoretical physics
Theoretical physics
Theoretical physics is a branch of physics which employs mathematical models and abstractions of physics to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena...
, but was thwarted by ISI Directorate for Joint Intelligence Technical (JIT). Onwards 1980s, both Russian intelligence and the Central Intelligence Agency
Central Intelligence Agency
The Central Intelligence Agency is a civilian intelligence agency of the United States government. It is an executive agency and reports directly to the Director of National Intelligence, responsible for providing national security intelligence assessment to senior United States policymakers...
made several foiled and failed attempt in Pakistan's research facilities but because of ISI, they were unable to gain any information. From the period 1980 to 2004, the research in science fell short until General Pervez Mushrraf established the Higher Education Commission (HEC) which heightened the contribution of science and technology in Pakistan. Major research was undertaken by Pakistan's institutes in the field of natural sciences. However, with the present situation, the research fell short and declined. In 2011, the Government dissolved the HEC and control of education was undertaken under the control of the governmental ministries.
Scientific Research Institutions (SRI)
A large part of research is conducted by science research institutes with semi-controlled by the Government.- H.E.J. Research Institute of ChemistryHussain Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of ChemistryThe Hussain Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of Chemistry, widely known as H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, is an advanced and academic Chemistry and Mathematics research institute in Karachi, Sindh Province of Pakistan...
- National Center for Physics
- National Institute of MathematicsAbdus Salam School of MathematicsThe Abdus Salam School of Mathematics Sciences, also known as School of Mathematical Sciences, abbreviated as ASSMS, is an academic and technologically advanced research institute of the Government College University at Lahore, Punjab province of Pakistan...
- PU Centre for High Energy PhysicsCentre for High Energy Physics (University Of the Punjab)The Centre for High Energy Physics at the Punjab University, commonly referred to as CHEP, is a national research institute for High-energy physics , a branch of fundamental Physics...
- Institute of Space and Planetary AstrophysicsInstitute of Space and Planetary AstrophysicsThe Institute of Space and Planetary Astrophysics, also known as by its abbreviation ISPA, is a premier and national research institute of Pakistan for the study of and research into topics pertaining to astronomy, mathematics, theoretical, particle and astrophysics and related subjects, controlled...
- National Engineering and Scientific CommissionNational Engineering and Scientific CommissionNational Engineering and Scientific Commission is a civilian controlled Pakistani scientific and research organization carrying out research in many engineering and scientific areas including information technology, fluid dynamics, aerodynamics, aerospace engineering, electrical engineering,...
- Pakistan Institute of Nuclear PhysicsPakistan Institute of PhysicsThe Pakistan Institute of Physics of the University of Engineering and Technology of Lahore, is a national research institute in Pakistan...
- Institute of Space TechnologyInstitute of Space TechnologyThe Institute of Space Technology , is located in Islamabad, Pakistan. It produces scientists and engineers in the field of space technology...
- Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
- Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and BiologyNuclear Institute for Agriculture and BiologyThe Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology, also known as NIAB, is an agriculture and food irradiation national research institute managed by the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. Along with Nuclear Institute for Food and Agriculture , the NIAB reports directly to the PAEC Biological...
- Nuclear Institute for Food and AgricultureNuclear Institute for Food and AgricultureThe Nuclear Institute for Food and Agriculture, known as NIFA, is one of four agriculture and food irradiation research institute managed by the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission...
- Technology Resource Mobilization UnitTechnology Resource Mobilization UnitThe Technology Resource Mobilization Unit, also known as "TReMU" or "Linux Force," is part of an effort to overcome proprietary computer technology in Pakistan....
- Federal Bureau of StatisticsFederal Bureau of StatisticsThe Federal Bureau of Statistics, also known as FBS is a Government of Pakistan's major and executive and federal department charged with the national statistical services and to provide solid and comprehensive statistical research. The FBS is one of the departments of the Statistics Division of...
- Mathematics Statistical DivisionStatistics Division of the Government of PakistanThe Statistics Division of the Government of Pakistan, also known as Statistics Division, is a Government of Pakistan's executive and federal department, which is mandate to frames policies for development of statistical services in the country...
