Second War of Schleswig
Encyclopedia
The Second Schleswig War was the second military conflict as a result of the Schleswig-Holstein Question
. It began on 1 February 1864, when Prussian forces crossed the border into Schleswig.
Denmark fought Prussia
and Austria
. Like the First Schleswig War (1848–51), it was fought for control of the duchies because of succession disputes concerning the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg when the Danish king died without an heir acceptable to the German Confederation
. Decisive controversy arose due to the passing of the November Constitution, which integrated the Duchy of Schleswig into the Danish kingdom in violation of the London Protocol.
Reasons for the war were the ethnic controversy in Schleswig and the co-existence of conflicting political systems within the Danish unitary state.
The war ended on 30 October 1864, when the Treaty of Vienna
caused Denmark's cession of the Duchies of Schleswig
, Holstein
, and Saxe-Lauenburg to Prussia
and Austria
. It was the last victorious conflict of the Austrian Empire/Austria-Hungary in its history.
and before 1806 a German fief and completely German
, whereas Schleswig was a Danish fief and linguistically mixed between German, Danish and North Frisian
. Originally Schleswig was homeland of the Angles
; when, in the Viking Age
, Denmark tried to increase its influence, this was finally rejected by the Holy Roman Empire
after several wars with Denmark. However, the northern and middle parts of Schleswig (up to the Eckernförde Bay
) originally spoke Danish. But in modern times the language in the southern half shifted gradually to German. In parts of the west coast of Schleswig the population spoke one of the North Frisian dialects. Holstein stayed completely German.
German culture dominated in the clergy and nobility, while Danish had a lower social status. For centuries, when the rule of the king was absolute, these conditions had created few tensions. When ideas of democracy spread and national currents emerged about 1820, identification was mixed between Danish and German.
To that was added a grievance about tolls charged by Denmark on shipping passing through the Danish Straits
between the Baltic Sea
and the North Sea
. To avoid that expense, Prussia planned the Kiel Canal
, which could not be built as long as Denmark ruled Holstein.
Much of the dispute focused on the heir of King Frederick VII of Denmark
. In general terms, the Germans of Holstein and Schleswig supported the House of Augustenburg
, a cadet branch of the Danish royal family, but the average Dane considered them too German and preferred the rival Glücksburg branch
with Prince Christian of Glücksburg
as the new sovereign. Prince Christian had served on the Danish side in the First Schleswig War in 1848-1851. At the time, the king of Denmark was also duke of the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig. In 1848, Denmark had received its first free constitution and at the same time (and partly as a consequence) had fought a civil war with the Germans of Schleswig-Holstein in which Prussia had intervened.
The peace treaty stipulated that the duchy of Schleswig should not be treated any differently from the duchy of Holstein in its relations with the Kingdom of Denmark. But during the revisions of the 1848 constitution in the late 1850s and early 1860s Holstein refused to acknowledge the revision, bringing a crisis in which the parliament in Copenhagen ratified the revision but Holstein did not. That was a clear breach of the 1851 peace treaty and gave Prussia and the German union a casus belli
against Denmark.
, giving more power to the most affluent members of society, with the result that both Schleswig and Holstein were politically dominated by a predominantly German class of landowners. Thus two systems of government co-existed within the same state: democracy in Denmark, and absolutism in Schleswig and Holstein.
The three units were governed by one cabinet, consisting of liberal ministers of Denmark, who urged for economical and social reforms; and conservative ministers of the Holstein nobility, who opposed political reform. This caused a deadlock for practical lawmaking. Moreover, Danish opponents of this so-called Unitary State (Helstaten) feared that Holstein's presence in the government and simultaneous membership of the German Confederation would lead to increased German interference with Schleswig, or even in purely Danish affairs.
In Copenhagen, the Palace and most of the administration supported a strict adherence to the status quo. The same applied to foreign powers such as Great Britain, France and Russia, who would not accept a weakened Denmark in favour of Germany, nor a Prussia that had acquired Holstein with the important naval harbour of Kiel or controlled the entrance to the Baltic.
In 1858, the German Confederation
deposed the 'union constitution' of the Danish monarchy concerning Holstein and Lauenburg, which were members of the Confederation. The two duchies were henceforth without any constitution, while the 'union constitution' still applied to Schleswig and Denmark proper.
As the heirless King Frederick VII grew older, Denmark's successive National-Liberal cabinets became increasingly focused on maintaining control of Schleswig following the king's demise.
The king died in 1863 at a particularly critical time: work on the November Constitution for the joint affairs of Denmark and Schleswig had just been completed, with the draft awaiting his signature.
The new King, Christian IX
, felt compelled to sign the draft constitution on 18 November 1863, although expressing grave concerns in the process.
This action caused an outrage among the duchies' German population and a resolution was passed by the German Confederation at the initiative of the Prussian Prime Minister
Otto von Bismarck
, calling for the occupation of Holstein by Confederate forces. The Danish government abandoned Holstein and pulled the Danish Army
back to the border between Schleswig and Holstein. Most of it fortified itself behind the Danevirke
. This order to retreat without combat caused adverse comment among some Danish private soldiers, but the military circumstances made it wise to shorten the frontier needed to be defended. Also, as the administrations of Holstein and Lauenburg were members of the German Confederation, not pulling back might have caused a severe political crisis and perhaps war.
(North), the fortified city of Fredericia
(center), and Dybbøl
in the south designed to support the strategy of defending the peninsula of Jutland along the north-south axis using naval supremacy to move the army north-south and hence trap an invading army in futile marches between these flank positions. This would deny the (assumed superior) invader the chance of forcing the defenders into a decisive battle, and give the defenders the opportunity to swiftly mass and counter-attack weak enemy positions, besieging forces, or divided forces by shifting weight by sea transport. The political dimension of this strategy was to draw out the war and hence give time and opportunity for the "great powers" to intervene diplomatically — it was assumed that such an intervention would be to the advantage of (neutral) Denmark. This strategy had been successful in the First Schleswig War.
Unrealistic expectations of the potency of the Danish army and incompetence at the political level had overruled the command of the army's wishes to defend Jutland according to the above plan, and instead favoured a frontal defense of Jutland on or near the historical defense (and legendary border) line at the Danevirke
, near the city of Schleswig
in the south. Hence resources had been put into the Danevirke line and not into the flank positions, which stayed akin to battlefield fortifications rather than modern fortifications capable of withstanding a modern bombardment.
The problem with the Danevirke line was that perhaps it was relatively strong against a frontal assault, but the entire position could be easily encircled to the west and to the east (though with more difficulties). Hence defense along the Dannevirke line was, correctly, anticipated by the Danish high command to be a trap, in which its army would be surrounded and forced to give battle at hopeless odds.
When the Prusso-German army approached the "Danevirke line", the estuaries and marshes that had been planned to support the flanks were frozen solid in a hard winter and the command of the Danish army disobeyed orders and ordered a full, orderly retreat back north to "the old Dybbøl" and its ill-prepared flank position. There is little doubt that the command of the army did not believe that they could successfully repulse a well-prepared German siege and consequent assault on the Dybbøl position, and assumed that the political level would let the army be evacuated by sea and then fight the war on the principles of the north-south axis strategy.
But the political level did not appreciate the gravity of the situation, insisting on maintaining military presence in Schleswig and at the same time refused more modest German demands of peace. Hence the army was ordered to defend the Dybbøl position "to the last man", and consequently the siege of Dybbøl began.
were a line in Sjælland from Copenhagen
to Korsør
, and one in northern Jutland
from Århus to the northwest. Any reinforcements for the Danevirke
from Copenhagen would have gone by rail to Korsør and thence by ship to Flensburg
, taking two or three days, if not hindered by storm or sea-ice. There was a good railway system in the duchies, but not further north than Flensburg
and Husum.
Schleswig city, Flensburg, Sønderborg
, and Dybbøl
were all connected by a road paved with crushed rock, this being the route the army took. The same road continued from Flensburg to Fredericia
and Århus and this was the route later taken by the Prussian army when it invaded Jutland.
of Denmark signed the so-called "November constitution" establishing a shared law of succession and a common parliament for both Schleswig and Denmark. This was seen by the German Confederation
as a violation of the 1852 London Protocol. In response, on 24 December 1863, Saxon
and Hanoverian
troops marched into Holstein on behalf of the Confederation. Supported by the German soldiers and by loyal Holsteiners, Frederick VIII, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein
took control of the government of Holstein.
In January the situation remained tense but without fighting; Danish forces controlled the north bank of the Eider River
and German forces the south bank. On 16 January 1864, Bismarck issued an ultimatum to Denmark demanding that the November Constitution should be abolished within 48 hours. This was politically impossible, particularly given the short deadline, and the demand was consequently rejected by the Danish government.
