United States Army Air Service
Encyclopedia
The Air Service, United States Army was a forerunner of the United States Air Force
during and after World War I
. It was established as an independent but temporary wartime branch of the War Department
by two executive orders of President Woodrow Wilson
: on May 24, 1918, replacing the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
as the nation's air force; and March 19, 1919, establishing a military Director of Air Service to control all aviation activities. Its life was extended for another year in July 1919, during which time Congress passed the legislation necessary to make it a permanent establishment. The National Defense Act of 1920 assigned the Air Service the status of "combatant arm of the line" of the United States Army
, with a major general
in command.
In France, the Air Service of the American Expeditionary Force
began combat operations in the spring of 1918. By the end of the war, the Air Service used 45 squadrons to cover 137 kilometers of front from Pont-à-Mousson
to Sedan
. 71 pursuit pilots were credited with shooting down five or more German aircraft while in American service. Overall the Air Service destroyed 756 enemy aircraft and 76 balloons in combat. 17 balloon companies also operated at the front, making 1,642 combat ascensions. 289 airplanes and 48 balloons were lost in battle.
The Air Service was the first form of the air force to have its own organizational structure and identity. Although officers concurrently held rank in various branches, after May 1918 their designation in orders and other official correspondence changed from ASSC (Aviation Section, Signal Corps) to AS, USA (Air Service, United States Army). After July 1, 1920, its personnel became members of the Air Service branch, receiving new commissions. During the war its responsibilities and functions were split between two coordinate agencies, the Department of Military Aeronautics (DMA) and the Bureau of Aircraft Production (BAP), each reporting directly to the Secretary of War, creating a dual authority over military aviation that caused unity of command difficulties.
The seven-year history of the post-war Air Service was marked by a prolonged debate between adherents of airpower and the supporters of the traditional military services about the value of an independent Air Force. Airmen such as Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell supported the concept. The Army's senior leadership from World War I
, the United States Navy
, and the majority of the nation's political leadership favored integrating all military aviation into the Army and Navy, and aided by the wave of pacifism following the war that drastically cut military budgets, prevailed.
and Division of Military Aeronautics
to vastly increase the appropriations for the Aviation Section of the Signal Corps
in 1916, it nevertheless tabled a bill
proposing an aviation department incorporating all aspects of military aviation. The declaration of war
against Germany
on April 6, 1917, putting the United States in World War I
, came too quickly (less than eight months after its return from Mexico chasing Pancho Villa
) to solve emerging engineering and production problems. The reorganization of the Aviation Section had been inadequate in resolving problems in training, leaving the United States totally unprepared to fight an air war in Europe. The Aviation Section section consisted of 131 officers, 1087 enlisted men, and approximately 280 airplanes.The airplane figure is variously given as 250 (A History of the United States Air Force, 1907-1957, Alfred Goldberg, editor; USAF Historical Study 138) to 280 by Hennessy. In any case, the Aviation Section had more than twice as many aircraft as pilots to fly them.
The administration of President Woodrow Wilson
created an advisory Aircraft Production Board in May 1917, consisting of members of the Army, Navy, and industry, to study the Europeans' experience in aircraft production and the standardization of aircraft parts. Congress passed a series of legislation in the next three months that appropriated huge sums for development of military aviation, including the largest single appropriation
for a single purpose to that time, $640 millionApproximately $11.3 billion in 2011 dollars. US Inflation Calculator in the Aviation Act (40 Stat. 243), passed July 24, 1917. By the time the bill passed, the term Air Service was in widespread if unofficial usage to collectively describe all aspects of Army aviation.
Although it considered creation of a separate aviation department, both the War
and the Navy Departments
opposed it, and on October 1, 1917, Congress instead legalized the existence of the APB and changed its name to the "Aircraft Board
", transferring its functions from the Council of National Defense
to the secretaries of War and the Navy. Even so, the Aircraft Board in practice had little control over procurement contracts and functioned mostly as an information clearinghouse between the various involved business, governmental, and military entities. Moreover, the airplane of World War I was not suitable to the mass production
methods of the automotive industry
and the priority of mass producing spare parts was neglected. Though individual areas within the aviation industry responded well, the industry as a whole failed. Efforts to mass produce European aircraft under license largely failed. At the same time the Aeronautical Division
of the Office of the Chief Signal Officer (OCSO) became the Air Division with the same responsibility for training and operations.
As a result, the board came under severe criticism for failure to meet goals or its own claims of aircraft production, followed by a highly publicized personal investigation by Gutzon Borglum
, a harshly vocal critic of the board. Borglum had exchanged letters with President Wilson, a personal friend, from which he assumed an appointment to investigate had been authorized, which the administration soon denied. Both the U.S. Senate
and the Department of Justice
began investigations into possible fraudulent dealings. President Wilson also acted by appointing a Director of Aircraft Production on April 28, 1918, and abolished the Air Division of the OCSO, creating a Division of Military Aeronautics (DMA) under Brigadier General William L. Kenly
, to separate supervision of aviation from the duties of the Chief Signal Officer. Less than a month later, Wilson used a provision of the Overman Act
of May 20, 1918, to issue Executive Order No. 2862 that removed the DMA entirely from the Signal Corps (reporting directly to the Secretary of War), and assigned it the function of procuring and training a combat force. In addition, the executive order created a Bureau of Aircraft Production (BAP) as a separate executive bureau to provide the aircraft needed.
This arrangement lasted only until the War Department implemented the executive order on May 24 by issuing General Order No. 51 to coordinate the two independent agencies, with an eventual goal of creating a Director of Air Service. (The term "Air Service" had been in use in France since June 13, 1917, to describe the function of aviation units attached to the American Expeditionary Force.) It delayed the appointment of a director as long as the BAP operated as a separate executive bureau. In August, the Senate completed its investigation of the Aircraft Board, and while it found no criminal culpability, it reported that massive waste and delay in production had occurred. As a result, the Director of Aircraft Production (who was also chairman of the Aircraft Board), John D. Ryan, was appointed to the vacant position of Second Assistant Secretary of War and designated as Director of Air Service, nominally in charge of the DMA. The Department of Justice report followed two months later and also blamed the delays on administrative and organizational deficiencies in the Aviation Section. Ryan's appointment came too late for any effective consolidation of both agencies, continuing an obstructive division of authority that was never resolved during the war.
Following the Armistice, Ryan resigned on November 27, leaving both the BAP and DMA, as well as the original Aircraft Board, leaderless. In addition certain powers, primarily those of dealing legally with the government-owned Spruce Production Corporation
, had been delegated to Ryan by name, not to his position as Director of Aircraft Production, and as such could not be legally conferred on any successor. Maj. Gen. Charles Menoher was appointed to the vacancy on January 2, 1919, but the patchwork nature of laws and executive orders that had created the various parts of the Air Service prevented him from exercising all their legal powers and ending the unity of command problems caused by dual authority.
May 7–11 to study Canada
's pilot training program. The Chief Signal Officer assigned Major Hiram Bingham III
, an adventurer and reserve officer on the faculty of Yale
, to organize a training program on the Canadian model. A three-phase Aviation CadetAll cadets were enlisted into the Signal Corps or Reserve Signal Corps in the rank of private first class
only for the duration of pilot training. Those that washed out were discharged and subject to the draft. program came into being, and although systematic, pressing needs for manpower saw many overlaps of the phases.
The first phase was an eight-week ground school course conducted by the Schools of Military Aeronautics Division, organized at the six (later eight) American universities,The initial six were the University of California
, Cornell
, Illinois, MIT
, Ohio State
, and Texas
. Princeton
and Georgia Tech
were added shortly after. and commanded by Bingham. The first class at the ground schools began 21 May 1917 and concluded 14 July 1917, graduating 147 cadets and enrolling another 1,430.Bingham's memoir An Explorer in the Air Service stated that the number of graduates in the first class was 132. By mid-November, 3,140 had graduated and more than 500 had become rated officers.
Out of more than 40,000 applicants, 22,689 were accepted and 17,540 completed ground school training. Approximately 15,000 advanced to primary flight training, a six-to-eight week courseThe course of study could not "be predetermined as to length", dependent "in large measure on the weather, the supply of 'spares', and a man's own ability". Air Service Journal, September 27, 1917, Vol. I, No. 12, p. 370. conducted by both military and civilian flying instructors, using variants of the Curtiss Jenny as the primary trainer. Primary flying training school usually produced a candidate for commissioning in 15 to 25 hours of flight. At the assurance of the French that they could be rapidly trained in all phases, up to 500 cadets a month were sent to Europe to undertake the entire flying portion of their training in Great Britain
, France
, and Italy
. In December 1917, after receiving 1,060 cadets, the French requested that further movement of cadets be halted because of training backlogs of as much as six months, and no further trainees were sent to France until they had completed their primary training and been commissioned. Most were used as cooks, guards, laborers and other menial jobs, while paid at cadet salary, for which they became derisively known as the "Million-Dollar Guard".Maurer (1978), Vol. I, p. 94. Bingham (1920), p. 80, gives the number as 1,800. Bingham stated that the cadets sent to France had been Honor Graduates of the ground course. The failure of the French to train these best candidates came as a bitter disappointment to the Air Service and was extremely detrimental to their morale. The backlog was finally cleared by opening an Air Service primary school at Tours
.
8,688 new first lieutenants in the Signal Officers Reserve Corps (S.O.R.C.) received ratings of Reserve Military Aviator in the United States and were assigned to newly created squadrons or as instructors. 1,609 more were commissioned in Europe,999 were commissioned in France, 406 in Italy, and 204 in Britain. In addition, 178 graduated from RAF schools in Canada, and 975 graduated from schools in France between the armistice and January 1919. with their commissions eventually backdated to those of their peers trained in the United States. Pilots in Europe completed an advanced phase in which they received specialized training in pursuit, bombing, or observation at Air Service schools acquired from the French at Issoudun
, Clermont-Ferrand
, and Tours, respectively.
By November 11, 1918, the Air Service both overseas and domestically had 195,024 personnel (20,568 officers; 174,456 enlisted men) and 7,900 aircraft, constituting five per cent of the United States Army. 32,520 personnel served in the Bureau of Aircraft Production and the remainder in the Division of Military Aeronautics. The Air Service commissioned over 17,000 reserve officers. More than 10,000 mechanics were trained to service the American aircraft fleet. Of aircraft manufactured in America, the de Havilland DH-4B (3,400) was the most numerous, although only 1,213 were shipped overseas, and only 1,087 of those assembled, most used in observation units. The facilities of the Air Service in the United States totaled 40 flying fields, 8 balloon fields, 5 schools of military aeronautics,The five "schools of military aeronautics" still operating at the armistice were at Cornell, Princeton, Texas, Cal, and Illinois. 6 technical schools, and 14 aircraft depots. 16 additional training schools were located in France, and officers also trained at three schools operated by the Allies.
Assigned overseas in the American Expeditionary Force
, the air arm totaled 78,507 (7,738 officers and 70,769 enlisted men) at the armistice. Of this total, 58,090 served in France; 20,075 in England; and 342 in Italy. Balloon troops made up approximately 17,000 of the Air Service, with 6,811 in France, conducting and supporting the dangerous duty of spotting for the artillery at the front.
During the first year of U.S. participation in World War I
, aviation units had been created and deployed without organization. Upon his arrival in France in June 1917, American Expeditionary Force
commanding general John J. Pershing
met with Lieutenant Colonel
Billy Mitchell. Sent to Europe in March 1917 as an observer, Mitchell arrived in Paris just four days after the United States declared war and established an office for the American "air service." He advised Pershing that it was ready to proceed with any project Pershing might require. Pershing's aviation officer, Major
Townsend F. Dodd, first used the term "Air Service" in a memo to the chief of staff of the AEF on 20 June 1917. The term also appeared on July 5, 1917, in "AEF General Order No. 8," in tables detailing staff organization and duties. Mitchell replaced Dodd on 30 June 1917, with the position renamed "chief of air service" and duties described. After the G.O. 31 actually created the Air Service, AEF, and Kenly made chief, Mitchell remained as ex officio chief through his influence on Kenly. Brig. Gen. Benjamin Foulois
replaced Kenly on 27 November 1917, and arrived in France with a large but untrained staff, resulting in considerable resentment from Mitchell's smaller staff already in place.
Pershing restated the responsibilities of the "Air Service, AEF" with General Order No. 81, May 29, 1918, in which he named a West Point classmate and non-aviator, Major General
Mason Patrick
as Chief of Air Service, AEF. Air Service staff planning had been inefficient, with considerable internal friction as well as conflict between its members and those of Pershing's General Staff. Aircraft and unit totals lagged far behind those promised in 1917. Considerable house-cleaning of the existing staff resulted from Patrick's appointment, bringing in experienced staff officers to administrate, and tightening up lines of communication.The situation at Air Service headquarters was described as "a tangled mess" before Patrick brought order.