Nobel Prize
- Abdus SalamAbdus SalamMohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk Mohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk Mohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk (Urdu: محمد عبد السلام, pronounced , (January 29, 1926– November 21, 1996) was a Pakistani theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate in Physics for his work on the electroweak unification of the...
— winner of the Nobel Prize in PhysicsNobel Prize in PhysicsThe Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895 and awarded since 1901; the others are the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Literature, Nobel Peace Prize, and...
(1979) for his theory of Electroweak theory that combines weak and electromagnetic forces. Professor Salam is the most and highly decorated scientist of Pakistan, with honoring with most state awards including the Sitara-e-Pakistan (Star of Pakistan) in 1959 with no other scientist has received that honor to date yet.
Albert Einstein Award
- Riazuddin — winner of Einstein AwardAlbert Einstein AwardThe Albert Einstein Award was an award in theoretical physics that was established to recognize high achievement in the natural sciences. It was endowed by the Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial Fund in honor of Albert Einstein's 70th birthday...
(2000) for his contribution in theoretical physics, notably the contribution in neutrinos. Riazuddin, pupil student of Salam, remains the most state decorated scientist of Pakistan with receiving state honors and international prizes, second to Abdus Salam. - Mujahid KamranMujahid KamranMujahid Kamran , is a Pakistani theoretical physicist and the current Vice-Chancellor of the Punjab University of Lahore, Punjab. He is the Professor of physics and, had previously served as the Chairman of the Physics Department at the University of the Punjab...
— winner of Einstein Award (2001) for the leading research in quantum mechanics.
Order of Excellence
Scientists who are awarded the highest hierarchy of Pakistan, the Nishan-e-Imtiaz (Order of Excellence).- Rafi Muhammad ChaudhryRafi Muhammad ChaudhryProfessor Dr. Rafi Muhammad Chaudhry or R. M. Chaudhry , FPAS HI, NI, SI, Skdt, was a Pakistani nuclear physicist and a professor of particle physics at the Government College University...
— honored in 1998 for his contribution in the advancement of nuclear physics. - Abdus SalamAbdus SalamMohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk Mohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk Mohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk (Urdu: محمد عبد السلام, pronounced , (January 29, 1926– November 21, 1996) was a Pakistani theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate in Physics for his work on the electroweak unification of the...
— honored in 1979 for outstanding contribution in developing the Pakistan science. - Ishfaq AhmadIshfaq AhmadIshfaq Ahmad , D.Sc., Minister of State, SI, HI, NI, FPAS, is a Pakistani nuclear physicist, and well-known educationist and academic from Pakistan...
— honored with Nishan-e-Imtiaz (1998) for his contribution in nuclear physics. - Abdul Qadeer KhanAbdul Qadeer KhanAbdul Qadeer Khan , also known in Pakistan as Mohsin-e-Pakistan , D.Eng, Sc.D, HI, NI , FPAS; more widely known as Dr. A. Q...
— honored twice (1996 and 1999) for developing the gas-centrifuge programme. - Riazuddin — awarded and honored (1998) for his contribution to theoretical physics.
- Atta ur RahmanAtta ur RahmanAtta-ur-Rahman, D.Phil., TI, SI HI, NI, is a leading scientist and scholar in the field of organic chemistry from Pakistan, especially renowned for his research in the various areas relating to natural product chemistry...
— honored in 2002 for his edge leading research in Natural product chemistry. - Samar MubarakmandSamar MubarakmandSamar Mubarakmand , , is a Pakistani nuclear physicist, who served as the founding chairman of National Engineering and Scientific Commission from 2001 till 2007. Samar Mubarak-Mand launched the Missile Integration Programme in 1987 which was successfully completed in 2005...
— honored in 2003 for the contribution in space programme and nuclear physics. - Ishrat Hussain UsmaniIshrat Hussain UsmaniIshrat Hussain Usmani, , , , best known as Dr. I. H. Usmani, was a Pakistani bureaucrat and an atomic physicist who was the chairman of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission from 1960 to 1972; as well as the Co-chairman of the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission...
— honored in 1998 for his enhancing the science in Pakistan.