All the inland waters (Eider River
, Treene, Schlei
, and the marshes east of Husum
and around the Rheider Au
) that the Danes were relying on as defence to guard the flanks of the Dannevirke, were frozen hard and could be crossed easily.
. About 36,000 men defended the Dannevirke, a job which it was said would have needed 50,000 men to do properly. The 1st Regiment had been changed from a battalion
to a regiment
on 1 December 1863. http://regimentsmusik.dk/slesvigske%20krige.htm
The Prussian army had 37 battalions, 29 squadrons and 110 guns, approximately 38,400 men. The Austrian army had 20 battalions, 10 squadrons and 48 guns, approximately 23,000 men. During the war the Prussian army was strengthened with 64 guns and 20,000 men. The supreme commander for the Prussian-Austrian army was Field Marshal
Friedrich Graf von Wrangel
.
Prussia
n and Austrian
troops crossed into Schleswig
on 1 February 1864, and war became inevitable. The Austrians attacked towards the refortified Dannevirke
frontally while the Prussian forces struck the Danish fortifications at Mysunde
(on the Schlei
coast of Schwansen
east of Schleswig
town), trying to bypass the Danevirke by crossing the frozen Schlei
inlet, but in six hours could not take the Danish positions, and retreated.
In the Battle for Königshügel
(Danish Kongshøj) on 3 February 1864, Austrian forces commanded by General Gondrecourt pushed the Danes back to the Dannevirke
. The Danish 6th Brigade had an important part. The battle was fought in a snowstorm at -10 °C.
Danish fighting against Austrians at Selk
and Kongshøj and Saksarmen on February 3, 1864 is described as follows:
A Danish military report dated 11 February 1864 describes incidents near Kongshøj
and Vedelspang
as follows:
On 5 February 1864, the Danish commander-in-chief, lieutenant general Christian Julius De Meza
, abandoned the Dannevirke by night to avoid being surrounded and withdrew his army to Flensburg; 600 men were captured or killed, ten of them frozen to death; he was also forced to abandon important heavy artillery
.
The railway from the south to Flensburg
was never properly used during this evacuation and the Danish army only evacuated what men and horses could carry or pull by road, leaving behind much artillery
, most importantly heavy artillery.
Some hours later, the Prussia
ns and Austrians discovered the retreat and started to pursue. This withdrawal to Als and Dybbøl
has gone down in Danish history as one of the worst that Danish soldiers have been exposed to. Some It was northwards in a north gale with driven snow, and most soldiers had had no rest for the last four days and nights:image. The march was burdened with artillery guns and supplies carts and had to be as slow as its slowest component. Men and horses had trouble standing. Horses could not carry or pull their loads properly because of the snow and ice; riders had to dismount and lead their horses. Artillery guns and carts overturned. The army had to march from the Danevirke to Flensburg
, which took about 14–18 hours. They also had to fight rearguard against pursuing Prussians and Austrians. Some men in sight of Flensburg were ordered to stop or go back to man checkpoints. Many men were missing at the roll call
, and it was thought that the many Schleswig men among the soldiers would desert the march on the way and go home; but most of them came in that morning or the next morning.
Near Stolk-Helligbek
, about 10 kilometers north of Schleswig, pursuing Austrians reached them, and in heavy fighting near Oversø
, the 9th and 20th Regiments of the 8th Brigade lost 600 men dead and injured and captured. On that day ten Danish soldiers died of hypothermia
.
The Prussians crossed the frozen Schlei
at Arnis
on 6 February 1864, defeating the Danes there: map. Near Sankelmark
(about eight kilometers south of Flensburg) pursuing Austrians caught up with the Danish rear party, consisting of the 1st and 11th regiments. The Danes were commanded by Colonel Max Müller. A hard fight, where large parts of 1st Regiment were taken prisoner, stopped the Austrians, and the retreat could continue. The Danes lost more than 500 men there. After a short rest and some food and drink in Flensburg
, the 8th Brigade had to march to Sønderborg
where they were taken by ship to Fredericia
; the ship was so loaded that the men could not lie down, and on deck they had no shelter from the winter weather. Other units stayed in Dybbøl
; a report says that some were so exhausted on arrival that they lay on the ground in heaps three or four deep to sleep.
The combatless loss of the Dannevirke
, which in the 19th century played a big role in Danish national mythology due to its long history, caused in Denmark a substantial psychological shock, and de Meza as a result had to resign from supreme command. Denmark never again ruled the Dannevirke. The Austrians, under Ludwig Karl Wilhelm von Gablenz, marched north from Flensburg
, while the Prussians advanced east on Sønderborg
.
On 18 February 1864, some Prussian hussar
s, in the excitement of a cavalry skirmish, crossed the north frontier of Schleswig into Denmark proper and occupied the town of Kolding
. An invasion of Denmark itself had not been part of the original programme of the allies. Bismarck determined to use this circumstance to revise the whole situation. He urged upon Austria the necessity for a strong policy, so as to settle once for all not only the question of the duchies but the wider question of the German Confederation; and Austria reluctantly consented to press the war.
The Austrian army decided to stop at the north frontier of Schleswig. Some Prussians moved against Kolding
and Vejle
. On 22 February 1864, Prussian troops attacked the Danish forward line at Dybbøl
, pushing them back to the main defence line.
pushed the Austrians into moving into Denmark proper. Austrian forces capture Vejle
after fierce house-to-house combat. The Danish units involved retreated to Horsens
and later to Vendsyssel
. In Fredericia
, the Danish 8th Brigade's 20th Regiment was involved in a bigger skirmish: the regiment's first Company were captured near Snoghøj
, on the mainland near where the Middelfart
bridge is now. The rest of Fredericia's garrison retreated to Fyn
.
A fresh agreement was signed between the powers on March 11, under which the compacts of 1852 were declared to be no longer valid, and the position of the duchies within the Danish monarchy as a whole was to be made the subject of a friendly understanding. Four days later Prussian siege artillery began to bombard the Danish fortifications at Dybbøl
from positions at Broager
. On 17 March 1864, the Prussian army drives back the Danish outposts in front of Dybbøl; in the same day, in the naval Battle of Jasmund also known as the Battle of Rügen, a Prussian naval force attempted to break the Danish naval blockade of Schleswig and Holstein, but was pushed back to Swinemünde. Dybbøl was again attacked on 28 March 1864 but in vain.
In the Treaty of Vienna
, 30 October 1864, Denmark ceded Schleswig
, Holstein
and Lauenburg to Prussia
and Austria
. Denmark was also forced to surrender the enclaves in western Schleswig that were legally part of Denmark proper and not part of Schleswig, but was allowed to keep the island of Ærø
(which had been administered as part of Schleswig), the town of Ribe
and its surrounding land, and eight parishes from Tyrstrup
Herred south of Kolding. As a result of the peace settlement, the land area of the Danish monarchy decreased by 40% and the total population reduced from 2.6 million to 1.6 million (about 38.5%). The Danish frontier had retreated about 250 km as measured from the furthest corner of the Duchy of Lauenburg to the new frontier on the Kongeå
river.
When the Danish army returned to Copenhagen
after this war, they received no cheering or other public acclaim, unlike on their victorious return after the First Schleswig War.
, and which contributed to a perception in the German states that Prussia was the only state that could defend the other German states against external aggression. (See Unification of Germany
.) Prussia and Austria took over the respective administration of Schleswig and Holstein under the Gastein Convention
of 14 August 1865. About 200,000 Danes came under German rule.
The Peace of Prague
in 1866 confirmed Denmark's cession of the two duchies but promised a plebiscite to decide whether north Schleswig wished to return to Danish rule. This provision was unilaterally set aside by a resolution of Prussia and Austria in 1878.
The Second Schleswig War shocked Denmark out of any idea of using war as a political tool. Danish forces were not involved in war outside their frontiers until the 1999 NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It became clear that against the might of Germany, Denmark could not assert her survival with her own arms; this played a crucial role in the "adjustment policy" and later "Cooperation policy" during the Nazi-German occupation in World War II
.
Since Sweden (and Norway) refused to come to Denmark's rescue, although the Swedish king promised troops, this put an end to any dreams of political Scandinavism
. As a consequence, the pan-Scandinavian movement after this year focused on literature and language, rather than politics.
There is little doubt that the defeat was a traumatising event for Denmark, which lost much population and rich parts of the country; but some of the most "ethnically Danish" parts of this "lost land" were returned to Denmark by the Treaty of Versailles
.