Pershing had in September 1917 called for creation of 260 U.S. air combat squadrons by December 1918, but slowness of the buildup reduced that on August 17, 1918, to a final plan for 202 by June 1919. In Pershing's view, the two functions of the AEF's Air Service were to repel German aircraft and conduct observation of enemy movements. The heart of the proposed force would be its 101 observation squadrons (52 corps observation and 49 army observation), to be distributed to three armies and 16 corps. In addition, 60 pursuit squadrons, 27 night-bombardment squadrons, and 14 day-bombardment squadrons were to conduct supporting operations.
Without the time or infrastructure in the United States to equip units to send overseas using aircraft designed and built in the U.S., the AEF Air Service ordered Allied aircraft designs already in service with the French and British air services. On August 30, 1917, the American and French governments agreed to a contract in which France would provide the Air Service AEF, with 1,500 Breguet 14 B.2
bombers and reconnaissance planes; 2,000 SPAD XIII fighters; and 1,500 Nieuport 28
pursuits. Ultimately the AEF received 4,874 aircraft from France, 258 from Great Britain, 19 from Italy, and 1,213 of American manufacture, for a total of 6,364 airplanes. 1,664 were classed as training craft.
The primary aircraft employed were the SPAD XIII (877 combat sorties), Nieuport 28 (181), and SPAD VII
(103) as pursuit aircraft, the DeHaviland DH-4B (696) and Breguet 14 (87) for daylight bombing, and the DH-4 and Salmson 2 A.2
(557 sorties) for observation and photo reconnaissance. The SE-5 operated as the main trainer for the Air Service. Balloon companies operated the French-designed Goodyear
Type R observation balloon
, a winch-tethered, hydrogen
-filled, captive "Caquot" balloon of 32,200 cubic-foot (912 cubic meters) capacity, using one balloon per company.Pershing requested 125 balloon companies, and the United States manufactured nearly a thousand Caquot balloons in 1918-1919.
The United States adopted a national insignia for all military aircraft in May 1917 using the colors specified for the U.S. flag, consisting of a white five-pointed star inside of a blue circumscribed circle, with a red circle in the center of the star having a diameter tangent to the pentagon of the interior points of the star. The insignia was ordered painted on both wingtips of the upper surface of the top wing, the lower surface of bottom wings, and the fuselage of all Army aircraft on 17 May 1917. However due to concerns about confusion with the markings of enemy aircraft, in early 1918 a red, blue, and white roundel
similar to those already in use by the Allied Powers, was instead ordered painted on all U.S. aircraft operating in Europe, and remained in effect until 1919.The U.S. roundel had the same color order as that of the Imperial Russian Air Service but in diameters of equal proportion.
On 6 May 1918, Foulois established a policy authorizing creation of emblems for aviation units, and ordered all squadrons to create an official insignia to be painted on each side of an airplane fuselage: "The squadron will design their own insignia during the period of organizational training. The design must be submitted to the Chief of Air Service, AEF, for approval. The design should be simple enough to be recognizable from a distance."
on September 3. A member of the squadron, Lt. Stephen W. Thompson
, achieved the first aerial victory by the U. S. military while flying as a gunner-observer with a French squadron on February 5, 1918. As other squadrons were organized, they were sent overseas, where they continued their training. It was February 18, 1918, before any U.S. squadron entered combat (the 103rd Aero Squadron
, a pursuit unit flying with French forces and composed largely of former members of the Lafayette Escadrille
). The first aerial victories by American-trained pilots in an American unit came on April 14, 1918, when Lieutenants Alan F. Winslow and Douglas Campbell of the 94th Pursuit Squadron
scored.
The first American balloon group arrived in France on December 28, 1917. It separated into four companies that were assigned individually to training centers and instructed in French balloon procedures, then equipped with Caquot balloons
, winches, and parachutes. The 2d Balloon CompanyUntil June 1918, designated Company B, 2nd Balloon Squadron. The 2nd Balloon Company is now the 2nd Special Operations Squadron (AFRC), a Predator UAV unit. 2 SOS fact sheet joined the French 91st Balloon Company at the front near Royaumeix
on February 26, 1918. On March 5 it took over the line and began operations supporting the U.S. 1st Division, becoming the "first complete American Air Service unit in history to operate against an enemy on foreign soil."
By the beginning of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive
the Air Service AEF consisted of 32 squadrons (15 pursuit, 13 observation, and 4 bombing) at the front, while by November 11, 1918, 45 squadrons (20 pursuit,Each pursuit squadron was authorized 25 aircraft, including seven reserve spares, and 18 pilots. 18 observation,Observation squadrons had 24 airplanes including 6 spares, 18 pilots, and 18 observers. and 7 bombardmentDay bombardment squadrons had 25 aircraft including spares, and 18 pilots. Night bombardment squadrons had 14 aircraft including spares, 10 pilots, and 10 observers.) had been assembled for combat. During the war, these squadrons played important roles in the Battle of Château-Thierry
, the St-Mihiel Offensive
, and the Meuse-Argonne. Several units, including the 94th Pursuit Squadron under the command of Capt. Eddie Rickenbacker
commanding, and the 27th Pursuit Squadron
, which had "balloon buster" 1st Lt.
Frank Luke
as one of its pilots, achieved distinguished records in combat and remained a permanent part of the air forces.
Observation planes often operated individually, as did pursuit pilots to attack a balloon or to meet the enemy in a dogfight
. However the tendency was toward formation flying, for pursuit as well as for bombardment operations, as a defensive tactic. The dispersal of squadrons among the army ground units (each corps and division had an observation squadron attached) made coordination of air activities difficult, so that squadrons were organized by functions into group
s, the first of these being the 1st Corps Observation Group, organized in April 1918 to patrol the Toul Sector between Flirey
and Apremont
in support of the U.S. 26th Division
. On May 5, 1918, the 1st Pursuit Group
was formed, and by the armistice
the AEF had 14 heavier-than-air groups (7 observation, 5 pursuit, and 2 bombardment). Of these 14 groups, only the 1st Pursuit and 1st Day Bombardment Groups would have their lineage continued into the post-war Air Service.
In July 1918, the AEF organized its first wing
, the 1st Pursuit Wing, made up of the 2d Pursuit, 3rd Pursuit, and 1st Day Bombardment Groups. Each Army and Corps echelon of the ground forces had a chief of air service designated to direct operations. The Air Service, First Army was activated August 26, 1918, marking the commencement of large scale coordinated U.S. air operations. Foulois was named chief of the First Army Air Service over Mitchell, who had been directing air operations as chief of the I Corps Air Service since March, but Foulois voluntarily relinquished his post to Mitchell and became one of the two assistant chiefs of Air Service AEF, at Tours in charge of personnel and training. Mitchell went on to become a brigadier general
and chief of the Army Group Air Service in mid-October 1918, succeeded at First Army by Col. Thomas Milling. The Air Service, Second Army was activated on October 12 but was not ready for operations until just before the armistice. The Air Service, Third Army was created immediately after the armistice to provide aviation support to the army of occupation, primarily from veteran units transferred from the First Army Air Service.
Mitchell and Foulois were advocates of the formation of an "air force" to centralize control over military aviation. In the St-Mihiel Offensive, commencing September 12, 1918, the American and French offensive against the German salient
was supported by 1,481 airplanes directed by Mitchell, totalling 24 Air Service, 58 French Aéronautique Militaire, and three Royal Air Force
squadrons in coordinated operations. Observation and pursuit planes supported ground forces, while the other two-thirds of the aerial force bombed and strafed behind enemy lines. Later, during the Meuse-Argonne offensive
, Mitchell employed a smaller concentration of airpower, nearly all American this time, to keep the German army on the defensive.
As with the ground forces, the most veteran units of the Air Service were selected to form the new Air Service. A pursuit unit, the 94th "Hat in the Ring" Aero Squadron; a day bombardment squadron, the 166th; and four observation squadrons (1st, 12th, 88th, and 9th Night) were initially assigned. The demobilization of the AEF accelerated in December and January, and all but two of these squadrons returned to the United States. Mitchell was replaced in January as commander of the Third Army Air Service by Col. Harold Fowler, a combat veteran of the Royal Flying Corps
and former commander of the American 17th Pursuit Squadron.
On April 15, 1919, the Second Army Air Service in France also closed down. Its former air units were transferred to the Third Army Air Service in Germany. The Third Army and its air service were inactivated in July 1919 after the signing of the Treaty of Versailles
.
Chiefs of Air Service, AEF
The 740 combat airplanesQuoting Mitchell, there were 196 American-made, 16 British-made, and 528 French-made aircraft. equipping the units at the front on November 11, 1918, were approximately 10% of the total combat aircraft strength of the Allied forces. The 45 squadrons in the Zone of Advance had 767 pilots, 481 observers, and 23 aerial gunners, covering 137 kilometers of front from Pont-à-Mousson
to Sedan
. They flew more than 35,000 hours over the front lines. The Air Service conducted 150 bombing missions, the longest 160 miles behind German lines, and dropped 138 tons (125 kg) of bombs. Its squadrons had 756 confirmed destruction of German aircraft and 76 German balloons destroyed, creating 71 Air Service ace
s.The actual number of American aces is confused. Gorrell originally reported 118 aces, but the Air Service followed the French practice of crediting each aviator participating in a kill with a whole victory, forcing a review by USAF from 1965-1969 that revised total kills. A preliminary assessment by the USAF (Historical Study 73) recognized 69 Air Service aces. Its final product, USAF Historical Study 133, credited 71 aces. The review identified 491 kills made by one pilot against one aircraft. An additional 342 kills resulted in 1022 partial credits. None of the figures includes kills made by members while they previously served in a foreign air service.
35 balloon companies also deployed in France, 17 at the front and six en route to the Second Army, and made 1,642 combat ascensions totalling 3,111 hours of observation. 13 photographic sections were assigned to observation squadrons and made 18,000 aerial photographs. 43 flying training, air park (supply), depot, and construction squadrons supported the air services. In all, 211 squadrons of all types trained in Great Britain, with 71 arriving in France before the Armistice. A major air depot at Colombey-les-Belles
; three other maintenance depots at Behonne
, LaTrecey
, and Vinets
; four supply depots at Clichy
, Romorantin
, Tours
, and Is-sur-Tille
; and 17 air park squadrons maintained the combat and training forces. At its peak establishment in November 1918, the Air Service was based at 31 stations in the Services of Supply and 78 aerodromes in the Zone of Advance.
A large training establishment was also set up in France. The Air Service Concentration Barracks at Saint-Maixent
received all Air Service troops arriving in France, distributing them to 26 training centers and schools throughout central and western France. Flying training schools, equipped with 2,948 airplanes, supplied 1,674 fully trained pilots and 851 observers to the Air Service, with 1,402 pilots and 769 observers serving at the front. The observers trained in France included 825 artillery officers from the infantry divisions who volunteered to fill a critical shortage in 1918. After the Armistice, the schools graduated 675 additional pilots and 357 observers to serve with the Third Army Air Service in the Army of Occupation
. The 3rd Aviation Instruction Center at Issoudun
provided 766 pursuit pilots. 169 students and 49 instructors died in training accidents. Balloon candidates made 4,224 practice ascensions while training.
Air Service combat losses were 289 airplanes and 48 balloons (35 shot by German fighters, 12 by antiaircraft guns, and 1 that broke its cable and came down behind the lines),U.S. balloons were attacked 89 times, resulting in 125 parachute jumps by balloon observers, but only one death occurred, that of 1st Lt. Cleo J. Ross, 8th Balloon Company. Ross parachuted on the afternoon of September 26, 1918 when his balloon was set on fire by a Fokker D.VII
, allowing a new observer to jump first. The burning balloon descended at twice the rate of the parachute and enveloped Ross, who fell nearly 1000 meters. with 235 airmen killed in action, 130 wounded, 145 captured, and 654 Air Service members of all ranks dead of illness or accidents. Air Service personnel were awarded 611 decorations in combat, including 4 Medals of Honor
and 312 Distinguished Service Cross
es (54 were oak leaf cluster
s).The large number of DSC awards is due to it being the only other combat valor award at the time. The Silver Star
was not authorized until 1932 and the Bronze Star until 1944. 210 decorations were awarded to aviators by France, 22 by Great Britain, and 69 by other nations.
At the end of November 1918, the Air Service consisted of 185 flying, 44 construction, 114 supply, 11 replacement, and 150 spruce
production squadrons; 86 balloon companies; six balloon group headquarters; 15 construction companies; 55 photographic sections; and a few miscellaneous units. Its personnel strength was 19,189 officers and 178,149 enlisted men. Its aircraft inventory consisted primarily of Curtiss JN-4
trainers, de Havilland DH-4B scout planes, SE-5
and Spad S.XIII
fighters, and Martin MB-1
bombers.