Order of Crescent
Scientists who are conferred with second highest honored, the Hilal-i-ImtiazHilal-i-Imtiaz
The Hilal-i-Imtiaz, English: Crescent of Excellence, Urdu: هلال ا متيا ز , is the second highest civilian award and honor given to both civilians and military officers of the State of Pakistan|Pakistan armed forces by the Government of Pakistan...
(Order of Crescent).
- Munir Ahmad KhanMunir Ahmad KhanMunir Ahmad Khan , HI, was a Pakistani nuclear engineer and a scientist who served as the Chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission from 1972 to 1991...
— honored in 1989 for building Pakistan's nuclear fuel cycle programme. - Tasneem M. ShahTasneem M. ShahTasneem M. Shah, Ph.D., SI, TI, is a Pakistani scientist and a prominent mathematician who has made pioneering and instrumental research and contributions to the field of computational fluid dynamics at Dr. A. Q. Khan Research Laboratories...
— honored in 1998 for leading research in mathematics and pioneering and instrumental research computational fluid dynamicsComputational fluid dynamicsComputational fluid dynamics, usually abbreviated as CFD, is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the interaction of liquids and gases with...
(CFD) at Dr. A. Q. Khan Research Laboratories (KRL). - Asghar QadirAsghar QadirAsghar Qadir , HI, SI, FPAS, is a renowned Pakistani mathematician and a prominent cosmologist, specialized in Mathematical physics and Physical cosmology. He is considered as one of the top mathematicians in Pakistan...
— honored in 2008 for his international research in mathematics and pioneering research in mathematical science at the Pakistan Atomic Energy CommissionPakistan Atomic Energy CommissionThe Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, , is an administrative governmental and autonomous science and technology governmental department of Pakistan, responsible for development of nuclear energy and development of nuclear power sector in Pakistan... - Salimuzzaman SiddiquiSalimuzzaman SiddiquiSalimuzzaman Siddiqui , HI, MBE, SI, D.Phil., FPAS, FRS. was a leading Pakistani scientist in Natural Product Chemistry. He is credited for pioneering the isolation of unique chemical compounds from the Neem , Rauwolfia, and various other flora. As the founder director of H.E.J...
— honored in 1980 for his leading research in medical chemistry.
National Prizes
The most prestigious government prize awarded for achievements in science and technology is Nishan-e-Imtiaz (or in English Order of Excellence). While Hilal-i-ImtiazHilal-i-Imtiaz
The Hilal-i-Imtiaz, English: Crescent of Excellence, Urdu: هلال ا متيا ز , is the second highest civilian award and honor given to both civilians and military officers of the State of Pakistan|Pakistan armed forces by the Government of Pakistan...
, Sitara-i-Imtiaz
Sitara-i-Imtiaz
The Sitara-i-Imtiaz , is the third highest honour and civilian award in the State of Pakistan. It recognizes the individuals who made an "especially meritorious contribution to the security or national interests of Pakistan, world peace, cultural or other significant public endeavors"...
, and Tamgha-e-Imtiaz occupies a unique role and importance in Pakistan's civil society.
Achievements
Science in Pakistan during the 20th century20th century BC
The 20th century BC is a century which lasted from the year 2000 BC to 1901 BC.-Events:* 2000 BC: Arrival of the ancestors of the Latins in Italy.* 2000 BC: Town of Mantua was presumably founded.* 2000 BC: Stonehenge is believed to have been completed....
(1960–2000) remains a vital and strong foreign policy component of Pakistan. In 1961, international achievements first recorded in 1961 when Pakistan became third Asian country and tenth in the world when the Rehbar-I
Rehbar-I
Rehbar-I or Rehbar-1 was a family member of Pakistan's space launch vehicles, Rehbar Sounding Rocket Program. Rehbar-I was the first rocket launched into outer space by the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission...
— a solid fuel expandable rocket— was launched from Sonmani Spaceport. The Rehbar-I was launched and developed under the leadership of dr. W. J. M. Turowicz, a renowned Polish-Pakistani scientist and then-project-director of this program. Since then, the program began taking flights which continued until 1970s.