From a Danish perspective, perhaps the most grievous consequence of the defeat was that thousands of Danes living in the ceded lands were conscripted into the German army in World War I
and suffered huge casualties on the Western Front
. This is still (though waning in time as the children of the conscripted men are dying out) a cause of resentment among many families in the southern parts of Jutland and the direct reason why a German offer of a joint 100 years anniversary in 1966 was rejected.
In Germany, the Battle of Dybbøl and the Second War of Schleswig have largely vanished out of public consciousness.
wrote about the war and its effects on the island of Als in his novel Tine, published in 1889. The book has been translated into many languages, including English, and is considered to be an example of an impressionist
novel.
In his novel The Riddle of the Sands
(1903), Irish novelist Erskine Childers
refers to the Dybbøl
, when protagonists Davies and Carruthers encounter the (then present) German victory monument during a stop at Sønderborg
on their Baltic
yachting expedition.
Schleswig-Holstein Question
The Schleswig-Holstein Question was a complex of diplomatic and other issues arising in the 19th century from the relations of two duchies, Schleswig and Holstein , to the Danish crown and to the German Confederation....
. It began on 1 February 1864, when Prussian forces crossed the border into Schleswig.
Denmark fought Prussia
Kingdom of Prussia
The Kingdom of Prussia was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918. Until the defeat of Germany in World War I, it comprised almost two-thirds of the area of the German Empire...
and Austria
Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire was a modern era successor empire, which was centered on what is today's Austria and which officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria-Hungary, whose proclamation was a diplomatic move that elevated Hungary's status within the Austrian Empire...
. Like the First Schleswig War (1848–51), it was fought for control of the duchies because of succession disputes concerning the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg when the Danish king died without an heir acceptable to the German Confederation
German Confederation
The German Confederation was the loose association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to coordinate the economies of separate German-speaking countries. It acted as a buffer between the powerful states of Austria and Prussia...
. Decisive controversy arose due to the passing of the November Constitution, which integrated the Duchy of Schleswig into the Danish kingdom in violation of the London Protocol.
Reasons for the war were the ethnic controversy in Schleswig and the co-existence of conflicting political systems within the Danish unitary state.
The war ended on 30 October 1864, when the Treaty of Vienna
Treaty of Vienna (1864)
The Treaty of Vienna was a peace treaty signed on October 30, 1864 in Vienna between the Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Kingdom of Denmark. The treaty ended the Second War of Schleswig. Based on the terms of the treaty, Prussia would administer Schleswig and Austria would...
caused Denmark's cession of the Duchies of Schleswig
Schleswig
Schleswig or South Jutland is a region covering the area about 60 km north and 70 km south of the border between Germany and Denmark; the territory has been divided between the two countries since 1920, with Northern Schleswig in Denmark and Southern Schleswig in Germany...
, Holstein
Holstein
Holstein is the region between the rivers Elbe and Eider. It is part of Schleswig-Holstein, the northernmost state of Germany....
, and Saxe-Lauenburg to Prussia
Kingdom of Prussia
The Kingdom of Prussia was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918. Until the defeat of Germany in World War I, it comprised almost two-thirds of the area of the German Empire...
and Austria
Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire was a modern era successor empire, which was centered on what is today's Austria and which officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria-Hungary, whose proclamation was a diplomatic move that elevated Hungary's status within the Austrian Empire...
. It was the last victorious conflict of the Austrian Empire/Austria-Hungary in its history.
Background
The secessionist movement from Denmark of the large German majority in Holstein and southern Schleswig was suppressed in the First Schleswig War (1848–51), but the movement continued throughout the 1850s and 1860s, as Denmark attempted to integrate the Duchy of Schleswig into the Danish kingdom and proponents of the German unification expressed the wish to include the Danish-ruled duchies of Holstein and Schleswig in a 'Greater Germany'. Holstein was a part of the German ConfederationGerman Confederation
The German Confederation was the loose association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to coordinate the economies of separate German-speaking countries. It acted as a buffer between the powerful states of Austria and Prussia...
and before 1806 a German fief and completely German
Germans
The Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe. The English term Germans has referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages....
, whereas Schleswig was a Danish fief and linguistically mixed between German, Danish and North Frisian
North Frisian language
North Frisian is a minority language of Germany, spoken by about 10,000 people in North Frisia. The language is part of the larger group of the West Germanic Frisian languages.-Classification:...
. Originally Schleswig was homeland of the Angles
Angles
The Angles is a modern English term for a Germanic people who took their name from the ancestral cultural region of Angeln, a district located in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany...
; when, in the Viking Age
Viking Age
Viking Age is the term for the period in European history, especially Northern European and Scandinavian history, spanning the late 8th to 11th centuries. Scandinavian Vikings explored Europe by its oceans and rivers through trade and warfare. The Vikings also reached Iceland, Greenland,...
, Denmark tried to increase its influence, this was finally rejected by the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
after several wars with Denmark. However, the northern and middle parts of Schleswig (up to the Eckernförde Bay
Eckernförde Bay
Eckernförde Bay is a bay in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. It is about 16 km long and turns at the mouth, with the south bank on approximately ten km of the Bay of Kiel. The border with Kiel Fjord is at Bülker lighthouse...
) originally spoke Danish. But in modern times the language in the southern half shifted gradually to German. In parts of the west coast of Schleswig the population spoke one of the North Frisian dialects. Holstein stayed completely German.
German culture dominated in the clergy and nobility, while Danish had a lower social status. For centuries, when the rule of the king was absolute, these conditions had created few tensions. When ideas of democracy spread and national currents emerged about 1820, identification was mixed between Danish and German.
To that was added a grievance about tolls charged by Denmark on shipping passing through the Danish Straits
Danish straits
The Danish straits are the three channels connecting the Baltic Sea to the North Sea through the Kattegat and Skagerrak. They transect Denmark, and are not to be confused with the Denmark Strait between Greenland and Iceland...
between the Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
and the North Sea
North Sea
In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively...
. To avoid that expense, Prussia planned the Kiel Canal
Kiel Canal
The Kiel Canal , known as the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Kanal until 1948, is a long canal in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein.The canal links the North Sea at Brunsbüttel to the Baltic Sea at Kiel-Holtenau. An average of is saved by using the Kiel Canal instead of going around the Jutland Peninsula....
, which could not be built as long as Denmark ruled Holstein.
Much of the dispute focused on the heir of King Frederick VII of Denmark
Frederick VII of Denmark
Frederick VII was a King of Denmark. He reigned from 1848 until his death. He was the last Danish monarch of the older Royal branch of the House of Oldenburg and also the last king of Denmark to rule as an absolute monarch...
. In general terms, the Germans of Holstein and Schleswig supported the House of Augustenburg
Duke of Augustenborg
The House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg was a branch of the dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg of the House of Oldenburg. The line descended from Alexander, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg...
, a cadet branch of the Danish royal family, but the average Dane considered them too German and preferred the rival Glücksburg branch
Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg
The House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg , known as the House of Glücksburg for short, is a German ducal house, junior branches of which include the royal houses of Denmark and Norway, the deposed royal house of Greece, and the heir to the thrones of the Commonwealth realms The House...
with Prince Christian of Glücksburg
Christian IX of Denmark
Christian IX was King of Denmark from 16 November 1863 to 29 January 1906.Growing up as a prince of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, a junior branch of the House of Oldenburg which had ruled Denmark since 1448, Christian was originally not in the immediate line of succession to the Danish...
as the new sovereign. Prince Christian had served on the Danish side in the First Schleswig War in 1848-1851. At the time, the king of Denmark was also duke of the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig. In 1848, Denmark had received its first free constitution and at the same time (and partly as a consequence) had fought a civil war with the Germans of Schleswig-Holstein in which Prussia had intervened.
The peace treaty stipulated that the duchy of Schleswig should not be treated any differently from the duchy of Holstein in its relations with the Kingdom of Denmark. But during the revisions of the 1848 constitution in the late 1850s and early 1860s Holstein refused to acknowledge the revision, bringing a crisis in which the parliament in Copenhagen ratified the revision but Holstein did not. That was a clear breach of the 1851 peace treaty and gave Prussia and the German union a casus belli
Casus belli
is a Latin expression meaning the justification for acts of war. means "incident", "rupture" or indeed "case", while means bellic...
against Denmark.
Constitutional crisis
The adoption of the Constitution of Denmark in 1849 complicated matters further, as many Danes wished for the new democratic constitution to apply for all Danes, including those in Schleswig. The constitutions of Holstein and Schleswig were dominated by the Estates systemEstates of the realm
The Estates of the realm were the broad social orders of the hierarchically conceived society, recognized in the Middle Ages and Early Modern period in Christian Europe; they are sometimes distinguished as the three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and commoners, and are often referred to by...