Complete demobilization of the Air Service was accomplished within a year. By November 22, 1919, the Air Service had been reduced to one construction, one replacement, and 22 flying squadrons; 32 balloon companies; 15 photographic sections; and 1,168 officers and 8,428 enlisted men. The combat strength of the Air Service was only four pursuit and four bombardment squadrons. Although the leaders of the reorganized Air Service persuaded the General Staff to increase the combat strength to 20 squadrons by 1923, the balloon force was deactivated, including dirigibles, and personnel shrank even further, to just 880 officers. By July 1924, the Air Service inventory was 457 observation planes, 55 bombers, 78 pursuit planes, and 8 attack aircraft, with trainers to make the total number 754.
The Air Service replaced its wartime structure with the formation of six permanent groups in 1919, four of which were based in the United States (only two of which were combat groups) and two overseas. The first of the new groups, the Army Surveillance Group, was organized in July to direct the operations of three squadronsThe squadrons of the Army Surveillance Group were the 8th
(McAllen
and Laredo, Texas
), 90th
(Sanderson
and Eagle Pass, Texas
), and 104th
(Fort Bliss
and Marfa, Texas
) Surveillance Squadrons. In January 1920 the group, now re-designated the 1st Surveillance Group, was joined by the 12th Surveillance Squadron
based at Nogales
and Douglas, Arizona
. Maurer Maurer, Aviation in the U.S. Army, 1919-1939, Appendix 2, USAF Historical Research Center (1987), pp. 455-456. patrolling the border with Mexico, where revolution had broken out, from Brownsville, Texas
to Nogales, Arizona
. In addition, the 1st Day Bombardment Group was formed to control four bombardment squadrons at Kelly,The 1st Day Bombardment Group: 11th
, 20th
, 96th
, and 166th Bombardment Squadrons
. while the 1st Pursuit Group of four pursuit squadrons1st Pursuit Group: 27th
, 94th
, 95th
, and 147th Pursuit Squadrons
. relocated from Selfridge Field, Michigan, to add their weight to the effort. Collectively the three groups (the entire combat strength of the Air Service in the continental United States) comprised the 1st Wing
. In January 1920 only the surveillance group continued the patrols, which diminished until by June 1921 they ceased entirely.The surveillance group and all of its surveillance squadrons, flying the DH-4B, were re-designated "attack" in September 1921.
A group was organized in 1920 to administrate squadrons in the Philippines
. In 1921, three groups based in the United States were sequentially numbered one through three and assigned different combat roles. The fourth was inactivated. The next year the groups overseas were numbered four through six as "composite" groups. In 1922 plans were formulated for three more groups to flesh out the anticipated GHQ Air Force, but only one, the 9th Observation, was formed. The 7th Bombardment and 8th Fighter Groups were designated but not activated until the end of the decade.
With the passage of the National Defense Act, June 4, 1920 (Public Law 66-242, 41 Stat. 759-88),The National Defense Act of 1920 had its origins in and is often referred to by contemporary writings as the "Army Reorganization Act of May 18, 1920". the Air Service was statutorily recognized as a combatant arm of the line along with the Infantry
, Cavalry
, Field Artillery
, Coast Artillery, Corps of Engineers
, and Signal Corps, and given a permanent organization with a fixed complement of personnel. A Chief of Air Service was authorized with the rank of major general
to replace the previous Director of Air Service, and an assistant chief created in the rank of brigadier general
(from 1920 to 1925 this position was held by Brig.Gen. Billy Mitchell). The primary missions of the Air Service were observation and pursuit aviation, and its tactical squadrons in the United States were controlled by the commanders of nine corps area
s and three overseas departments created by the Act, primarily in support of the ground forces. The Chief of the Air Service retained command of training schools, depots, and support activities exempted from corps area control. The headquarters of the Air Service was housed in the Munitions Building in Washington, D.C.
The Air Service of 1925 numbered five airship companies, an airship service company, 32 tactical squadrons (eight pursuit, eight bombardment, two attack, and 14 observation), six school squadrons,The school squadrons were created in early 1923. and 11 service squadrons. Half of the pursuit and bombardment squadrons and three each of the observation and service squadrons were based outside the continental United States.
The General Staff produced a mobilization plan that in the event of war would create a field force of six armies
, 18 corps
, and 54 division
s. Each army would have an Air Service attack wing (one attack and two pursuit groups) and an observation group, each corps and division would have an observation squadron, and a seventh attack wing-observation group would be reserved for the Expeditionary Force's general headquarters. A single bombardment group was planned, relegating bombardment to the most minor of roles. All aviation units would be under the command of ground officers at all levels. This structure provided the principles by which the Air Service and Air Corps operated until 1935.
The principal pursuit planes of the Air Service were the MB-3 (50 in inventory), the MB-3A (200 acquired 1920-23), and the Curtiss PW-8/P-1 Hawk (48 acquired in 1924-25). The only bomber ordered in quantity was the Martin NBS-1, the mass-produced version of the MB-2 bomber developed in 1920. Mitchell used the NBS-1 as the primary striking weapon during his demonstration in July 1921 off the Virginia coast that resulted in the sinking of the captured German battleship Ostfriesland.
Aeronautical development became the responsibility of the Technical Section, Air Service, created January 1, 1919, consolidating the Aircraft Engineering Department BAP, the Technical Section DMA, and the Testing Squadron at Wilbur Wright Field
, which was renamed the Engineering Division on March 19 and relocated to McCook Field
, Dayton, Ohio
.
A formal training establishment was also created by the Air Service on February 25, 1920, when the War Department authorized the establishment of service schools. Flying training took place in Texas, divided between the 11th School Group (primary flying training) at Brooks Field and the 10th School Group (advanced flying training) at Kelly Field
, and a technical school for mechanics was at located at Chanute Field, Illinois
. The Air Service Tactical School
, supported by the 15th School Group, was set up at Langley Field, Virginia
, to train officers for higher command and to instruct in doctrine and the employment of military aviation. The Engineering Division created an air engineering school at McCook Field and moved it to Wright Field
when that base was established in 1924.
Chiefs of Air Service
in 1918. On one side were Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell, Brig. Gen. Benjamin Foulois
, a cadre of young former Reserve officers who made up the overwhelming majority of Army pilots, and a few like-minded politicians and newspapers. Opposed were the General Staff
of the Army, its senior leadership from World War I
, and the Navy
. The doctrinal differences were both defined and intensified by struggles for funds caused by the skimpy budgets authorized for the War Department, first by the penurious policies of the Republican administrations in the 1920s, and then by the fiscal realities of the Great Depression
. In the end, the struggle for funds as much as any other factor caused the impetus for an independent Air Force.
While this debate focused largely on the controversial Mitchell, its early star was Foulois. Both returned from France with combat leadership experience in aviation, expecting to become the peacetime leaders of the Air Service. Instead, the War Department
had appointed Maj.Gen. Charles Menoher, who had commanded the Rainbow Division in France, to be Director of the Air Service to replace Secretary Ryan, signaling to the nation and the airpower proponents its intent to keep the air arm under the direction of the ground forces. Mitchell received the vacant position of Director of Military Aeronautics, but its responsibilities had been transferred to Menoher by Executive Order 3066 to end the dual status mess of the DMA and BAP, and his position was titular only. Instead he became Third Assistant Executive (in effect, S-3), chief of the new Training and Operations Group, where he installed like-minded airmen who had served with him France as division heads and used the position to expound his theories.Lt. Col. Oscar Westover
, a former infantryman and advocate of submission to "proper authority," was Menoher's deputy executive officer and urged him to relieve Mitchell and his followers if they did not cease their advocacy of an independent air force.
In 1919, Mitchell proposed a Cabinet-level Department of Aviation equal to the War and Navy Departments to control all aviation, including sea-based air, airmail
, and commercial operations. His goal was not only independent and centralized control of airpower, but also encouragement of the peacetime U.S. aviation industry. Mitchell insisted that the debate be both "broad and civil". Foulois, however, complained bitterly to the United States Congress
about the historical neglect and indifference of the Army to its air service.Foulois and Menoher testified together at subcommittee hearings on the bill, at which time Menoher suggested that enthusiasm of aviators for an independent air service was the result of desire for personal promotions, a theme repeated by numerous opponents of an independent air force in the next two decades, and characterized them as "temperamental". Foulois, a firebrand who later learned to work within the system, had been reduced in rank from brigadier general to major by the armistice and was stung by the comments. In a solicited statement following Menoher's, he acidly defied the General Staff to name one instance in which it had done anything constructive towards aviation. Although two bills were introduced, in the Senate by Sen. Harry S. New of Indiana and in the House
by Rep. Charles F. Curry
of California, both Republicans
, to create Mitchell's proposed department and initially garnered strong support, the opposition of the Army's wartime leaders (especially General Pershing) frustrated the effort at the start. Gen. Menoher headed a board consisting of himself and three other generals, all artillery officers, appointed to report back to Congress on the proposed legislation and predictably argued that Unity of Command and conformity to Army discipline overrode all other considerations. The opposition resulted in the passage of the less radical though still significant National Defense Act of 1920.
Mitchell was not discouraged by the failure of his first proposal. He recognized the value of public opinion in the debate and changed tactics, embarking on a publicity campaign on behalf of military aviation. General Menoher, when he was unable to persuade the Secretary of War, John Weeks
to silence Mitchell, resigned his position on October 4, 1921, and was replaced by Maj.Gen. Mason Patrick
. Although an engineer and not an aviator, Patrick had been Pershing's Chief of Air Service in France, where his primary duty had been to coordinate the activities of Foulois and Mitchell, then rivals. Patrick had also testified before Congress against Mitchell's plan for an independent air force.
Patrick was not hostile to aviation, however. He underwent flight training and obtained his wings, then issued a series of reports to the War Department emphasizing the need to expand and modernize the Air Service. In his first annual report in 1922, he warned that the Air Service had been degraded by budget cuts to the degree that it could no longer meet its peacetime obligations, much less mobilize for war. He supported and issued the first air doctrine for the service, Fundamental Conceptions (patterned on Army Training Regulation 10-5 Doctrines Principles and Methods), which outlined strategy and tactics for the air arm.In 1923 Army doctrine was organized into Field Service Regulations, which were general in character, and Training Regulations (TR), which stated combat principles for each combatant arm. Patrick was also critical of the policy that placed air units under the command of corps commanders and proposed that only observation squadrons should be part of the ground forces, with all combat forces centralized under the command of a General Headquarters air force.Under the terminology of the day, "air service aviation" was an auxiliary force (primarily observation units) supporting the ground forces, while "air force aviation" was a combat force whose primary mission was to gain control of the air, then destroy the most important enemy forces on land or sea.
The response to the proposal was three boards and committees. The Secretary of War convened the Lassiter Board in 1923, composed of general staff officers who fully endorsed Patrick's views, and adopted the policy in regulations.The policy set forth by Patrick was published in the Tenth Annual Report of NACA. The War Department acknowledged the necessity of improving its Air Service and desired to implement the Lassiter Board's recommendations, which it termed "Major Project No. 4", but the Coolidge administration proved a major obstacle, choosing to economize by radically cutting military budgets, particularly the Army's.The Coolidge administration boasted of cutting the War Department's budget by 75%. Patrick's proposal that appropriations for the Air Service be coordinated with the larger budget of Naval aviation
(in effect, shared), was rejected by the Navy, and the reorganization could not be implemented.
The U.S. House of Representatives then appointed the Lampert
Committee"The Select Committee of Inquiry into the Operations of the U.S. Air Services", chaired by Rep. Florian Lampert (Republican, Wisconsin). in October 1924 to investigate Patrick's criticisms. Mitchell testified before the committee and, upset by the failure of the War Department to even negotiate with the Navy in order to save the reforms of the Lassiter Board, harshly criticized Army leadership and attacked other witnesses. He had already antagonized the flag and general officers of both services with speeches and articles delivered in 1923 and 1924, and the Army refused to retain him as Assistant Chief of the Air Service when his term expired in March 1925. He was reduced in rank to colonel by Secretary Weeks and exiled to the Eighth Corps Area
in San Antonio as air officer, where his continuing, reckless, and increasingly strident criticisms prompted President Calvin Coolidge to order his court-martial
. Mitchell's conviction on December 17, 1925, followed by three days the Lampert Committee's recommendations for creation of a unified air force independent of the Army and Navy; creation of "assistant secretaries for air" in the War, Navy, and Commerce Departments; and establishment of a Department of National Defense.