However, a major-breakthrough was internationally recorded in 1979, when the Nobel Prize Committee announced to award the prestigious Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize in Physics
The Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895 and awarded since 1901; the others are the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Literature, Nobel Peace Prize, and...
in Physics to Abdus Salam for formulating the Electroweak Theory
Electroweak interaction
In particle physics, the electroweak interaction is the unified description of two of the four known fundamental interactions of nature: electromagnetism and the weak interaction. Although these two forces appear very different at everyday low energies, the theory models them as two different...
— a theory that provides the basis of unification of weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force. In 1990, Suparco launched her first and locally designed communication satellite, Badr-I, from Xichang Satellite Launch Center
Xichang Satellite Launch Center
The Xichang Satellite Launch Center also known as Base 27 , is a People’s Republic of China space vehicle launch facility approximately 64 km northwest of Xichang City, Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture in Sichuan Province....
of the Peoples Republic of China
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
. With launch of this satellite, Pakistan became first Muslim majority country
Muslim world
The term Muslim world has several meanings. In a religious sense, it refers to those who adhere to the teachings of Islam, referred to as Muslims. In a cultural sense, it refers to Islamic civilization, inclusive of non-Muslims living in that civilization...
to have been succeeded to developed artificial robotic satellite, and was the second South Asian state to have launched its satellite, second to India.
One of the widely reported achievement was internationally recorded in 1998, when country joined the elite Nuclear club. In response of India's nuclear tests on May 11 and May 13 of 1998, under codename Operation Shakti, in long-constructed Indian Army
Indian Army
The Indian Army is the land based branch and the largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. With about 1,100,000 soldiers in active service and about 1,150,000 reserve troops, the Indian Army is the world's largest standing volunteer army...
Pokhran Test Range (PTR). Pakistan
Pakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
under the leadership of Prime minister
Prime Minister of Pakistan
The Prime Minister of Pakistan , is the Head of Government of Pakistan who is designated to exercise as the country's Chief Executive. By the Constitution of Pakistan, Pakistan has the parliamentary democratic system of government...
Navaz Scharief
Nawaz Sharif
Mian Mohammad Nawaz Sharif is a Pakistani conservative politician and steel magnate who served as 12th Prime Minister of Pakistan in two non-consecutive terms from November 1990 to July 1993, and from February 1997 to October 12, 1999...
, the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission
The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, , is an administrative governmental and autonomous science and technology governmental department of Pakistan, responsible for development of nuclear energy and development of nuclear power sector in Pakistan...
(PAEC), conducted five simultaneous tests at the Chagai Hills
Chagai Hills
The Chagai Hills is a range of granite hills in the Chagai District in Pakistan's Balochistan province.-Location:The Chagai Hills lie in a desert area in the northernmost part of Chagai District north of Pakistan's Ras Koh Hills and south of Afghanistan's Helmand and Nimruz provinces.- Topography...
under codename Chagai-I
Chagai-I
The Chagai-I was a codename referring to the five underground nuclear tests conducted by Pakistan at 15:15hrs in 28th May of 1998. It was named Chagai-I, as the tests were conducted in the Chagai District...
on May 28 of 1998. To even the score with India, the PAEC carried another and test at the Kharan Desert, under Chaga-II, making it has tested a total of six devices in under one week. With the testing of these atomic devices, Pakistan became 7th nuclear power country in the world, and the only Muslim-majority country to have mastered the technology. In August 13 of 2011, the Suparco launched its first and indigenously developed geosynchronous satellite, Paksat-IR from Xichang Satellite Launch Centre of the People's Republic of China.
Information technology
Mindstorm StudiosMindstorm Studios
Mindstorm Studios is a computer video game developer and Software developer company based in Lahore, Pakistan. The company is known best for the game Cricket Revolution....
, a Lahore-based company, has developed a video game called Cricket Revolution
Cricket Revolution
Cricket Revolution is an independently developed video game spotlighting multiplayer gameplay based around the sport of cricket. The game focuses on an online community system serving detailed cricket stats for gamers through internet play in addition to a LAN based and offline component.The game...
which also won the Cricket Gaming Awards 2010.