, giving more power to the most affluent members of society, with the result that both Schleswig and Holstein were politically dominated by a predominantly German class of landowners. Thus two systems of government co-existed within the same state: democracy in Denmark, and absolutism in Schleswig and Holstein.
The three units were governed by one cabinet, consisting of liberal ministers of Denmark, who urged for economical and social reforms; and conservative ministers of the Holstein nobility, who opposed political reform. This caused a deadlock for practical lawmaking. Moreover, Danish opponents of this so-called Unitary State (Helstaten) feared that Holstein's presence in the government and simultaneous membership of the German Confederation would lead to increased German interference with Schleswig, or even in purely Danish affairs.
In Copenhagen, the Palace and most of the administration supported a strict adherence to the status quo. The same applied to foreign powers such as Great Britain, France and Russia, who would not accept a weakened Denmark in favour of Germany, nor a Prussia that had acquired Holstein with the important naval harbour of Kiel or controlled the entrance to the Baltic.
In 1858, the German Confederation
German Confederation
The German Confederation was the loose association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to coordinate the economies of separate German-speaking countries. It acted as a buffer between the powerful states of Austria and Prussia...
deposed the 'union constitution' of the Danish monarchy concerning Holstein and Lauenburg, which were members of the Confederation. The two duchies were henceforth without any constitution, while the 'union constitution' still applied to Schleswig and Denmark proper.
As the heirless King Frederick VII grew older, Denmark's successive National-Liberal cabinets became increasingly focused on maintaining control of Schleswig following the king's demise.
The king died in 1863 at a particularly critical time: work on the November Constitution for the joint affairs of Denmark and Schleswig had just been completed, with the draft awaiting his signature.
The new King, Christian IX
Christian IX of Denmark
Christian IX was King of Denmark from 16 November 1863 to 29 January 1906.Growing up as a prince of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, a junior branch of the House of Oldenburg which had ruled Denmark since 1448, Christian was originally not in the immediate line of succession to the Danish...
, felt compelled to sign the draft constitution on 18 November 1863, although expressing grave concerns in the process.
This action caused an outrage among the duchies' German population and a resolution was passed by the German Confederation at the initiative of the Prussian Prime Minister
Prime Minister of Prussia
The office of Minister President or Prime Minister of Prussia existed in one form or another from 1702 until the dissolution of Prussia in 1947. When Prussia was an independent kingdom the Minister President or Prime Minister functioned as the King's Chief Minister and presided over the Prussian...
Otto von Bismarck
Otto von Bismarck
Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg , simply known as Otto von Bismarck, was a Prussian-German statesman whose actions unified Germany, made it a major player in world affairs, and created a balance of power that kept Europe at peace after 1871.As Minister President of...
, calling for the occupation of Holstein by Confederate forces. The Danish government abandoned Holstein and pulled the Danish Army
Royal Danish Army
The Royal Danish Army is the land warfare branch of the Danish Defence Forces, together with the Danish Home Guard.For the last decade, the Royal Danish Army has undergone a massive transformation of structures, equipment and training methods, abandoning its traditional role of anti-invasion...
back to the border between Schleswig and Holstein. Most of it fortified itself behind the Danevirke
Danevirke
The Danevirke The Danevirke The Danevirke (modern Danish spelling: Dannevirke; in Old Norse Danavirki ; in German Danewerk ; is a system of Danish fortifications in Schleswig-Holstein (Northern Germany). This important linear defensive earthwork was constructed across the neck of the Cimbrian...
. This order to retreat without combat caused adverse comment among some Danish private soldiers, but the military circumstances made it wise to shorten the frontier needed to be defended. Also, as the administrations of Holstein and Lauenburg were members of the German Confederation, not pulling back might have caused a severe political crisis and perhaps war.
Strategy
There were so-called "flank positions" near EbeltoftEbeltoft
Ebeltoft is a town with a population of 7,559 on the central east coast of Denmark, located in Syddjurs municipality in Region Midtjylland on the Danish peninsula of Jutland....
(North), the fortified city of Fredericia
Fredericia
Fredericia is a town located in Fredericia municipality in the eastern part of the Jutland peninsula in Denmark, in a sub-region known locally as Trekanten, or The Triangle...
(center), and Dybbøl
Dybbøl
Dybbøl is a small town, with a population of 2,457 in the southeastern corner of South Jutland, Denmark. It is located around west of Sønderborg....
in the south designed to support the strategy of defending the peninsula of Jutland along the north-south axis using naval supremacy to move the army north-south and hence trap an invading army in futile marches between these flank positions. This would deny the (assumed superior) invader the chance of forcing the defenders into a decisive battle, and give the defenders the opportunity to swiftly mass and counter-attack weak enemy positions, besieging forces, or divided forces by shifting weight by sea transport. The political dimension of this strategy was to draw out the war and hence give time and opportunity for the "great powers" to intervene diplomatically — it was assumed that such an intervention would be to the advantage of (neutral) Denmark. This strategy had been successful in the First Schleswig War.
Unrealistic expectations of the potency of the Danish army and incompetence at the political level had overruled the command of the army's wishes to defend Jutland according to the above plan, and instead favoured a frontal defense of Jutland on or near the historical defense (and legendary border) line at the Danevirke
Danevirke
The Danevirke The Danevirke The Danevirke (modern Danish spelling: Dannevirke; in Old Norse Danavirki ; in German Danewerk ; is a system of Danish fortifications in Schleswig-Holstein (Northern Germany). This important linear defensive earthwork was constructed across the neck of the Cimbrian...
, near the city of Schleswig
Schleswig (city)
Schleswig is a town in the northeastern part of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. It is the capital of the Kreis Schleswig-Flensburg. It has a population of about 27,000, the main industries being leather and food processing...
in the south. Hence resources had been put into the Danevirke line and not into the flank positions, which stayed akin to battlefield fortifications rather than modern fortifications capable of withstanding a modern bombardment.
The problem with the Danevirke line was that perhaps it was relatively strong against a frontal assault, but the entire position could be easily encircled to the west and to the east (though with more difficulties). Hence defense along the Dannevirke line was, correctly, anticipated by the Danish high command to be a trap, in which its army would be surrounded and forced to give battle at hopeless odds.
When the Prusso-German army approached the "Danevirke line", the estuaries and marshes that had been planned to support the flanks were frozen solid in a hard winter and the command of the Danish army disobeyed orders and ordered a full, orderly retreat back north to "the old Dybbøl" and its ill-prepared flank position. There is little doubt that the command of the army did not believe that they could successfully repulse a well-prepared German siege and consequent assault on the Dybbøl position, and assumed that the political level would let the army be evacuated by sea and then fight the war on the principles of the north-south axis strategy.
But the political level did not appreciate the gravity of the situation, insisting on maintaining military presence in Schleswig and at the same time refused more modest German demands of peace. Hence the army was ordered to defend the Dybbøl position "to the last man", and consequently the siege of Dybbøl began.
Communications in the area
The only railways in 1864 in Denmark north of the KongeåKongeå
The river Kongeå defines the border between North and South Jutland in Jutland in Denmark.In 1864-1920 it was the border between Denmark and Germany....
were a line in Sjælland from Copenhagen
Copenhagen
Copenhagen is the capital and largest city of Denmark, with an urban population of 1,199,224 and a metropolitan population of 1,930,260 . With the completion of the transnational Øresund Bridge in 2000, Copenhagen has become the centre of the increasingly integrating Øresund Region...
to Korsør
Korsør
Korsør is a Danish town and port. It is out on the Great Belt, on the Zealand side, just south of where the Great Belt Bridge lands. It was the site of the municipal council of Korsør municipality - today it is part of Slagelse municipality...
, and one in northern Jutland
Jutland
Jutland , historically also called Cimbria, is the name of the peninsula that juts out in Northern Europe toward the rest of Scandinavia, forming the mainland part of Denmark. It has the North Sea to its west, Kattegat and Skagerrak to its north, the Baltic Sea to its east, and the Danish–German...
from Århus to the northwest. Any reinforcements for the Danevirke
Danevirke
The Danevirke The Danevirke The Danevirke (modern Danish spelling: Dannevirke; in Old Norse Danavirki ; in German Danewerk ; is a system of Danish fortifications in Schleswig-Holstein (Northern Germany). This important linear defensive earthwork was constructed across the neck of the Cimbrian...
from Copenhagen would have gone by rail to Korsør and thence by ship to Flensburg
Flensburg
Flensburg is an independent town in the north of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Flensburg is the centre of the region of Southern Schleswig...