The third board was the Morrow Board,a "blue ribbon" panel convened by President Coolidge in September 1925 to make a general inquiry into U.S. aviation. Headed by an investment banker and personal friend of Coolidge's, Dwight Morrow
, the board was made up of a federal judge, the head of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
, former military officers now in industry, and the wartime head of the Board of Aircraft Production. The actual purpose of the Morrow Board was to minimize the political impact of the Mitchell trial, and Coolidge directed that it issue its findings by the end of November, to pre-empt the findings of not only the military court but also of the Lampert Committee that might be contrary to the Morrow Board. Its report was released on December 3. The major result of the Morrow Board was to maintain the status quo. It also made the recommendation, adopted in 1926, that the Air Service be renamed the Air Corps, but in doing so Congress denied it the autonomy enjoyed by the Marine Corps
within the Navy Department, and thus the Air Corps remained as an auxiliary arm to the ground forces.
To positively influence U.S. public opinion and thereby enlist political support in Congress in his crusade for an independent air force, General Mitchell conducted a publicity campaign on behalf of airpower. On August 14, 1919, the All American Pathfinders
, a provisional squadron, began a cross-country educational tour that supported the "1919 Air Service Transcontinental Recruiting Convoy" from Hazelhurst Field to California.http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F4091FF8385C1B728DDDAD0994D0405B898DF1D3 While using public pronouncements for propaganda purposes, Mitchell also fostered within the Air Service advances in aeronautical science that would not only increase its effectiveness as a military service, but would also generate public support.
His first project, undertaken at McCook Field, in Dayton, Ohio, was for the creation of a heavily armored attack plane for supporting ground forces. Although the designs that resulted were not practical and did not meet Mitchell's specifications for aircraft that could land troops behind enemy lines, the project led Mitchell to closely supervise aircraft development, not only at McCook but in Europe as well. On October 30, 1919, the McCook Field engineers tested the first reversible-pitch propeller.
This effort resulted in the development of a monoplane
with retractable landing gear
, a metal propeller
, and a streamlined engine design, the Verville R-3 Racer. Economy measures by the Air Service prevented the project from being fully completed, but contributed to a growing determination within the Air Service to set new aviation records for speed, altitude
, distance, and endurance, which in turn contributed not only to technical improvements (and favorable publicity) but also advancements in aviation medicine
.
Air Service pilots established world records in altitude, distance, and speed. Speed in particular attracted public attention and, although a number of speed records were set in cross-country flying, records were also set on measured courses. Mitchell himself set a world speed record of 222.97 mph (99.7 m/s) over a closed course in a Curtiss R-6 racer
on October 18, 1922, at the Pulitzer Trophy competition of the 1922 National Air Races. A later world speed record of 232 mph (103.7 m/s) was made by 1st Lt. James H. Doolittle in winning the Schneider Trophy
race at the 1925 Races.
The practical and military applications of speed were not ignored, however. On September 4, 1922, Doolittle had made the first transcontinental crossing in one day, flying from Pablo Beach, Florida
, to Rockwell Field
, California, in 21 hours, 20 minutes, a distance of 2163 mi (3,481 km) in a DH-4 of the 90th Squadron
. Mitchell concluded that accomplishing the same feat by "daylight only", making only a single stop at Kelly Field, had tremendous value, and staged a dawn-to-dusk transcontinental flight across the United States in the summer of 1924 in a Curtiss PW-8 fighter acquired for the purpose.
Despite the emphasis in the press on speed, the Air Service also established a number of altitude, distance, and endurance records. The Packard-Le Peré LUSAC-11
biplane set world altitude records over McCook Field of 33114 ft (10,093.1 m) on February 27, 1920, by Maj. Rudolph W. Schroeder; and 34507 ft (10,517.7 m) on September 28, 1921, by Lt. John A. Macready. The first nonstop flight across the U.S., made in 26 hours and 50 minutes at an average speed of 98.76 mph, was made May 2-May 3, 1923, from Roosevelt Field, New York, to Rockwell Field in a Fokker
T-2 (a converted F.IV airliner) by Macready and Lt. Oakley G. Kelly
. The feat was followed in August by a flight in which a DeHavilland DH-4 stayed aloft for more than 37 hours by means of aerial refueling
. The Fokker T.2 is on display at the National Air and Space Museum
in Washington, D.C.
The greatest achievement of these projects, however, was the first flight around the world
. The Air Service set up support facilities along the proposed route and in April 1924 sent a flight of four aircraft west from Seattle, Washington. Six months later, two aircraft completed the flight. Even if considered as primarily a publicity stunt
, the flight was a brilliant accomplishment in which five nations had already failed.
Kelly and Macready, Doolittle, and the crews of the circumnavigation flight all won the Mackay Trophy
for the respective years in which they accomplished their feats.
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
during and after World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
. It was established as an independent but temporary wartime branch of the War Department
United States Department of War
The United States Department of War, also called the War Department , was the United States Cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the United States Army...
by two executive orders of President Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
: on May 24, 1918, replacing the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aviation Section, Signal Corps, was the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced and absorbed the Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps, and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
as the nation's air force; and March 19, 1919, establishing a military Director of Air Service to control all aviation activities. Its life was extended for another year in July 1919, during which time Congress passed the legislation necessary to make it a permanent establishment. The National Defense Act of 1920 assigned the Air Service the status of "combatant arm of the line" of the United States Army
United States Army
The United States Army is the main branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military, and is one of seven U.S. uniformed services...
, with a major general
Major General
Major general or major-general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. A major general is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of lieutenant general and senior to the ranks of brigadier and brigadier general...
in command.
In France, the Air Service of the American Expeditionary Force
American Expeditionary Force
The American Expeditionary Forces or AEF were the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France alongside British and French allied forces in the last year of the war, against Imperial German forces...
began combat operations in the spring of 1918. By the end of the war, the Air Service used 45 squadrons to cover 137 kilometers of front from Pont-à-Mousson
Pont-à-Mousson
Pont-à-Mousson is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France.Population : 14,592 . It is an industrial town , situated on the Moselle River...
to Sedan
Sedan, France
Sedan is a commune in France, a sub-prefecture of the Ardennes department in northern France.-Geography:The historic centre is built on a peninsula formed by an arc of the Meuse River. It is around from the Belgian border.-History:...
. 71 pursuit pilots were credited with shooting down five or more German aircraft while in American service. Overall the Air Service destroyed 756 enemy aircraft and 76 balloons in combat. 17 balloon companies also operated at the front, making 1,642 combat ascensions. 289 airplanes and 48 balloons were lost in battle.
The Air Service was the first form of the air force to have its own organizational structure and identity. Although officers concurrently held rank in various branches, after May 1918 their designation in orders and other official correspondence changed from ASSC (Aviation Section, Signal Corps) to AS, USA (Air Service, United States Army). After July 1, 1920, its personnel became members of the Air Service branch, receiving new commissions. During the war its responsibilities and functions were split between two coordinate agencies, the Department of Military Aeronautics (DMA) and the Bureau of Aircraft Production (BAP), each reporting directly to the Secretary of War, creating a dual authority over military aviation that caused unity of command difficulties.
The seven-year history of the post-war Air Service was marked by a prolonged debate between adherents of airpower and the supporters of the traditional military services about the value of an independent Air Force. Airmen such as Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell supported the concept. The Army's senior leadership from World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, the United States Navy
United States Navy
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world; its battle fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 largest navies combined. The U.S...
, and the majority of the nation's political leadership favored integrating all military aviation into the Army and Navy, and aided by the wave of pacifism following the war that drastically cut military budgets, prevailed.
Lineage of the United States Air Force
- Aeronautical Division, Signal CorpsAeronautical Division, U.S. Signal CorpsThe Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps was the world's first heavier-than-air military aviation organization and the progenitor of the United States Air Force. A component of the U.S...
August 1, 1907–July 18, 1914 - Aviation Section, Signal CorpsAviation Section, U.S. Signal CorpsThe Aviation Section, Signal Corps, was the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced and absorbed the Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps, and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
July 18, 1914–May 20, 1918 - Division of Military Aeronautics May 20, 1918–May 24, 1918
- Air Service, United States Army May 24, 1918–July 2, 1926
- United States Army Air CorpsUnited States Army Air CorpsThe United States Army Air Corps was a forerunner of the United States Air Force. Renamed from the Air Service on 2 July 1926, it was part of the United States Army and the predecessor of the United States Army Air Forces , established in 1941...
July 2, 1926–June 20, 1941 - United States Army Air ForcesUnited States Army Air ForcesThe United States Army Air Forces was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II, and the direct predecessor of the United States Air Force....
June 20, 1941–September 18, 1947 - United States Air ForceUnited States Air ForceThe United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
September 18, 1947–present
Creation of the Air Service
See main articles: Aviation Section, U.S. Signal CorpsAviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aviation Section, Signal Corps, was the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced and absorbed the Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps, and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
and Division of Military Aeronautics
Background of the wartime Air Service
Although war in Europe prompted CongressUnited States Congress
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
to vastly increase the appropriations for the Aviation Section of the Signal Corps
Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aviation Section, Signal Corps, was the military aviation service of the United States Army from 1914 to 1918, and a direct ancestor of the United States Air Force. It replaced and absorbed the Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps, and was succeeded briefly by the Division of Military...
in 1916, it nevertheless tabled a bill
Table (parliamentary)
In parliamentary procedure, a motion to table has two different and contradictory meanings:*In the United States, table usually means the motion to lay on the table or motion to postpone consideration; a proposal to suspend consideration of a pending motion...
proposing an aviation department incorporating all aspects of military aviation. The declaration of war
Declaration of war
A declaration of war is a formal act by which one nation goes to war against another. The declaration is a performative speech act by an authorized party of a national government in order to create a state of war between two or more states.The legality of who is competent to declare war varies...
against Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
on April 6, 1917, putting the United States in World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, came too quickly (less than eight months after its return from Mexico chasing Pancho Villa
Pancho Villa
José Doroteo Arango Arámbula – better known by his pseudonym Francisco Villa or its hypocorism Pancho Villa – was one of the most prominent Mexican Revolutionary generals....
) to solve emerging engineering and production problems. The reorganization of the Aviation Section had been inadequate in resolving problems in training, leaving the United States totally unprepared to fight an air war in Europe. The Aviation Section section consisted of 131 officers, 1087 enlisted men, and approximately 280 airplanes.The airplane figure is variously given as 250 (A History of the United States Air Force, 1907-1957, Alfred Goldberg, editor; USAF Historical Study 138) to 280 by Hennessy. In any case, the Aviation Section had more than twice as many aircraft as pilots to fly them.
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
created an advisory Aircraft Production Board in May 1917, consisting of members of the Army, Navy, and industry, to study the Europeans' experience in aircraft production and the standardization of aircraft parts. Congress passed a series of legislation in the next three months that appropriated huge sums for development of military aviation, including the largest single appropriation
Appropriation (law)
In law and government, appropriation is the act of setting apart something for its application to a particular usage, to the exclusion of all other uses....
for a single purpose to that time, $640 millionApproximately $11.3 billion in 2011 dollars. US Inflation Calculator in the Aviation Act (40 Stat. 243), passed July 24, 1917. By the time the bill passed, the term Air Service was in widespread if unofficial usage to collectively describe all aspects of Army aviation.
Although it considered creation of a separate aviation department, both the War
United States Department of War
The United States Department of War, also called the War Department , was the United States Cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the United States Army...
and the Navy Departments
United States Department of the Navy
The Department of the Navy of the United States of America was established by an Act of Congress on 30 April 1798, to provide a government organizational structure to the United States Navy and, from 1834 onwards, for the United States Marine Corps, and when directed by the President, of the...
opposed it, and on October 1, 1917, Congress instead legalized the existence of the APB and changed its name to the "Aircraft Board
Aircraft Board
The Aircraft Board was a United States federal government organization created from the Aircraft Production Board on October 1, 1917, by Act of Congress to provide statutory authority to the APB, which had been created by a resolution of the Council of National Defense on May 16, 1917. Chaired by...
", transferring its functions from the Council of National Defense
Council of National Defense
The Council of National Defense was a United States organization formed during World War I to coordinate resources and industry in support of the war effort, including the coordination of transportation, industrial and farm production, financial support for the war, and public...
to the secretaries of War and the Navy. Even so, the Aircraft Board in practice had little control over procurement contracts and functioned mostly as an information clearinghouse between the various involved business, governmental, and military entities. Moreover, the airplane of World War I was not suitable to the mass production
Mass production
Mass production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines...
methods of the automotive industry
Automotive industry
The automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells motor vehicles, and is one of the world's most important economic sectors by revenue....
and the priority of mass producing spare parts was neglected. Though individual areas within the aviation industry responded well, the industry as a whole failed. Efforts to mass produce European aircraft under license largely failed. At the same time the Aeronautical Division
Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps
The Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps was the world's first heavier-than-air military aviation organization and the progenitor of the United States Air Force. A component of the U.S...
of the Office of the Chief Signal Officer (OCSO) became the Air Division with the same responsibility for training and operations.