Golden age of Science
Pakistan is the home of Dr. Abdus SalamAbdus Salam
Mohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk Mohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk Mohammad Abdus Salam, NI, SPk (Urdu: محمد عبد السلام, pronounced , (January 29, 1926– November 21, 1996) was a Pakistani theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate in Physics for his work on the electroweak unification of the...
who became the first Pakistan winner of Nobel Prize in Physics
Nobel Prize in Physics
The Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895 and awarded since 1901; the others are the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Literature, Nobel Peace Prize, and...
in 1979. Abdus Salam was the father of scientific research in Pakistan. Under the watchful direction of Salam, mathematicians and physicists tackled the greatest and outstanding problems in physics and mathematics. From 1960 to 1974, Salam was responsible for leading the research at its maximum point. This prompted the international recognition of Pakistani mathematicians and physicists, that resulted the for the Pakistani scientists and mathematicians to conduct their research at CERN. This period is often regarded as the Golden age of Physics in Pakistan, where physicists, particularly from Pakistan, had shared and applied an effort to the advancement of physics and mathematics. Abdus Salam and his students (Riazuddin, Fayyazuddin and others) revolutionized the particle and theoretical physics, are thought to be modern pioneers of particle physics at all aspect of it. A pure research was taken in Quantum electrodynamics
Quantum electrodynamics
Quantum electrodynamics is the relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics. In essence, it describes how light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved...
, Quantum field theory
Quantum field theory
Quantum field theory provides a theoretical framework for constructing quantum mechanical models of systems classically parametrized by an infinite number of dynamical degrees of freedom, that is, fields and many-body systems. It is the natural and quantitative language of particle physics and...
, protonic decay
Proton decay
In particle physics, proton decay is a hypothetical form of radioactive decay in which the proton decays into lighter subatomic particles, such as a neutral pion and a positron...
and major fields in physics, were pioneered by Pakistan's scientists. With the establishment of nuclear and neutron institutes in the country, Pakistan's mathematicians introduced complex mathematical applications to study and examine the behaviors of elements during the fission process. Salimuzzaman Siddiqui is the pioneering personality for studying the isolation of unique chemical compounds from the Neem (Azadirachta indica)
Neem
Azadirachta indica is a tree in the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of two species in the genus Azadirachta, and is native to India growing in tropical and semi-tropical regions. Its fruits and seeds are the source of neem oil...
, Rauwolfia
Rauwolfia
Rauvolfia is a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs in the dogbane family, Apocynaceae. The genus is named to honor Leonhard Rauwolf. The approximately 85 species in the genus can mainly be found in tropical regions...
, and various other flora
Flora
Flora is the plant life occurring in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring or indigenous—native plant life. The corresponding term for animals is fauna.-Etymology:...
.
The 1960s and the 1970s period is regarded as the rise of Pakistan's science, which gained an international reputation in the different science communities of the world. During this period, scientists contributed to the fields of, particularly, Theoretical
Theoretical physics
Theoretical physics is a branch of physics which employs mathematical models and abstractions of physics to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena...
, Particle
Particle physics
Particle physics is a branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation. In current understanding, particles are excitations of quantum fields and interact following their dynamics...
, Mathematical
Mathematical physics
Mathematical physics refers to development of mathematical methods for application to problems in physics. The Journal of Mathematical Physics defines this area as: "the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods suitable for such applications and...
, and the Nuclear physics
Nuclear physics
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those...
, and other major and sub fields of Physics. The research was preceded by such key physicists as Riazuddin, Ishfaq Ahmad
Ishfaq Ahmad
Ishfaq Ahmad , D.Sc., Minister of State, SI, HI, NI, FPAS, is a Pakistani nuclear physicist, and well-known educationist and academic from Pakistan...
, Pervez Hoodbhoy
Pervez Hoodbhoy
Dr. Prof. Pervez Amirali Hoodbhoy , is a Pakistani nuclear physicist, essayist and political-defence analyst. He is the professor of nuclear and high-energy physics, and the head of the Physics Department at the Quaid-e-Azam University . He graduated and also received PhD from MIT and continues to...
and Samar Mubarakmand
Samar Mubarakmand
Samar Mubarakmand , , is a Pakistani nuclear physicist, who served as the founding chairman of National Engineering and Scientific Commission from 2001 till 2007. Samar Mubarak-Mand launched the Missile Integration Programme in 1987 which was successfully completed in 2005...
, among others.