, taking two or three days, if not hindered by storm or sea-ice. There was a good railway system in the duchies, but not further north than Flensburg
Flensburg
Flensburg is an independent town in the north of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Flensburg is the centre of the region of Southern Schleswig...
and Husum.
Schleswig city, Flensburg, Sønderborg
Sønderborg
Sønderborg Municipality , is a municipality in Region of Southern Denmark partially on the Jutland peninsula and partially on the island of Als in south Denmark, at the border with Germany. The municipality covers an area of , and has a total population of 76,236...
, and Dybbøl
Dybbøl
Dybbøl is a small town, with a population of 2,457 in the southeastern corner of South Jutland, Denmark. It is located around west of Sønderborg....
were all connected by a road paved with crushed rock, this being the route the army took. The same road continued from Flensburg to Fredericia
Fredericia
Fredericia is a town located in Fredericia municipality in the eastern part of the Jutland peninsula in Denmark, in a sub-region known locally as Trekanten, or The Triangle...
and Århus and this was the route later taken by the Prussian army when it invaded Jutland.
1863
On 18 November 1863, King Christian IXChristian IX of Denmark
Christian IX was King of Denmark from 16 November 1863 to 29 January 1906.Growing up as a prince of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, a junior branch of the House of Oldenburg which had ruled Denmark since 1448, Christian was originally not in the immediate line of succession to the Danish...
of Denmark signed the so-called "November constitution" establishing a shared law of succession and a common parliament for both Schleswig and Denmark. This was seen by the German Confederation
German Confederation
The German Confederation was the loose association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to coordinate the economies of separate German-speaking countries. It acted as a buffer between the powerful states of Austria and Prussia...
as a violation of the 1852 London Protocol. In response, on 24 December 1863, Saxon
Saxony
The Free State of Saxony is a landlocked state of Germany, contingent with Brandenburg, Saxony Anhalt, Thuringia, Bavaria, the Czech Republic and Poland. It is the tenth-largest German state in area, with of Germany's sixteen states....
and Hanoverian
Kingdom of Hanover
The Kingdom of Hanover was established in October 1814 by the Congress of Vienna, with the restoration of George III to his Hanoverian territories after the Napoleonic era. It succeeded the former Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg , and joined with 38 other sovereign states in the German...
troops marched into Holstein on behalf of the Confederation. Supported by the German soldiers and by loyal Holsteiners, Frederick VIII, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein
Frederick VIII, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein
Duke Frederick VIII , succeeded nominally as the Duke of Schleswig-Holstein from 1863 while Prussia actually took overlordship and real administrative power.-Life:...
took control of the government of Holstein.
January
- For further political events, see History of Schleswig-Holstein.
In January the situation remained tense but without fighting; Danish forces controlled the north bank of the Eider River
Eider River
The Eider is the longest river of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. The river starts near Bordesholm and reaches the southwestern outskirts of Kiel on the shores of the Baltic Sea, but flows to the west, ending in the North Sea...
and German forces the south bank. On 16 January 1864, Bismarck issued an ultimatum to Denmark demanding that the November Constitution should be abolished within 48 hours. This was politically impossible, particularly given the short deadline, and the demand was consequently rejected by the Danish government.
All the inland waters (Eider River
Eider River
The Eider is the longest river of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. The river starts near Bordesholm and reaches the southwestern outskirts of Kiel on the shores of the Baltic Sea, but flows to the west, ending in the North Sea...
, Treene, Schlei
Schlei
The Schlei is a narrow inlet of the Baltic Sea in Schleswig-Holstein in northern Germany. It stretches for approximately 20 miles from the Baltic near Kappeln and Arnis to the city of Schleswig. Along the Schlei are many small bays and swamps...
, and the marshes east of Husum
Husum (Schleswig)
Husum is the capital of the Kreis Nordfriesland in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The town was the birthplace of the novelist Theodor Storm, who coined the epithet "the grey town by the sea"...
and around the Rheider Au
Rheider Au
The Rheider Au is a tributary of the Treene. Its source is on the Geest near Schleswig. In the Viking period the route Eider - Treene - Rheider Au - Schlei served as a navigation way and/or transport or trade route between places to the north and the Baltic Sea, as commercial centres functioned ....
) that the Danes were relying on as defence to guard the flanks of the Dannevirke, were frozen hard and could be crossed easily.
February
At the start of the war, the Danish army consisted of about 38,000 men in four divisions. The 8th Brigade consisted of the 9th and 20th Regiments (approximately 1,600 soldiers each), mainly soldiers from the middle and west and north of JutlandJutland
Jutland , historically also called Cimbria, is the name of the peninsula that juts out in Northern Europe toward the rest of Scandinavia, forming the mainland part of Denmark. It has the North Sea to its west, Kattegat and Skagerrak to its north, the Baltic Sea to its east, and the Danish–German...
. About 36,000 men defended the Dannevirke, a job which it was said would have needed 50,000 men to do properly. The 1st Regiment had been changed from a battalion
Battalion
A battalion is a military unit of around 300–1,200 soldiers usually consisting of between two and seven companies and typically commanded by either a Lieutenant Colonel or a Colonel...
to a regiment
Regiment
A regiment is a major tactical military unit, composed of variable numbers of batteries, squadrons or battalions, commanded by a colonel or lieutenant colonel...
on 1 December 1863. http://regimentsmusik.dk/slesvigske%20krige.htm
The Prussian army had 37 battalions, 29 squadrons and 110 guns, approximately 38,400 men. The Austrian army had 20 battalions, 10 squadrons and 48 guns, approximately 23,000 men. During the war the Prussian army was strengthened with 64 guns and 20,000 men. The supreme commander for the Prussian-Austrian army was Field Marshal
Field Marshal
Field Marshal is a military rank. Traditionally, it is the highest military rank in an army.-Etymology:The origin of the rank of field marshal dates to the early Middle Ages, originally meaning the keeper of the king's horses , from the time of the early Frankish kings.-Usage and hierarchical...
Friedrich Graf von Wrangel
Friedrich Graf von Wrangel
Friedrich Heinrich Ernst Graf von Wrangel was a Generalfeldmarschall of the Prussian Army. He was nicknamed Papa Wrangel....
.
Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
n and Austrian
Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire was a modern era successor empire, which was centered on what is today's Austria and which officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria-Hungary, whose proclamation was a diplomatic move that elevated Hungary's status within the Austrian Empire...
troops crossed into Schleswig
Schleswig
Schleswig or South Jutland is a region covering the area about 60 km north and 70 km south of the border between Germany and Denmark; the territory has been divided between the two countries since 1920, with Northern Schleswig in Denmark and Southern Schleswig in Germany...
on 1 February 1864, and war became inevitable. The Austrians attacked towards the refortified Dannevirke
Danevirke
The Danevirke The Danevirke The Danevirke (modern Danish spelling: Dannevirke; in Old Norse Danavirki ; in German Danewerk ; is a system of Danish fortifications in Schleswig-Holstein (Northern Germany). This important linear defensive earthwork was constructed across the neck of the Cimbrian...
frontally while the Prussian forces struck the Danish fortifications at Mysunde
Missunde
Missunde is a village on the Schlei coast of Schwansen in Southern Schleswig in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, about 7 miles from Schleswig. It is part of the municipality Kosel. It has a ferry over the Schlei to Angeln. Knud Lavard built a fort there in 1120...
(on the Schlei
Schlei
The Schlei is a narrow inlet of the Baltic Sea in Schleswig-Holstein in northern Germany. It stretches for approximately 20 miles from the Baltic near Kappeln and Arnis to the city of Schleswig. Along the Schlei are many small bays and swamps...
coast of Schwansen
Schwansen
Schwansen is a peninsula in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, protruding into the Baltic Sea. It is located between the Eckernförde Bay in the south and the Schlei inlet in the north....
east of Schleswig
Schleswig (city)
Schleswig is a town in the northeastern part of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. It is the capital of the Kreis Schleswig-Flensburg. It has a population of about 27,000, the main industries being leather and food processing...
town), trying to bypass the Danevirke by crossing the frozen Schlei
Schlei
The Schlei is a narrow inlet of the Baltic Sea in Schleswig-Holstein in northern Germany. It stretches for approximately 20 miles from the Baltic near Kappeln and Arnis to the city of Schleswig. Along the Schlei are many small bays and swamps...
inlet, but in six hours could not take the Danish positions, and retreated.
In the Battle for Königshügel
Königshügel
Königshügel is a municipality in the district of Rendsburg-Eckernförde, in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany....
(Danish Kongshøj) on 3 February 1864, Austrian forces commanded by General Gondrecourt pushed the Danes back to the Dannevirke
Danevirke
The Danevirke The Danevirke The Danevirke (modern Danish spelling: Dannevirke; in Old Norse Danavirki ; in German Danewerk ; is a system of Danish fortifications in Schleswig-Holstein (Northern Germany). This important linear defensive earthwork was constructed across the neck of the Cimbrian...