As a result, the board came under severe criticism for failure to meet goals or its own claims of aircraft production, followed by a highly publicized personal investigation by Gutzon Borglum
Gutzon Borglum
Gutzon de la Mothe Borglum was an American artist and sculptor famous for creating the monumental presidents' heads at Mount Rushmore, South Dakota, the famous carving on Stone Mountain near Atlanta, as well as other public works of art.- Background :The son of Mormon Danish immigrants, Gutzon...
, a harshly vocal critic of the board. Borglum had exchanged letters with President Wilson, a personal friend, from which he assumed an appointment to investigate had been authorized, which the administration soon denied. Both the U.S. Senate
United States Senate
The United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral legislature of the United States, and together with the United States House of Representatives comprises the United States Congress. The composition and powers of the Senate are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution. Each...
and the Department of Justice
United States Department of Justice
The United States Department of Justice , is the United States federal executive department responsible for the enforcement of the law and administration of justice, equivalent to the justice or interior ministries of other countries.The Department is led by the Attorney General, who is nominated...
began investigations into possible fraudulent dealings. President Wilson also acted by appointing a Director of Aircraft Production on April 28, 1918, and abolished the Air Division of the OCSO, creating a Division of Military Aeronautics (DMA) under Brigadier General William L. Kenly
William L. Kenly
William Lacy Kenly was a Major General in the United States Army. During World War I, he was a leader of a progenitor of the United States Air Force, the United States Army Air Service...
, to separate supervision of aviation from the duties of the Chief Signal Officer. Less than a month later, Wilson used a provision of the Overman Act
Departmental Reorganization Act
The Departmental Reorganization Act , also known as the Overman Act, was an American law that increased presidential power during World War I. Sponsored by Sen. Lee S...
of May 20, 1918, to issue Executive Order No. 2862 that removed the DMA entirely from the Signal Corps (reporting directly to the Secretary of War), and assigned it the function of procuring and training a combat force. In addition, the executive order created a Bureau of Aircraft Production (BAP) as a separate executive bureau to provide the aircraft needed.
This arrangement lasted only until the War Department implemented the executive order on May 24 by issuing General Order No. 51 to coordinate the two independent agencies, with an eventual goal of creating a Director of Air Service. (The term "Air Service" had been in use in France since June 13, 1917, to describe the function of aviation units attached to the American Expeditionary Force.) It delayed the appointment of a director as long as the BAP operated as a separate executive bureau. In August, the Senate completed its investigation of the Aircraft Board, and while it found no criminal culpability, it reported that massive waste and delay in production had occurred. As a result, the Director of Aircraft Production (who was also chairman of the Aircraft Board), John D. Ryan, was appointed to the vacant position of Second Assistant Secretary of War and designated as Director of Air Service, nominally in charge of the DMA. The Department of Justice report followed two months later and also blamed the delays on administrative and organizational deficiencies in the Aviation Section. Ryan's appointment came too late for any effective consolidation of both agencies, continuing an obstructive division of authority that was never resolved during the war.
Spruce Production Division
The Spruce Production Division was a unit of the United States Army established in 1917 to supply the army with high quality spruce and other wood products needed for the production of aircraft for the United States war effort in World War I. The division was part of the Army Signal Corps's...
, had been delegated to Ryan by name, not to his position as Director of Aircraft Production, and as such could not be legally conferred on any successor. Maj. Gen. Charles Menoher was appointed to the vacancy on January 2, 1919, but the patchwork nature of laws and executive orders that had created the various parts of the Air Service prevented him from exercising all their legal powers and ending the unity of command problems caused by dual authority.
Pilot training
The United States began the World War with 35 pilots and 51 student pilots on its rosters. Like the rest of the Army, the Aviation Section concluded that Reserve officers were the solution to its manpower needs and sent a panel of three representatives from each of six U.S. universities to TorontoToronto
Toronto is the provincial capital of Ontario and the largest city in Canada. It is located in Southern Ontario on the northwestern shore of Lake Ontario. A relatively modern city, Toronto's history dates back to the late-18th century, when its land was first purchased by the British monarchy from...
May 7–11 to study Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
's pilot training program. The Chief Signal Officer assigned Major Hiram Bingham III
Hiram Bingham III
Hiram Bingham, formally Hiram Bingham III, was an academic, explorer, treasure hunter and politician from the United States. He made public the existence of the Quechua citadel of Machu Picchu in 1911 with the guidance of local indigenous farmers...
, an adventurer and reserve officer on the faculty of Yale
Yale University
Yale University is a private, Ivy League university located in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States...
, to organize a training program on the Canadian model. A three-phase Aviation CadetAll cadets were enlisted into the Signal Corps or Reserve Signal Corps in the rank of private first class
Private First Class
Private First Class is a military rank held by junior enlisted persons.- Singapore :The rank of Private First Class in the Singapore Armed Forces lies between the ranks of Private and Lance-Corporal . It is usually held by conscript soldiers midway through their national service term...
only for the duration of pilot training. Those that washed out were discharged and subject to the draft. program came into being, and although systematic, pressing needs for manpower saw many overlaps of the phases.
The first phase was an eight-week ground school course conducted by the Schools of Military Aeronautics Division, organized at the six (later eight) American universities,The initial six were the University of California
University of California, Berkeley
The University of California, Berkeley , is a teaching and research university established in 1868 and located in Berkeley, California, USA...
, Cornell
Cornell University
Cornell University is an Ivy League university located in Ithaca, New York, United States. It is a private land-grant university, receiving annual funding from the State of New York for certain educational missions...
, Illinois, MIT
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. MIT has five schools and one college, containing a total of 32 academic departments, with a strong emphasis on scientific and technological education and research.Founded in 1861 in...
, Ohio State
Ohio State University
The Ohio State University, commonly referred to as Ohio State, is a public research university located in Columbus, Ohio. It was originally founded in 1870 as a land-grant university and is currently the third largest university campus in the United States...
, and Texas
University of Texas at Austin
The University of Texas at Austin is a state research university located in Austin, Texas, USA, and is the flagship institution of the The University of Texas System. Founded in 1883, its campus is located approximately from the Texas State Capitol in Austin...
. Princeton
Princeton University
Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and is one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution....
and Georgia Tech
Georgia Institute of Technology
The Georgia Institute of Technology is a public research university in Atlanta, Georgia, in the United States...
were added shortly after. and commanded by Bingham. The first class at the ground schools began 21 May 1917 and concluded 14 July 1917, graduating 147 cadets and enrolling another 1,430.Bingham's memoir An Explorer in the Air Service stated that the number of graduates in the first class was 132. By mid-November, 3,140 had graduated and more than 500 had become rated officers.
Out of more than 40,000 applicants, 22,689 were accepted and 17,540 completed ground school training. Approximately 15,000 advanced to primary flight training, a six-to-eight week courseThe course of study could not "be predetermined as to length", dependent "in large measure on the weather, the supply of 'spares', and a man's own ability". Air Service Journal, September 27, 1917, Vol. I, No. 12, p. 370. conducted by both military and civilian flying instructors, using variants of the Curtiss Jenny as the primary trainer. Primary flying training school usually produced a candidate for commissioning in 15 to 25 hours of flight. At the assurance of the French that they could be rapidly trained in all phases, up to 500 cadets a month were sent to Europe to undertake the entire flying portion of their training in Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, and Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
. In December 1917, after receiving 1,060 cadets, the French requested that further movement of cadets be halted because of training backlogs of as much as six months, and no further trainees were sent to France until they had completed their primary training and been commissioned. Most were used as cooks, guards, laborers and other menial jobs, while paid at cadet salary, for which they became derisively known as the "Million-Dollar Guard".Maurer (1978), Vol. I, p. 94. Bingham (1920), p. 80, gives the number as 1,800. Bingham stated that the cadets sent to France had been Honor Graduates of the ground course. The failure of the French to train these best candidates came as a bitter disappointment to the Air Service and was extremely detrimental to their morale. The backlog was finally cleared by opening an Air Service primary school at Tours
Tours
Tours is a city in central France, the capital of the Indre-et-Loire department.It is located on the lower reaches of the river Loire, between Orléans and the Atlantic coast. Touraine, the region around Tours, is known for its wines, the alleged perfection of its local spoken French, and for the...
.
8,688 new first lieutenants in the Signal Officers Reserve Corps (S.O.R.C.) received ratings of Reserve Military Aviator in the United States and were assigned to newly created squadrons or as instructors. 1,609 more were commissioned in Europe,999 were commissioned in France, 406 in Italy, and 204 in Britain. In addition, 178 graduated from RAF schools in Canada, and 975 graduated from schools in France between the armistice and January 1919. with their commissions eventually backdated to those of their peers trained in the United States. Pilots in Europe completed an advanced phase in which they received specialized training in pursuit, bombing, or observation at Air Service schools acquired from the French at Issoudun
Issoudun
Issoudun is a commune in the Indre department in central France. It is also referred to as Issoundun, which is the ancient name.-History:...
, Clermont-Ferrand
Clermont-Ferrand
Clermont-Ferrand is a city and commune of France, in the Auvergne region, with a population of 140,700 . Its metropolitan area had 409,558 inhabitants at the 1999 census. It is the prefecture of the Puy-de-Dôme department...
, and Tours, respectively.
By November 11, 1918, the Air Service both overseas and domestically had 195,024 personnel (20,568 officers; 174,456 enlisted men) and 7,900 aircraft, constituting five per cent of the United States Army. 32,520 personnel served in the Bureau of Aircraft Production and the remainder in the Division of Military Aeronautics. The Air Service commissioned over 17,000 reserve officers. More than 10,000 mechanics were trained to service the American aircraft fleet. Of aircraft manufactured in America, the de Havilland DH-4B (3,400) was the most numerous, although only 1,213 were shipped overseas, and only 1,087 of those assembled, most used in observation units. The facilities of the Air Service in the United States totaled 40 flying fields, 8 balloon fields, 5 schools of military aeronautics,The five "schools of military aeronautics" still operating at the armistice were at Cornell, Princeton, Texas, Cal, and Illinois. 6 technical schools, and 14 aircraft depots. 16 additional training schools were located in France, and officers also trained at three schools operated by the Allies.
Assigned overseas in the American Expeditionary Force
American Expeditionary Force
The American Expeditionary Forces or AEF were the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France alongside British and French allied forces in the last year of the war, against Imperial German forces...
, the air arm totaled 78,507 (7,738 officers and 70,769 enlisted men) at the armistice. Of this total, 58,090 served in France; 20,075 in England; and 342 in Italy. Balloon troops made up approximately 17,000 of the Air Service, with 6,811 in France, conducting and supporting the dangerous duty of spotting for the artillery at the front.
Air Service World War I posters
 |  |
 |  |  |
Air Service of the AEF
Organization
The "Air Service, American Expeditionary Forces" was created on 3 September 1917, by "AEF General Order No. 31," with Brig. Gen. William L. Kenly as chief, and remained in being until demobilized in 1919. Kenly, an artillery officer, had been a student in the Aviation Section's "Field Officers Course" the previous winter, then had been executive officer of the Aviation School in San Diego before the outbreak of war.During the first year of U.S. participation in World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, aviation units had been created and deployed without organization. Upon his arrival in France in June 1917, American Expeditionary Force
American Expeditionary Force
The American Expeditionary Forces or AEF were the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France alongside British and French allied forces in the last year of the war, against Imperial German forces...
commanding general John J. Pershing
John J. Pershing
John Joseph "Black Jack" Pershing, GCB , was a general officer in the United States Army who led the American Expeditionary Forces in World War I...
met with Lieutenant Colonel
Lieutenant colonel
Lieutenant colonel is a rank of commissioned officer in the armies and most marine forces and some air forces of the world, typically ranking above a major and below a colonel. The rank of lieutenant colonel is often shortened to simply "colonel" in conversation and in unofficial correspondence...
Billy Mitchell. Sent to Europe in March 1917 as an observer, Mitchell arrived in Paris just four days after the United States declared war and established an office for the American "air service." He advised Pershing that it was ready to proceed with any project Pershing might require. Pershing's aviation officer, Major
Major
Major is a rank of commissioned officer, with corresponding ranks existing in almost every military in the world.When used unhyphenated, in conjunction with no other indicator of rank, the term refers to the rank just senior to that of an Army captain and just below the rank of lieutenant colonel. ...