Challenges
Pakistan has been known internationally for some of its major achievements in science and technology such as successful development of media and military technologies and a growing base of doctorsPhysician
A physician is a health care provider who practices the profession of medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, injury and other physical and mental impairments...
and engineers, as well as a fair amount of its new influx of software engineers who have been actively contributing to Pakistan's potential in the Information Technology industry. However due to present situation in Pakistan, around 3,000 Pakistani doctors emigrate to Western economies in search of suitable employment opportunities and hence contribute intellectually to the health sector of developed countries and at the same time leaving the effects of a brain drain
Brain drain
Human capital flight, more commonly referred to as "brain drain", is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge. The reasons usually include two aspects which respectively come from countries and individuals...
in Pakistan.
Despite some progressive scientific achievements, Dr. Pervez Hoodbhoy
Pervez Hoodbhoy
Dr. Prof. Pervez Amirali Hoodbhoy , is a Pakistani nuclear physicist, essayist and political-defence analyst. He is the professor of nuclear and high-energy physics, and the head of the Physics Department at the Quaid-e-Azam University . He graduated and also received PhD from MIT and continues to...
published a report on scientific output in Pakistan
Pakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
in which he pointed out that research and scientific activities are significantly lower than many other developing countries Hoodbhoy cites that Pakistan has produces far fewer paper
Paper
Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon, drawing or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets....
s than neighboring India
Science and technology in the Republic of India
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India , initiated reforms to promote higher education, science, technology in India...
. In terms of the number of published scientific research
Research
Research can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method...
papers, together with the citation
Citation
Broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source . More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression Broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source (not always the original source). More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated...
s to them, Hoodbhoy demonstrates that the output of Pakistan
Pakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
for physics papers, over the period from 1 January 1997 to 28 February 2007, together with the total number of publications in all scientific fields, is substantially lower than Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
, India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, and the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. Hoodbhoy attributes this dearth to militant Islam in Pakistan and the promotion of pseudoscience
Pseudoscience
Pseudoscience is a claim, belief, or practice which is presented as scientific, but which does not adhere to a valid scientific method, lacks supporting evidence or plausibility, cannot be reliably tested, or otherwise lacks scientific status...
by Muslim fundamentalists in Pakistani school
School
A school is an institution designed for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools...
s and universities.
Image
Despite its declined and fall, Science in Pakistan is still a powerful proponent in Pakistan's bureaucracyServing Federal Secretaries to the Government of Pakistan and Top Brass Bureaucrats
The Federal Secretaries or Top Brass Bureaucrats to the Government of Pakistan are the bureaucratic heads of the Departmental Divisions / Autonomous Bodies under the Ministries to the Government of Pakistan. These bureaucrats work under the Ministers who are the members of National Assembly...
. Science in Pakistan served as an extreme level national pride and from junior scientists to top scientists are bestowed with national prizes and honors each and every year. However, these honors are not roughly restricted to Pakistan's academic scientists. Foreign scientists are also bestowed with these honors and publicly televised their achievements. The word "Professor" occupies a unique role in Pakistan's society and its roughly equivalent to "General" or "Admiral" rank in the society. Each and every year, the Government of Pakistan delegated and invited scientists from all over the world, by issuing special visas, to attend seven day long International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics where scientists, from all over the world, are visited in specially designated hotels especially made for scientists by the government. Despite its strained and trouble
Indo-Pakistani relations
Relations between India and Pakistan have been strained by a number of historical and political issues, and are defined by the violent partition of British India in 1947, the Kashmir dispute and the numerous military conflicts fought between the two nations...
relations with India, Government of Pakistan issues special visas to Indian scientists.
See also
- List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries
- Economy of PakistanEconomy of PakistanThe economy of Pakistan is the 47th largest in the world in nominal terms and 27th largest in the world in terms of purchasing power parity . Pakistan has a semi-industrialized economy, which mainly encompasses textiles, chemicals, food processing, agriculture and other industries...
- International rankings of PakistanInternational rankings of Pakistan- Cities :- Geography :- Demographics :- Economy :-Environmental:*Yale University: Environmental Sustainability Index 2005, ranked 131 out of 146 countries*New Economics Foundation: Happy Planet Index 2006, ranked 112 out of 178 countries...