. The Danish 6th Brigade had an important part. The battle was fought in a snowstorm at -10 °C.
Danish fighting against Austrians at Selk
Selk
Selk may refer to:*SELK, as a four-letter acronym, the Independent Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Germany .*Selk, an identification of the Egyptian goddess Isis...
and Kongshøj and Saksarmen on February 3, 1864 is described as follows:
A Danish military report dated 11 February 1864 describes incidents near Kongshøj
Königshügel
Königshügel is a municipality in the district of Rendsburg-Eckernförde, in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany....
and Vedelspang
Selk, Germany
Selk is a municipality in the district of Schleswig-Flensburg, in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany....
as follows:
On 5 February 1864, the Danish commander-in-chief, lieutenant general Christian Julius De Meza
Christian Julius De Meza
Christian Julius de Meza was the commander of the Danish army during the 1864 Second Schleswig War...
, abandoned the Dannevirke by night to avoid being surrounded and withdrew his army to Flensburg; 600 men were captured or killed, ten of them frozen to death; he was also forced to abandon important heavy artillery
Artillery
Originally applied to any group of infantry primarily armed with projectile weapons, artillery has over time become limited in meaning to refer only to those engines of war that operate by projection of munitions far beyond the range of effect of personal weapons...
.
The railway from the south to Flensburg
Flensburg
Flensburg is an independent town in the north of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Flensburg is the centre of the region of Southern Schleswig...
was never properly used during this evacuation and the Danish army only evacuated what men and horses could carry or pull by road, leaving behind much artillery
Artillery
Originally applied to any group of infantry primarily armed with projectile weapons, artillery has over time become limited in meaning to refer only to those engines of war that operate by projection of munitions far beyond the range of effect of personal weapons...
, most importantly heavy artillery.
Some hours later, the Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
ns and Austrians discovered the retreat and started to pursue. This withdrawal to Als and Dybbøl
Dybbøl
Dybbøl is a small town, with a population of 2,457 in the southeastern corner of South Jutland, Denmark. It is located around west of Sønderborg....
has gone down in Danish history as one of the worst that Danish soldiers have been exposed to. Some It was northwards in a north gale with driven snow, and most soldiers had had no rest for the last four days and nights:image. The march was burdened with artillery guns and supplies carts and had to be as slow as its slowest component. Men and horses had trouble standing. Horses could not carry or pull their loads properly because of the snow and ice; riders had to dismount and lead their horses. Artillery guns and carts overturned. The army had to march from the Danevirke to Flensburg
Flensburg
Flensburg is an independent town in the north of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Flensburg is the centre of the region of Southern Schleswig...
, which took about 14–18 hours. They also had to fight rearguard against pursuing Prussians and Austrians. Some men in sight of Flensburg were ordered to stop or go back to man checkpoints. Many men were missing at the roll call
Roll call
Roll call is the calling of the names of people from a list to determine the presence or absence of the listed people . The term applies to the calling itself, to the time moment of this procedure, and to a military signal that announces it Roll call is the calling of the names of people from a...
, and it was thought that the many Schleswig men among the soldiers would desert the march on the way and go home; but most of them came in that morning or the next morning.
Near Stolk-Helligbek
Stolk
Stolk is a municipality in the district of Schleswig-Flensburg, in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany....
, about 10 kilometers north of Schleswig, pursuing Austrians reached them, and in heavy fighting near Oversø
Oeversee
Oeversee is a municipality in the district of Schleswig-Flensburg, in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. It is situated approx. 10 km south of Flensburg. The Oeversee municipality was merged with Sankelmark on March 1, 2008. The new municipality is, however, still called Oeversee.Oeversee is part of the...
, the 9th and 20th Regiments of the 8th Brigade lost 600 men dead and injured and captured. On that day ten Danish soldiers died of hypothermia
Hypothermia
Hypothermia is a condition in which core temperature drops below the required temperature for normal metabolism and body functions which is defined as . Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of through biologic homeostasis or thermoregulation...
.
The Prussians crossed the frozen Schlei
Schlei
The Schlei is a narrow inlet of the Baltic Sea in Schleswig-Holstein in northern Germany. It stretches for approximately 20 miles from the Baltic near Kappeln and Arnis to the city of Schleswig. Along the Schlei are many small bays and swamps...
at Arnis
Arnis (town)
Arnis is a small town in the district of Schleswig-Flensburg, in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. It is part of the Amt Kappeln-Land. It was founded in 1667. The local Skipper's Church was erected in 1673. Arnis has a population of c. 300 and is the smallest town in Germany.-External links:...
on 6 February 1864, defeating the Danes there: map. Near Sankelmark
Sankelmark
Sankelmark is a former municipality in Schleswig-Holstein in Germany. It is about 5 miles south of Flensburg. There was a battle there in the Second War of Schleswig . On March 1, 2008 Sankelmark was incorporated into Oeversee.-External links:*...
(about eight kilometers south of Flensburg) pursuing Austrians caught up with the Danish rear party, consisting of the 1st and 11th regiments. The Danes were commanded by Colonel Max Müller. A hard fight, where large parts of 1st Regiment were taken prisoner, stopped the Austrians, and the retreat could continue. The Danes lost more than 500 men there. After a short rest and some food and drink in Flensburg
Flensburg
Flensburg is an independent town in the north of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Flensburg is the centre of the region of Southern Schleswig...
, the 8th Brigade had to march to Sønderborg
Sønderborg
Sønderborg Municipality , is a municipality in Region of Southern Denmark partially on the Jutland peninsula and partially on the island of Als in south Denmark, at the border with Germany. The municipality covers an area of , and has a total population of 76,236...
where they were taken by ship to Fredericia
Fredericia
Fredericia is a town located in Fredericia municipality in the eastern part of the Jutland peninsula in Denmark, in a sub-region known locally as Trekanten, or The Triangle...
; the ship was so loaded that the men could not lie down, and on deck they had no shelter from the winter weather. Other units stayed in Dybbøl
Dybbøl
Dybbøl is a small town, with a population of 2,457 in the southeastern corner of South Jutland, Denmark. It is located around west of Sønderborg....
; a report says that some were so exhausted on arrival that they lay on the ground in heaps three or four deep to sleep.
The combatless loss of the Dannevirke
Danevirke
The Danevirke The Danevirke The Danevirke (modern Danish spelling: Dannevirke; in Old Norse Danavirki ; in German Danewerk ; is a system of Danish fortifications in Schleswig-Holstein (Northern Germany). This important linear defensive earthwork was constructed across the neck of the Cimbrian...
, which in the 19th century played a big role in Danish national mythology due to its long history, caused in Denmark a substantial psychological shock, and de Meza as a result had to resign from supreme command. Denmark never again ruled the Dannevirke. The Austrians, under Ludwig Karl Wilhelm von Gablenz, marched north from Flensburg
Flensburg
Flensburg is an independent town in the north of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Flensburg is the centre of the region of Southern Schleswig...
, while the Prussians advanced east on Sønderborg
Sønderborg
Sønderborg Municipality , is a municipality in Region of Southern Denmark partially on the Jutland peninsula and partially on the island of Als in south Denmark, at the border with Germany. The municipality covers an area of , and has a total population of 76,236...
.
On 18 February 1864, some Prussian hussar
Hussar
Hussar refers to a number of types of light cavalry which originated in Hungary in the 14th century, tracing its roots from Serbian medieval cavalry tradition, brought to Hungary in the course of the Serb migrations, which began in the late 14th century....
s, in the excitement of a cavalry skirmish, crossed the north frontier of Schleswig into Denmark proper and occupied the town of Kolding
Kolding
Kolding is a Danish seaport located at the head of Kolding Fjord in Region of Southern Denmark . It is the site of the council Kolding Municipality. It is a transportation, commercial, and manufacturing centre, and has numerous industrial companies, principally geared towards shipbuilding...
. An invasion of Denmark itself had not been part of the original programme of the allies. Bismarck determined to use this circumstance to revise the whole situation. He urged upon Austria the necessity for a strong policy, so as to settle once for all not only the question of the duchies but the wider question of the German Confederation; and Austria reluctantly consented to press the war.
The Austrian army decided to stop at the north frontier of Schleswig. Some Prussians moved against Kolding
Kolding
Kolding is a Danish seaport located at the head of Kolding Fjord in Region of Southern Denmark . It is the site of the council Kolding Municipality. It is a transportation, commercial, and manufacturing centre, and has numerous industrial companies, principally geared towards shipbuilding...
and Vejle
Vejle
Vejle is a town in Denmark, in the southeast of the Jutland Peninsula at the head of Vejle Fjord, where the Vejle and Grejs Rivers and their valleys converge. It is the site of the councils of Vejle Municipality and the Region of Southern Denmark...