Townsend F. Dodd, first used the term "Air Service" in a memo to the chief of staff of the AEF on 20 June 1917. The term also appeared on July 5, 1917, in "AEF General Order No. 8," in tables detailing staff organization and duties. Mitchell replaced Dodd on 30 June 1917, with the position renamed "chief of air service" and duties described. After the G.O. 31 actually created the Air Service, AEF, and Kenly made chief, Mitchell remained as ex officio chief through his influence on Kenly. Brig. Gen. Benjamin Foulois
Benjamin Foulois
Benjamin Delahauf Foulois , was a United States Army general who learned to fly the first military planes purchased from the Wright Brothers. He became the first military aviator as an airship pilot, and achieved numerous other military aviation "firsts"...
replaced Kenly on 27 November 1917, and arrived in France with a large but untrained staff, resulting in considerable resentment from Mitchell's smaller staff already in place.
Major General
Major general or major-general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. A major general is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of lieutenant general and senior to the ranks of brigadier and brigadier general...
Mason Patrick
Mason Patrick
Mason Mathews Patrick was a U.S. Army general and air power advocate.Patrick was born in Lewisburg, West Virginia and graduated from West Point in 1886. For three years he was at the Engineer School of Application, Willets Point, New York, graduating in 1889...
as Chief of Air Service, AEF. Air Service staff planning had been inefficient, with considerable internal friction as well as conflict between its members and those of Pershing's General Staff. Aircraft and unit totals lagged far behind those promised in 1917. Considerable house-cleaning of the existing staff resulted from Patrick's appointment, bringing in experienced staff officers to administrate, and tightening up lines of communication.The situation at Air Service headquarters was described as "a tangled mess" before Patrick brought order.
Pershing had in September 1917 called for creation of 260 U.S. air combat squadrons by December 1918, but slowness of the buildup reduced that on August 17, 1918, to a final plan for 202 by June 1919. In Pershing's view, the two functions of the AEF's Air Service were to repel German aircraft and conduct observation of enemy movements. The heart of the proposed force would be its 101 observation squadrons (52 corps observation and 49 army observation), to be distributed to three armies and 16 corps. In addition, 60 pursuit squadrons, 27 night-bombardment squadrons, and 14 day-bombardment squadrons were to conduct supporting operations.
Without the time or infrastructure in the United States to equip units to send overseas using aircraft designed and built in the U.S., the AEF Air Service ordered Allied aircraft designs already in service with the French and British air services. On August 30, 1917, the American and French governments agreed to a contract in which France would provide the Air Service AEF, with 1,500 Breguet 14 B.2
Breguet 14
-See also:-References:*Tomasz J. Kowalski, Samolot Breguet 14, TBiU no.197, Warsaw 2002, ISBN 83-11-09461-6...
bombers and reconnaissance planes; 2,000 SPAD XIII fighters; and 1,500 Nieuport 28
Nieuport 28
|-See also:-Bibliography:* Cheesman E.F. Fighter Aircraft of the 1914-1918 War. Letchworth, UK: Harleyford Publications, 1960, pp. 98–99....
pursuits. Ultimately the AEF received 4,874 aircraft from France, 258 from Great Britain, 19 from Italy, and 1,213 of American manufacture, for a total of 6,364 airplanes. 1,664 were classed as training craft.
The primary aircraft employed were the SPAD XIII (877 combat sorties), Nieuport 28 (181), and SPAD VII
SPAD S.VII
The SPAD S.VII was the first of a series of highly successful biplane fighter aircraft produced by Société Pour L'Aviation et ses Dérivés during the First World War. Like its successors, the S.VII was renowned as a sturdy and rugged aircraft with good climbing and diving characteristics...
(103) as pursuit aircraft, the DeHaviland DH-4B (696) and Breguet 14 (87) for daylight bombing, and the DH-4 and Salmson 2 A.2
Salmson 2
|-References:* Davilla, James J., & Soltan, Arthur M., French Aircraft of the First World War. Stratford, Connecticut: Flying Machines Press, 1997. ISBN 0-9637110-4-0...
(557 sorties) for observation and photo reconnaissance. The SE-5 operated as the main trainer for the Air Service. Balloon companies operated the French-designed Goodyear
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company
The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company was founded in 1898 by Frank Seiberling. Goodyear manufactures tires for automobiles, commercial trucks, light trucks, SUVs, race cars, airplanes, farm equipment and heavy earth-mover machinery....
Type R observation balloon
Observation balloon
Observation balloons are balloons that are employed as aerial platforms for intelligence gathering and artillery spotting. Their use began during the French Revolutionary Wars, reaching their zenith during World War I, and they continue in limited use today....
, a winch-tethered, hydrogen
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of , hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75% of the Universe's chemical elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly...
-filled, captive "Caquot" balloon of 32,200 cubic-foot (912 cubic meters) capacity, using one balloon per company.Pershing requested 125 balloon companies, and the United States manufactured nearly a thousand Caquot balloons in 1918-1919.
Roundel
A roundel in heraldry is a disc; the term is also commonly used to refer to a type of national insignia used on military aircraft, generally circular in shape and usually comprising concentric rings of different colours.-Heraldry:...
similar to those already in use by the Allied Powers, was instead ordered painted on all U.S. aircraft operating in Europe, and remained in effect until 1919.The U.S. roundel had the same color order as that of the Imperial Russian Air Service but in diameters of equal proportion.
On 6 May 1918, Foulois established a policy authorizing creation of emblems for aviation units, and ordered all squadrons to create an official insignia to be painted on each side of an airplane fuselage: "The squadron will design their own insignia during the period of organizational training. The design must be submitted to the Chief of Air Service, AEF, for approval. The design should be simple enough to be recognizable from a distance."
Operations
The first U.S. aviation squadron to reach France was the 1st Aero Squadron, which sailed from New York in August 1917 and arrived at Le HavreLe Havre
Le Havre is a city in the Seine-Maritime department of the Haute-Normandie region in France. It is situated in north-western France, on the right bank of the mouth of the river Seine on the English Channel. Le Havre is the most populous commune in the Haute-Normandie region, although the total...
on September 3. A member of the squadron, Lt. Stephen W. Thompson
Stephen W. Thompson
Stephen W. Thompson was an American aviator of World War I, and the first person in the U.S. Military to shoot down an enemy aircraft .-Early life:...
, achieved the first aerial victory by the U. S. military while flying as a gunner-observer with a French squadron on February 5, 1918. As other squadrons were organized, they were sent overseas, where they continued their training. It was February 18, 1918, before any U.S. squadron entered combat (the 103rd Aero Squadron
103rd Aero Squadron
The 103rd Aero Squadron was an Aero pursuit squadron which included officers from the disbanded Lafayette Escadrille, and the Lafayette Flying Corps.-History:...
, a pursuit unit flying with French forces and composed largely of former members of the Lafayette Escadrille
Lafayette Escadrille
The Lafayette Escadrille , was an escadrille of the French Air Service, the Aéronautique militaire, during World War I composed largely of American volunteer pilots flying fighters.-History:Dr. Edmund L...
). The first aerial victories by American-trained pilots in an American unit came on April 14, 1918, when Lieutenants Alan F. Winslow and Douglas Campbell of the 94th Pursuit Squadron
94th Fighter Squadron
The 94th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 1st Operations Group and stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia....
scored.
The first American balloon group arrived in France on December 28, 1917. It separated into four companies that were assigned individually to training centers and instructed in French balloon procedures, then equipped with Caquot balloons
Observation balloon
Observation balloons are balloons that are employed as aerial platforms for intelligence gathering and artillery spotting. Their use began during the French Revolutionary Wars, reaching their zenith during World War I, and they continue in limited use today....
, winches, and parachutes. The 2d Balloon CompanyUntil June 1918, designated Company B, 2nd Balloon Squadron. The 2nd Balloon Company is now the 2nd Special Operations Squadron (AFRC), a Predator UAV unit. 2 SOS fact sheet joined the French 91st Balloon Company at the front near Royaumeix
Royaumeix
Royaumeix is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France.-See also:*Communes of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department*Parc naturel régional de Lorraine...
on February 26, 1918. On March 5 it took over the line and began operations supporting the U.S. 1st Division, becoming the "first complete American Air Service unit in history to operate against an enemy on foreign soil."
By the beginning of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive
Meuse-Argonne Offensive
The Meuse-Argonne Offensive, or Maas-Argonne Offensive, also called the Battle of the Argonne Forest, was a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I that stretched along the entire western front.-Overview:...
the Air Service AEF consisted of 32 squadrons (15 pursuit, 13 observation, and 4 bombing) at the front, while by November 11, 1918, 45 squadrons (20 pursuit,Each pursuit squadron was authorized 25 aircraft, including seven reserve spares, and 18 pilots. 18 observation,Observation squadrons had 24 airplanes including 6 spares, 18 pilots, and 18 observers. and 7 bombardmentDay bombardment squadrons had 25 aircraft including spares, and 18 pilots. Night bombardment squadrons had 14 aircraft including spares, 10 pilots, and 10 observers.) had been assembled for combat. During the war, these squadrons played important roles in the Battle of Château-Thierry
Battle of Château-Thierry (1918)
The Battle of Château-Thierry was fought on 18 July 1918 and was one of the first actions of the American Expeditionary Force under General John J. "Black Jack" Pershing...
, the St-Mihiel Offensive
Battle of Saint-Mihiel
The Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a World War I battle fought between September 12–15, 1918, involving the American Expeditionary Force and 48,000 French troops under the command of U.S. general John J. Pershing against German positions...
, and the Meuse-Argonne. Several units, including the 94th Pursuit Squadron under the command of Capt. Eddie Rickenbacker
Eddie Rickenbacker
Edward Vernon Rickenbacker was an American fighter ace in World War I and Medal of Honor recipient. He was also a race car driver and automotive designer, a government consultant in military matters and a pioneer in air transportation, particularly as the longtime head of Eastern Air Lines.-Early...
commanding, and the 27th Pursuit Squadron
27th Fighter Squadron
The 27th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 1st Operations Group and stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia....
, which had "balloon buster" 1st Lt.
First Lieutenant
First lieutenant is a military rank and, in some forces, an appointment.The rank of lieutenant has different meanings in different military formations , but the majority of cases it is common for it to be sub-divided into a senior and junior rank...
Frank Luke
Frank Luke
Frank Luke Jr. was an American fighter ace, ranking second among U.S. Army Air Service pilots after Captain Eddie Rickenbacker in number of aerial victories during World War I . Frank Luke was the first airman to receive the Medal of Honor...
as one of its pilots, achieved distinguished records in combat and remained a permanent part of the air forces.
Observation planes often operated individually, as did pursuit pilots to attack a balloon or to meet the enemy in a dogfight
Dogfight
A dogfight, or dog fight, is a form of aerial combat between fighter aircraft; in particular, combat of maneuver at short range, where each side is aware of the other's presence. Dogfighting first appeared during World War I, shortly after the invention of the airplane...
. However the tendency was toward formation flying, for pursuit as well as for bombardment operations, as a defensive tactic. The dispersal of squadrons among the army ground units (each corps and division had an observation squadron attached) made coordination of air activities difficult, so that squadrons were organized by functions into group
Group (air force unit)
A group is a military aviation unit, a component of military organization and a military formation. Usage of the terms group and wing differ from one country to another, as well as different branches of a defence force, in some cases...
s, the first of these being the 1st Corps Observation Group, organized in April 1918 to patrol the Toul Sector between Flirey
Flirey
Flirey is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France.-See also:*Communes of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department*Parc naturel régional de Lorraine...
and Apremont
Apremont
-France:* Apremont, Ain, in the Ain département* Apremont, Ardennes, in the Ardennes département* Apremont, Oise, in the Oise département* Apremont, Haute-Saône, in the Haute-Saône département* Apremont, Savoie, in the Savoie département...
in support of the U.S. 26th Division
26th Infantry Division (United States)
The 26th Infantry Division was an infantry division of the United States Army. As a major formation of the Massachusetts Army National Guard, it was based in Boston, Massachusetts for most of its history...
. On May 5, 1918, the 1st Pursuit Group
1st Operations Group
The 1st Operations Group is the flying component of the 1st Fighter Wing, assigned to the USAF Air Combat Command. The group is stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia. The 1st Operations Group is the oldest major air combat unit in the United States Air Force, being a successor organization...
was formed, and by the armistice
Armistice
An armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...
the AEF had 14 heavier-than-air groups (7 observation, 5 pursuit, and 2 bombardment). Of these 14 groups, only the 1st Pursuit and 1st Day Bombardment Groups would have their lineage continued into the post-war Air Service.
Wing
A wing is an appendage with a surface that produces lift for flight or propulsion through the atmosphere, or through another gaseous or liquid fluid...