. On 22 February 1864, Prussian troops attacked the Danish forward line at Dybbøl
Dybbøl
Dybbøl is a small town, with a population of 2,457 in the southeastern corner of South Jutland, Denmark. It is located around west of Sønderborg....
, pushing them back to the main defence line.
March
On 8 March 1864, BismarckOtto von Bismarck
Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg , simply known as Otto von Bismarck, was a Prussian-German statesman whose actions unified Germany, made it a major player in world affairs, and created a balance of power that kept Europe at peace after 1871.As Minister President of...
pushed the Austrians into moving into Denmark proper. Austrian forces capture Vejle
Vejle
Vejle is a town in Denmark, in the southeast of the Jutland Peninsula at the head of Vejle Fjord, where the Vejle and Grejs Rivers and their valleys converge. It is the site of the councils of Vejle Municipality and the Region of Southern Denmark...
after fierce house-to-house combat. The Danish units involved retreated to Horsens
Horsens
Horsens is a Danish city in east Jutland. It is the site of the council of Horsens municipality. The city's population is 53,807 and the Horsens municipality's population is 82,835 ....
and later to Vendsyssel
Vendsyssel
Vendsyssel is the northernmost traditional district of Denmark and of Jutland. Being divided from mainland Jutland by the Limfjord, it is technically a part of the North Jutlandic Island. Vendsyssel is part of the North Denmark Region....
. In Fredericia
Fredericia
Fredericia is a town located in Fredericia municipality in the eastern part of the Jutland peninsula in Denmark, in a sub-region known locally as Trekanten, or The Triangle...
, the Danish 8th Brigade's 20th Regiment was involved in a bigger skirmish: the regiment's first Company were captured near Snoghøj
Snoghøj
Snoghøj is a southern suburb of Fredericia, Denmark , between Erritsø and Middelfart that developed because of the Højskole that was built there. The town has a population of nearly 3000 people, 16 snow days per year, and 97 rain days throughout the year...
, on the mainland near where the Middelfart
Middelfart
Middelfart is a town in central Denmark, with a population of 14,781 . The town is the municipal seat of Middelfart municipality on the island of Funen .-Overview:The Middelfart municipality has a population of 37,701 people as of 2011...
bridge is now. The rest of Fredericia's garrison retreated to Fyn
FYN
Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Fyn is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the FYN gene.This gene is a member of the protein-tyrosine kinase oncogene family. It encodes a membrane-associated tyrosine kinase that has been implicated in the control of cell growth...
.
A fresh agreement was signed between the powers on March 11, under which the compacts of 1852 were declared to be no longer valid, and the position of the duchies within the Danish monarchy as a whole was to be made the subject of a friendly understanding. Four days later Prussian siege artillery began to bombard the Danish fortifications at Dybbøl
Dybbøl
Dybbøl is a small town, with a population of 2,457 in the southeastern corner of South Jutland, Denmark. It is located around west of Sønderborg....
from positions at Broager
Broager
Broager is a town with a population of 3,376 in Sønderborg Municipality in Region of Southern Denmark in Denmark. It lies on the Broagerland peninsula, and is therefore surrounded by water on three sides, the waters of Flensborg Fjord leading into the Baltic Sea...
. On 17 March 1864, the Prussian army drives back the Danish outposts in front of Dybbøl; in the same day, in the naval Battle of Jasmund also known as the Battle of Rügen, a Prussian naval force attempted to break the Danish naval blockade of Schleswig and Holstein, but was pushed back to Swinemünde. Dybbøl was again attacked on 28 March 1864 but in vain.
April
- 2 April 1864: The Prussian front artillery batteries in front of Dybbøl start to bombard the fortifications and the town of SønderborgSønderborgSønderborg Municipality , is a municipality in Region of Southern Denmark partially on the Jutland peninsula and partially on the island of Als in south Denmark, at the border with Germany. The municipality covers an area of , and has a total population of 76,236...
. Until 18 April 1864, about 65,000 shells are fired at the Danish positions. - 4 April 1864: A Prussian attack on Dybbøl is thrown back.
- 18 April 1864: At 10 a.m. at DybbølDybbølDybbøl is a small town, with a population of 2,457 in the southeastern corner of South Jutland, Denmark. It is located around west of Sønderborg....
10,000 Prussian soldiers storm the Danish fortifications after six hours of artillery preparations and take Dybbøl fort. The Danish 8th Brigade fails a counter-attack but is praised for courage. 1,700 Danish casualties; this source says about Danish 5000 dead and wounded and captured, and about 1200 Prussian. See Battle of DybbølBattle of DybbølThe Battle of Dybbøl was the key battle of the Second War of Schleswig and occurred on the morning of 18 April 1864 following a siege lasting from 7 April. Denmark suffered a severe defeat against the German Confederation which decided the war...
. (18 April is a military memorial day in Denmark commemorating this defeat, including a ceremony on Dybbøl fort hill.) - 25 April 1864: The Danish army commanded by General Niels Christian Lunding, on direct order from the Minister of War, abandons FredericiaFredericiaFredericia is a town located in Fredericia municipality in the eastern part of the Jutland peninsula in Denmark, in a sub-region known locally as Trekanten, or The Triangle...
, which was besieged by Austrians. - 25 April 1864 - 25 June 1864: A conference in London about the political issues involved. For the discussions there, see History of Schleswig-Holstein#London conference.
May
- 9 May 1864: Naval Battle of Heligoland.
- 12 May 1864: The conference in London led to a ceasefire, which soon broke down, as they could not agree on a clear fixing of the boundaries; partitioningPartition (politics)In politics, a partition is a change of political borders cutting through at least one territory considered a homeland by some community. That change is done primarily by diplomatic means, and use of military force is negligible....
the duchy of Schleswig was seen as possible. War continued. Prussians from beside Dybbøl bombarded Sønderborg. - 26 May 1864: Prussian artillery fires on Als.
June
- 24 June 1864: Seeing that the truce was ending, Austria and Prussia arrived at a new agreement, that the war was to completely separate the duchies from Denmark.
- 25 June 1864: The conference in London broke up without having arrived at any conclusion.
- 29 June 1864: Battle of AlsBattle of AlsThe Battle of Als was fought on 29 June 1864 during the Second Schleswig War between Denmark and Prussia. It was the last major engagement of the war, as the Prussians under General Herwarth von Bittenfeld secured Als after a night attack masterminded by the Chief of Staff Leonhard Graf von...
. - 30 June 1864: The Prince's Life Regiment is the last of the Danish army to leave Schleswig and Holstein.
July
- 3 July 1864: A Danish force commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Charles Beck attacks a Prussian force at LundbyLundbyLundby may refer to:*Lundby , a Swedish maker of dollhouses*Lundby, Gothenburg, a suburb of Gothenburg, Sweden*Lundby, Örebro, a suburb of Örebro, Sweden*Lundby, Aalborg, a village near Gistrup in Aalborg Municipality, Denmark...
south of Ålborg in the north of Jutland. See Battle of LundbyBattle of LundbyThe Battle of Lundby happened south of Lundby in northeast Himmerland on 3 July 1864 in the Second War of Schleswig. A Danish company of the First Regiment tried a head-on bayonet charge down a long hillside, but stopped 20 meters in front of the earth dike that the Prussians lay in cover behind...
. This is the last battle in the Second Schleswig War. - 14 July 1864: The Prussian general Eduard Vogel von FalckensteinEduard Vogel von FalckensteinEduard Ernst Friedrich Hannibal Vogel von Falkenstein was a Prussian General der Infanterie.-Biography:...
signed his name in the church book at SkagenSkagenSkagen is a projection of land and a town, with a population of 8,515 , in Region Nordjylland on the northernmost tip of Vendsyssel-Thy, a part of the Jutland peninsula in northern Denmark...
at the north tip of JutlandJutlandJutland , historically also called Cimbria, is the name of the peninsula that juts out in Northern Europe toward the rest of Scandinavia, forming the mainland part of Denmark. It has the North Sea to its west, Kattegat and Skagerrak to its north, the Baltic Sea to its east, and the Danish–German...
. With this all of Jutland, the Danish mainland, was occupied by the Germans. Now also the Danish islands were endangered, and the Danish government had to again accept armistice and peace negotiations, now however under clearly more difficult conditions. - 29 July 1864: The Prussian armyPrussian ArmyThe Royal Prussian Army was the army of the Kingdom of Prussia. It was vital to the development of Brandenburg-Prussia as a European power.The Prussian Army had its roots in the meager mercenary forces of Brandenburg during the Thirty Years' War...
occupied Als.