, the 1st Pursuit Wing, made up of the 2d Pursuit, 3rd Pursuit, and 1st Day Bombardment Groups. Each Army and Corps echelon of the ground forces had a chief of air service designated to direct operations. The Air Service, First Army was activated August 26, 1918, marking the commencement of large scale coordinated U.S. air operations. Foulois was named chief of the First Army Air Service over Mitchell, who had been directing air operations as chief of the I Corps Air Service since March, but Foulois voluntarily relinquished his post to Mitchell and became one of the two assistant chiefs of Air Service AEF, at Tours in charge of personnel and training. Mitchell went on to become a brigadier general
Brigadier General
Brigadier general is a senior rank in the armed forces. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of colonel and major general. When appointed to a field command, a brigadier general is typically in command of a brigade consisting of around 4,000...
and chief of the Army Group Air Service in mid-October 1918, succeeded at First Army by Col. Thomas Milling. The Air Service, Second Army was activated on October 12 but was not ready for operations until just before the armistice. The Air Service, Third Army was created immediately after the armistice to provide aviation support to the army of occupation, primarily from veteran units transferred from the First Army Air Service.
Mitchell and Foulois were advocates of the formation of an "air force" to centralize control over military aviation. In the St-Mihiel Offensive, commencing September 12, 1918, the American and French offensive against the German salient
Salients, re-entrants and pockets
A salient is a battlefield feature that projects into enemy territory. The salient is surrounded by the enemy on three sides, making the troops occupying the salient vulnerable. The enemy's line facing a salient is referred to as a re-entrant...
was supported by 1,481 airplanes directed by Mitchell, totalling 24 Air Service, 58 French Aéronautique Militaire, and three Royal Air Force
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
squadrons in coordinated operations. Observation and pursuit planes supported ground forces, while the other two-thirds of the aerial force bombed and strafed behind enemy lines. Later, during the Meuse-Argonne offensive
Meuse-Argonne Offensive
The Meuse-Argonne Offensive, or Maas-Argonne Offensive, also called the Battle of the Argonne Forest, was a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I that stretched along the entire western front.-Overview:...
, Mitchell employed a smaller concentration of airpower, nearly all American this time, to keep the German army on the defensive.
Army of occupation duties
Promptly after the armistice, the AEF formed the Third United States Army to march immediately into Germany, occupy the Coblenz area, and be prepared to resume combat if peace treaty negotiations failed. Three corps were formed from nine of the Army's most experienced divisions,The 1st, 2nd, and 32nd Divisions formed the III Corps; the 3rd, 4th, and 42nd Divisions the IV Corps; and the 89th and 90th Divisions the VII Corps. Five other divisions (5th, 7th, 28th, 33rd, and 79th) guarded the line of communications through Belgium and Luxembourg. and Mitchell was appointed to command the Air Service, Third Army, on November 14, 1918.As with the ground forces, the most veteran units of the Air Service were selected to form the new Air Service. A pursuit unit, the 94th "Hat in the Ring" Aero Squadron; a day bombardment squadron, the 166th; and four observation squadrons (1st, 12th, 88th, and 9th Night) were initially assigned. The demobilization of the AEF accelerated in December and January, and all but two of these squadrons returned to the United States. Mitchell was replaced in January as commander of the Third Army Air Service by Col. Harold Fowler, a combat veteran of the Royal Flying Corps
Royal Flying Corps
The Royal Flying Corps was the over-land air arm of the British military during most of the First World War. During the early part of the war, the RFC's responsibilities were centred on support of the British Army, via artillery co-operation and photographic reconnaissance...
and former commander of the American 17th Pursuit Squadron.
On April 15, 1919, the Second Army Air Service in France also closed down. Its former air units were transferred to the Third Army Air Service in Germany. The Third Army and its air service were inactivated in July 1919 after the signing of the Treaty of Versailles
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
.
Commanders, AEF Aviation
Aviation Officer, AEF- Major Townsend F. Dodd, June 13, 1917
Chiefs of Air Service, AEF
- Lt. Col. William L. Mitchell, June 30, 1917
- Brig. Gen. William L. KenlyWilliam L. KenlyWilliam Lacy Kenly was a Major General in the United States Army. During World War I, he was a leader of a progenitor of the United States Air Force, the United States Army Air Service...
, September 3, 1917 - Brig. Gen. Benjamin D. Foulois, November 27, 1917
- Maj. Gen. Mason Patrick, May 29, 1918
Statistical summary, World War I
"Though the casualties in the air force were small compared with the total strength, the casualty rate of the flying personnel at the front was somewhat above the Artillery and Infantry rates... The results of allied and American experience at the front indicate that two aviators lose their lives in accidents for each aviator killed in battle." —Report of the Secretary of War, 1919
The 740 combat airplanesQuoting Mitchell, there were 196 American-made, 16 British-made, and 528 French-made aircraft. equipping the units at the front on November 11, 1918, were approximately 10% of the total combat aircraft strength of the Allied forces. The 45 squadrons in the Zone of Advance had 767 pilots, 481 observers, and 23 aerial gunners, covering 137 kilometers of front from Pont-à-Mousson
Pont-à-Mousson
Pont-à-Mousson is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France.Population : 14,592 . It is an industrial town , situated on the Moselle River...
to Sedan
Sedan, France
Sedan is a commune in France, a sub-prefecture of the Ardennes department in northern France.-Geography:The historic centre is built on a peninsula formed by an arc of the Meuse River. It is around from the Belgian border.-History:...
. They flew more than 35,000 hours over the front lines. The Air Service conducted 150 bombing missions, the longest 160 miles behind German lines, and dropped 138 tons (125 kg) of bombs. Its squadrons had 756 confirmed destruction of German aircraft and 76 German balloons destroyed, creating 71 Air Service ace
Flying ace
A flying ace or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down several enemy aircraft during aerial combat. The actual number of aerial victories required to officially qualify as an "ace" has varied, but is usually considered to be five or more...
s.The actual number of American aces is confused. Gorrell originally reported 118 aces, but the Air Service followed the French practice of crediting each aviator participating in a kill with a whole victory, forcing a review by USAF from 1965-1969 that revised total kills. A preliminary assessment by the USAF (Historical Study 73) recognized 69 Air Service aces. Its final product, USAF Historical Study 133, credited 71 aces. The review identified 491 kills made by one pilot against one aircraft. An additional 342 kills resulted in 1022 partial credits. None of the figures includes kills made by members while they previously served in a foreign air service.
35 balloon companies also deployed in France, 17 at the front and six en route to the Second Army, and made 1,642 combat ascensions totalling 3,111 hours of observation. 13 photographic sections were assigned to observation squadrons and made 18,000 aerial photographs. 43 flying training, air park (supply), depot, and construction squadrons supported the air services. In all, 211 squadrons of all types trained in Great Britain, with 71 arriving in France before the Armistice. A major air depot at Colombey-les-Belles
Colombey-les-Belles
Colombey-les-Belles is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France.-Heraldry:-See also:*Communes of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department...
; three other maintenance depots at Behonne
Behonne
Behonne is a commune in the Meuse department in the Lorraine region in north-eastern France....
, LaTrecey
Latrecey-Ormoy-sur-Aube
Latrecey-Ormoy-sur-Aube is a commune in the Haute-Marne department in north-eastern France.-See also:*Communes of the Haute-Marne department...
, and Vinets
Vinets
Vinets is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.-Population:...
; four supply depots at Clichy
Clichy
Clichy may refer to:*communes in France:** Clichy, Hauts-de-Seine, also called Clichy-la-Garenne or Clichy-sur-Seine, in the Hauts-de-Seine département...
, Romorantin
Romorantin-Lanthenay
Romorantin-Lanthenay is a commune in the Loir-et-Cher department of central France.-History:The current commune is the result of the merger, on 29 May 1961, of the former communes of Romorantin and Lanthenay.-Transportation:...
, Tours
Tours
Tours is a city in central France, the capital of the Indre-et-Loire department.It is located on the lower reaches of the river Loire, between Orléans and the Atlantic coast. Touraine, the region around Tours, is known for its wines, the alleged perfection of its local spoken French, and for the...
, and Is-sur-Tille
Is-sur-Tille
Is-sur-Tille is a commune in the Côte-d'Or department of Burgundy France.-Geography:Located about twenty kilometers north of Dijon. To the west is a heavily forested limestone plateau with an elevation of over 400 meters. To the east is a humid clay plain sloping gently to the southeast of the...
; and 17 air park squadrons maintained the combat and training forces. At its peak establishment in November 1918, the Air Service was based at 31 stations in the Services of Supply and 78 aerodromes in the Zone of Advance.
Saint-Maixent
Saint-Maixent is a commune in the Sarthe department in the region of Pays-de-la-Loire in north-western France.-References:*...
received all Air Service troops arriving in France, distributing them to 26 training centers and schools throughout central and western France. Flying training schools, equipped with 2,948 airplanes, supplied 1,674 fully trained pilots and 851 observers to the Air Service, with 1,402 pilots and 769 observers serving at the front. The observers trained in France included 825 artillery officers from the infantry divisions who volunteered to fill a critical shortage in 1918. After the Armistice, the schools graduated 675 additional pilots and 357 observers to serve with the Third Army Air Service in the Army of Occupation
Army of Occupation
Army of Occupation is a term for an army occupying conquered territory, and has been used for many armies in many eras including:*The Army of Occupation of the U.S...
. The 3rd Aviation Instruction Center at Issoudun
Issoudun
Issoudun is a commune in the Indre department in central France. It is also referred to as Issoundun, which is the ancient name.-History:...
provided 766 pursuit pilots. 169 students and 49 instructors died in training accidents. Balloon candidates made 4,224 practice ascensions while training.
Air Service combat losses were 289 airplanes and 48 balloons (35 shot by German fighters, 12 by antiaircraft guns, and 1 that broke its cable and came down behind the lines),U.S. balloons were attacked 89 times, resulting in 125 parachute jumps by balloon observers, but only one death occurred, that of 1st Lt. Cleo J. Ross, 8th Balloon Company. Ross parachuted on the afternoon of September 26, 1918 when his balloon was set on fire by a Fokker D.VII
Fokker D.VII
The Fokker D.VII was a German World War I fighter aircraft designed by Reinhold Platz of the Fokker-Flugzeugwerke. Germany produced around 3,300 D.VII aircraft in the summer and autumn of 1918. In service, the D.VII quickly proved itself to be a formidable aircraft...
, allowing a new observer to jump first. The burning balloon descended at twice the rate of the parachute and enveloped Ross, who fell nearly 1000 meters. with 235 airmen killed in action, 130 wounded, 145 captured, and 654 Air Service members of all ranks dead of illness or accidents. Air Service personnel were awarded 611 decorations in combat, including 4 Medals of Honor
Medal of Honor
The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed by the President, in the name of Congress, upon members of the United States Armed Forces who distinguish themselves through "conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his or her...
and 312 Distinguished Service Cross
Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
The Distinguished Service Cross is the second highest military decoration that can be awarded to a member of the United States Army, for extreme gallantry and risk of life in actual combat with an armed enemy force. Actions that merit the Distinguished Service Cross must be of such a high degree...
es (54 were oak leaf cluster
Oak leaf cluster
An oak leaf cluster is a common device which is placed on U.S. Army and Air Force awards and decorations to denote those who have received more than one bestowal of a particular decoration. The number of oak leaf clusters typically indicates the number of subsequent awards of the decoration...
s).The large number of DSC awards is due to it being the only other combat valor award at the time. The Silver Star
Silver Star
The Silver Star is the third-highest combat military decoration that can be awarded to a member of any branch of the United States armed forces for valor in the face of the enemy....
was not authorized until 1932 and the Bronze Star until 1944. 210 decorations were awarded to aviators by France, 22 by Great Britain, and 69 by other nations.