August and after
The preliminaries of a peace treaty were signed on 1 August 1864: the King of Denmark renounced to all his rights in the duchies in favour of the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia.In the Treaty of Vienna
Treaty of Vienna (1864)
The Treaty of Vienna was a peace treaty signed on October 30, 1864 in Vienna between the Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Kingdom of Denmark. The treaty ended the Second War of Schleswig. Based on the terms of the treaty, Prussia would administer Schleswig and Austria would...
, 30 October 1864, Denmark ceded Schleswig
Schleswig
Schleswig or South Jutland is a region covering the area about 60 km north and 70 km south of the border between Germany and Denmark; the territory has been divided between the two countries since 1920, with Northern Schleswig in Denmark and Southern Schleswig in Germany...
, Holstein
Holstein
Holstein is the region between the rivers Elbe and Eider. It is part of Schleswig-Holstein, the northernmost state of Germany....
and Lauenburg to Prussia
Kingdom of Prussia
The Kingdom of Prussia was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918. Until the defeat of Germany in World War I, it comprised almost two-thirds of the area of the German Empire...
and Austria
Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire was a modern era successor empire, which was centered on what is today's Austria and which officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria-Hungary, whose proclamation was a diplomatic move that elevated Hungary's status within the Austrian Empire...
. Denmark was also forced to surrender the enclaves in western Schleswig that were legally part of Denmark proper and not part of Schleswig, but was allowed to keep the island of Ærø
Ærø
Ærø is one of the Danish Baltic Sea islands, and part of Region of Southern Denmark. The western portion of the island was the municipality of Ærøskøbing; the eastern portion of the island was the municipality of Marstal...
(which had been administered as part of Schleswig), the town of Ribe
Ribe
Ribe , the oldest extant Danish town, is in southwest Jutland and has a population of 8,192 . Until 1 January 2007, it was the seat of both the surrounding municipality, and county...
and its surrounding land, and eight parishes from Tyrstrup
Christiansfeld Municipality
Christiansfeld Municipality existed until January 1, 2007, in South Jutland County. It was named after Christiansfeld. The municipality covered an area of 211 km², and had a total population of 9,585 . Its last mayor was Jørgen From, a member of the Venstre political party...
Herred south of Kolding. As a result of the peace settlement, the land area of the Danish monarchy decreased by 40% and the total population reduced from 2.6 million to 1.6 million (about 38.5%). The Danish frontier had retreated about 250 km as measured from the furthest corner of the Duchy of Lauenburg to the new frontier on the Kongeå
Kongeå
The river Kongeå defines the border between North and South Jutland in Jutland in Denmark.In 1864-1920 it was the border between Denmark and Germany....
river.
When the Danish army returned to Copenhagen
Copenhagen
Copenhagen is the capital and largest city of Denmark, with an urban population of 1,199,224 and a metropolitan population of 1,930,260 . With the completion of the transnational Øresund Bridge in 2000, Copenhagen has become the centre of the increasingly integrating Øresund Region...
after this war, they received no cheering or other public acclaim, unlike on their victorious return after the First Schleswig War.
Aftermath
In the Prussian forces' first clash of arms since reorganization, their effectiveness proved clear, something the Austrians ignored, to their cost 18 months later in the Austro-Prussian WarAustro-Prussian War
The Austro-Prussian War was a war fought in 1866 between the German Confederation under the leadership of the Austrian Empire and its German allies on one side and the Kingdom of Prussia with its German allies and Italy on the...
, and which contributed to a perception in the German states that Prussia was the only state that could defend the other German states against external aggression. (See Unification of Germany
Unification of Germany
The formal unification of Germany into a politically and administratively integrated nation state officially occurred on 18 January 1871 at the Versailles Palace's Hall of Mirrors in France. Princes of the German states gathered there to proclaim Wilhelm of Prussia as Emperor Wilhelm of the German...
.) Prussia and Austria took over the respective administration of Schleswig and Holstein under the Gastein Convention
Gastein Convention
In diplomacy, the Gastein Convention, also called the Convention of Badgastein, a treaty signed at Bad Gastein in Austria on August 20, 1865, embodied agreements between the two principal powers of the German Confederation, Prussia and Austria, over the governing of the provinces of Schleswig and...
of 14 August 1865. About 200,000 Danes came under German rule.
The Peace of Prague
Peace of Prague (1866)
The Peace of Prague was a peace treaty signed at Prague on 23 August 1866, which ended the Austro-Prussian War. The treaty was lenient toward the Austrian Empire because Otto von Bismarck had persuaded William I that maintaining Austria's place in Europe would be better in the future for Prussia...
in 1866 confirmed Denmark's cession of the two duchies but promised a plebiscite to decide whether north Schleswig wished to return to Danish rule. This provision was unilaterally set aside by a resolution of Prussia and Austria in 1878.
The Second Schleswig War shocked Denmark out of any idea of using war as a political tool. Danish forces were not involved in war outside their frontiers until the 1999 NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It became clear that against the might of Germany, Denmark could not assert her survival with her own arms; this played a crucial role in the "adjustment policy" and later "Cooperation policy" during the Nazi-German occupation in World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
.
Since Sweden (and Norway) refused to come to Denmark's rescue, although the Swedish king promised troops, this put an end to any dreams of political Scandinavism
Scandinavism
Scandinavism and Nordism are literary and political movements that support various degrees of cooperation between the Scandinavian or Nordic countries...
. As a consequence, the pan-Scandinavian movement after this year focused on literature and language, rather than politics.
There is little doubt that the defeat was a traumatising event for Denmark, which lost much population and rich parts of the country; but some of the most "ethnically Danish" parts of this "lost land" were returned to Denmark by the Treaty of Versailles
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
.
From a Danish perspective, perhaps the most grievous consequence of the defeat was that thousands of Danes living in the ceded lands were conscripted into the German army in World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
and suffered huge casualties on the Western Front
Western Front (World War I)
Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining military control of important industrial regions in France. The tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne...
. This is still (though waning in time as the children of the conscripted men are dying out) a cause of resentment among many families in the southern parts of Jutland and the direct reason why a German offer of a joint 100 years anniversary in 1966 was rejected.
In Germany, the Battle of Dybbøl and the Second War of Schleswig have largely vanished out of public consciousness.
In literature
Danish author Herman BangHerman Bang
Herman Joachim Bang was a Danish author, one of the men of the Modern Breakthrough.-Biography:Bang was born into a noble family of Asserballe, on the small Danish island of Als, the son of a South Jutlandic vicar...
wrote about the war and its effects on the island of Als in his novel Tine, published in 1889. The book has been translated into many languages, including English, and is considered to be an example of an impressionist
Impressionism
Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement that originated with a group of Paris-based artists whose independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s...
novel.
In his novel The Riddle of the Sands
The Riddle of the Sands
The Riddle of the Sands: A Record of Secret Service is a 1903 novel by Erskine Childers. It is an early example of the espionage novel, with a strong underlying theme of militarism...
(1903), Irish novelist Erskine Childers
Robert Erskine Childers
Robert Erskine Childers DSC , universally known as Erskine Childers, was the author of the influential novel Riddle of the Sands and an Irish nationalist who smuggled guns to Ireland in his sailing yacht Asgard. He was executed by the authorities of the nascent Irish Free State during the Irish...
refers to the Dybbøl
Battle of Dybbøl
The Battle of Dybbøl was the key battle of the Second War of Schleswig and occurred on the morning of 18 April 1864 following a siege lasting from 7 April. Denmark suffered a severe defeat against the German Confederation which decided the war...
, when protagonists Davies and Carruthers encounter the (then present) German victory monument during a stop at Sønderborg
Sønderborg
Sønderborg Municipality , is a municipality in Region of Southern Denmark partially on the Jutland peninsula and partially on the island of Als in south Denmark, at the border with Germany. The municipality covers an area of , and has a total population of 76,236...
on their Baltic
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
yachting expedition.
Sources
- Strobl von Ravelsberg, Max. (Ed.)(1908). Schleswig-Holstein meerumschlungen. Wien: L.W. Seidel & Sohn.
External links
- Danish Military History - Schleswig Wars in English and Danish
- Danish Military History - Article about the war of 1864.
- Danish Navy History - Account of Danish naval operations during the war of 1864.
- The Danish army's 8th Brigade
- Holstein regiment moves out of the fortress in Rendsburg
- Detailed map of area round Schleswig town
- Map of east part of Danevirke.