Consolidation of the Air Service
Executive Order 3066, issued by President Wilson on March 19, 1919, formally consolidated the BPA and DMA into the Air Service, United States Army.The issue was so important that Wilson took the draft of the order with him to France to attend the Versailles peace conference, and cabled its promulgation to Washington. Anticipating the order, Director of Air Service Maj. Gen. Charles Menoher undertook a sweeping re-organization on March 15, using the "divisional system" of the AEF as a model. Menoher created an advisory board representing the key branches of the Army, and appointed an Executive to coordinate policy between four groups, each headed by an Assistant Executive: Supply, Information, Training and Operations, and Administrative. With the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, President Wilson relinquished his war powers under the Overman Act, and on July 11, 1919, Congress granted legislative authority to continue the Air Service as a temporary independent branch of the War Department for another year, easing fears of airmen that the Air Service would be demobilized out of existence.Spruce
A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea , a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the Family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal regions of the earth. Spruces are large trees, from tall when mature, and can be distinguished by their whorled branches and conical...
production squadrons; 86 balloon companies; six balloon group headquarters; 15 construction companies; 55 photographic sections; and a few miscellaneous units. Its personnel strength was 19,189 officers and 178,149 enlisted men. Its aircraft inventory consisted primarily of Curtiss JN-4
Curtiss JN-4
The Curtiss JN-4 "Jenny" was one of a series of "JN" biplanes built by the Curtiss Aeroplane Company of Hammondsport, New York, later the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company. Although the Curtiss JN series was originally produced as a training aircraft for the U.S...
trainers, de Havilland DH-4B scout planes, SE-5
Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5
The Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 was a British biplane fighter aircraft of the First World War. Although the first examples reached the Western Front before the Sopwith Camel and it had a much better overall performance, problems with its Hispano-Suiza engine, particularly the geared-output H-S...
and Spad S.XIII
SPAD S.XIII
|-See also:-Bibliography:* Bruce, J.M. The Aeroplanes of the Royal Flying Corps . London: Putnam, 1982. ISBN 0-370-30084-X.* Sharpe, Michael. Biplanes, Triplanes, and Seaplanes. London: Friedman/Fairfax Books, 2000. ISBN 1-58663-300-7....
fighters, and Martin MB-1
Martin MB-1
-References:NotesBibliography* The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft . London: Orbis Publishing, 1985, p. 2419.* Andrade, John. U.S. Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909. Hinckley, UK: Midland Counties Publications, 1979. ISBN 0-904597-22-9.* Swanborough, F.G and Peter M....
bombers.
Complete demobilization of the Air Service was accomplished within a year. By November 22, 1919, the Air Service had been reduced to one construction, one replacement, and 22 flying squadrons; 32 balloon companies; 15 photographic sections; and 1,168 officers and 8,428 enlisted men. The combat strength of the Air Service was only four pursuit and four bombardment squadrons. Although the leaders of the reorganized Air Service persuaded the General Staff to increase the combat strength to 20 squadrons by 1923, the balloon force was deactivated, including dirigibles, and personnel shrank even further, to just 880 officers. By July 1924, the Air Service inventory was 457 observation planes, 55 bombers, 78 pursuit planes, and 8 attack aircraft, with trainers to make the total number 754.
The Air Service replaced its wartime structure with the formation of six permanent groups in 1919, four of which were based in the United States (only two of which were combat groups) and two overseas. The first of the new groups, the Army Surveillance Group, was organized in July to direct the operations of three squadronsThe squadrons of the Army Surveillance Group were the 8th
8th Special Operations Squadron
The 8th Special Operations Squadron is part of the 1st Special Operations Wing at Hurlburt Field, Florida. It operates CV-22 Osprey in support of special operations.-Mission:...
(McAllen
McAllen, Texas
McAllen is the largest city in Hidalgo County, Texas, United States. It is located at the southern tip of Texas in an area known as the Rio Grande Valley and is part of the . Its southern boundary is located about five miles from the U.S.–Mexico border and the Mexican city of Reynosa, the Rio...
and Laredo, Texas
Laredo, Texas
Laredo is the county seat of Webb County, Texas, United States, located on the north bank of the Rio Grande in South Texas, across from Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas, Mexico. According to the 2010 census, the city population was 236,091 making it the 3rd largest on the United States-Mexican border,...
), 90th
90th Fighter Squadron
The 90th Fighter Squadron is part of the 3d Wing at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska. It operates the F-22 Raptor aircraft conducting air superiority missions.-Mission:...
(Sanderson
Sanderson, Texas
Sanderson is a census-designated place in and the county seat of Terrell County, Texas, United States. The population was 861 at the 2000 census. Sanderson was created in 1882 as a part of neighboring Pecos County...
and Eagle Pass, Texas
Eagle Pass, Texas
Eagle Pass is a city in and the county seat of Maverick County The population was 27,183 as of the 2010 census.Eagle Pass borders the city of Piedras Negras, Coahuila, Mexico, which is to the southwest and across the Rio Grande. The Eagle Pass-Piedras Negras Metropolitan Area is one of six...
), and 104th
104th Fighter Squadron
The 104th Fighter Squadron is an attack squadron equipped with the A-10 Thunderbolt II. It is a unit of the Maryland Air National Guard. Its parent unit is the 175th Wing.-Mission:...
(Fort Bliss
Fort Bliss
Fort Bliss is a United States Army post in the U.S. states of New Mexico and Texas. With an area of about , it is the Army's second-largest installation behind the adjacent White Sands Missile Range. It is FORSCOM's largest installation, and has the Army's largest Maneuver Area behind the...
and Marfa, Texas
Marfa, Texas
Marfa is a town in the high desert of far West Texas in the Southwestern United States. Located between the Davis Mountains and Big Bend National Park, it is also the county seat of Presidio County. The population was 1,981 at the 2010 census....
) Surveillance Squadrons. In January 1920 the group, now re-designated the 1st Surveillance Group, was joined by the 12th Surveillance Squadron
12th Reconnaissance Squadron
The 12th Reconnaissance Squadron is a United States Air Force reconnaissance unit based at Beale Air Force Base, near Marysville, California. It is a component of the 9th Reconnaissance Wing and operates the RQ-4 Global Hawk unmanned aerial vehicle...
based at Nogales
Nogales, Arizona
Nogales is a city in Santa Cruz County, Arizona, United States. The population was 21,017 at the 2010 census. According to 2005 Census Bureau estimates, the population of the city is 20,833. The city is the county seat of Santa Cruz County....
and Douglas, Arizona
Douglas, Arizona
Douglas is a city in Cochise County, Arizona, United States. Douglas has a border crossing with Mexico and a history of mining.The population was 14,312 at the 2000 census...
. Maurer Maurer, Aviation in the U.S. Army, 1919-1939, Appendix 2, USAF Historical Research Center (1987), pp. 455-456. patrolling the border with Mexico, where revolution had broken out, from Brownsville, Texas
Brownsville, Texas
Brownsville is a city in the southernmost tip of the state of Texas, in the United States. It is located on the northern bank of the Rio Grande, directly north and across the border from Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico. Brownsville is the 16th largest city in the state of Texas with a population of...
to Nogales, Arizona
Nogales, Arizona
Nogales is a city in Santa Cruz County, Arizona, United States. The population was 21,017 at the 2010 census. According to 2005 Census Bureau estimates, the population of the city is 20,833. The city is the county seat of Santa Cruz County....
. In addition, the 1st Day Bombardment Group was formed to control four bombardment squadrons at Kelly,The 1st Day Bombardment Group: 11th
11th Bomb Squadron
The 11th Bomb Squadron is part of the 2d Bomb Wing at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. It operates B-52 Stratofortress aircraft providing strategic bombing capability.-Mission:...
, 20th
20th Bomb Squadron
The 20th Bomb Squadron is part of the 2d Bomb Wing at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. It operates B-52 Stratofortress aircraft providing strategic bombing capability.-Mission:...
, 96th
96th Bomb Squadron
The 96th Bomb Squadron is part of the 2d Bomb Wing at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. It operates B-52 Stratofortress aircraft providing strategic bombing capability.-History:...
, and 166th Bombardment Squadrons
49th Test and Evaluation Squadron
The 49th Test and Evaluation Squadron is an active United States Air Force unit. Its current assignment is with the 53d Wing, based at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana.-Mission:...
. while the 1st Pursuit Group of four pursuit squadrons1st Pursuit Group: 27th
27th Fighter Squadron
The 27th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 1st Operations Group and stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia....
, 94th
94th Fighter Squadron
The 94th Fighter Squadron ' is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 1st Operations Group and stationed at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia....
, 95th
95th Fighter Squadron
The 95th Fighter Squadron was part of the 325th Fighter Wing at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida. It conducted advanced fighter training for the F-15 Eagle aircraft.-History:...
, and 147th Pursuit Squadrons
147th Air Refueling Squadron
The 147th Air Refueling Squadron is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the 171st Air Refueling Wing, Pennsylvania Air National Guard. It is stationed at Pittsburgh IAP Air Reserve Station, Pennsylvania.-Overview:...
. relocated from Selfridge Field, Michigan, to add their weight to the effort. Collectively the three groups (the entire combat strength of the Air Service in the continental United States) comprised the 1st Wing
1st Bombardment Wing (World War II)
The 1st Bombardment Wing is an inactive United States Army Air Force unit. It was the first wing formed in the reorganized United States Army Air Service, created in August 1919 to control three groups patrolling the border with Mexico after revolution broke out there. Its last assignment was with...
. In January 1920 only the surveillance group continued the patrols, which diminished until by June 1921 they ceased entirely.The surveillance group and all of its surveillance squadrons, flying the DH-4B, were re-designated "attack" in September 1921.
A group was organized in 1920 to administrate squadrons in the Philippines
Philippines
The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
. In 1921, three groups based in the United States were sequentially numbered one through three and assigned different combat roles. The fourth was inactivated. The next year the groups overseas were numbered four through six as "composite" groups. In 1922 plans were formulated for three more groups to flesh out the anticipated GHQ Air Force, but only one, the 9th Observation, was formed. The 7th Bombardment and 8th Fighter Groups were designated but not activated until the end of the decade.
National Defense Act of 1920
Sect. 13a. There is hereby created an Air Service. The Air Service shall consist of one Chief of Air Service with the rank of major general... — Public Law 242, 41 Stat. 759
With the passage of the National Defense Act, June 4, 1920 (Public Law 66-242, 41 Stat. 759-88),The National Defense Act of 1920 had its origins in and is often referred to by contemporary writings as the "Army Reorganization Act of May 18, 1920". the Air Service was statutorily recognized as a combatant arm of the line along with the Infantry
Infantry
Infantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of combat arms, they are the backbone of armies...
, Cavalry
Cavalry
Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
, Field Artillery
United States Army Field Artillery Corps
The Field Artillery branch was founded on 17 November 1775 by the Continental Congress, which unanimously elected Henry Knox "Colonel of the Regiment of Artillery". The regiment formally entered service on 1 January 1776...
, Coast Artillery, Corps of Engineers
United States Army Corps of Engineers
The United States Army Corps of Engineers is a federal agency and a major Army command made up of some 38,000 civilian and military personnel, making it the world's largest public engineering, design and construction management agency...
, and Signal Corps, and given a permanent organization with a fixed complement of personnel. A Chief of Air Service was authorized with the rank of major general
Major General
Major general or major-general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. A major general is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of lieutenant general and senior to the ranks of brigadier and brigadier general...
to replace the previous Director of Air Service, and an assistant chief created in the rank of brigadier general
Brigadier General
Brigadier general is a senior rank in the armed forces. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of colonel and major general. When appointed to a field command, a brigadier general is typically in command of a brigade consisting of around 4,000...
(from 1920 to 1925 this position was held by Brig.Gen. Billy Mitchell). The primary missions of the Air Service were observation and pursuit aviation, and its tactical squadrons in the United States were controlled by the commanders of nine corps area
Corps area
A Corps area was a geographically-based organizational structure of the United States Army used to accomplish domestic administrative, training and tactical tasks from 1920 to 1942. Each corps area included divisions of the Regular Army, Organized Reserve and National Guard of the United States...
s and three overseas departments created by the Act, primarily in support of the ground forces. The Chief of the Air Service retained command of training schools, depots, and support activities exempted from corps area control. The headquarters of the Air Service was housed in the Munitions Building in Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the United States Congress approved the creation of a permanent national capital as permitted by the U.S. Constitution....
The Air Service of 1925 numbered five airship companies, an airship service company, 32 tactical squadrons (eight pursuit, eight bombardment, two attack, and 14 observation), six school squadrons,The school squadrons were created in early 1923. and 11 service squadrons. Half of the pursuit and bombardment squadrons and three each of the observation and service squadrons were based outside the continental United States.
The General Staff produced a mobilization plan that in the event of war would create a field force of six armies
Army
An army An army An army (from Latin arma "arms, weapons" via Old French armée, "armed" (feminine), in the broadest sense, is the land-based military of a nation or state. It may also include other branches of the military such as the air force via means of aviation corps...
, 18 corps
Corps
A corps is either a large formation, or an administrative grouping of troops within an armed force with a common function such as Artillery or Signals representing an arm of service...
, and 54 division
Division (military)
A division is a large military unit or formation usually consisting of between 10,000 and 20,000 soldiers. In most armies, a division is composed of several regiments or brigades, and in turn several divisions typically make up a corps...
s. Each army would have an Air Service attack wing (one attack and two pursuit groups) and an observation group, each corps and division would have an observation squadron, and a seventh attack wing-observation group would be reserved for the Expeditionary Force's general headquarters. A single bombardment group was planned, relegating bombardment to the most minor of roles. All aviation units would be under the command of ground officers at all levels. This structure provided the principles by which the Air Service and Air Corps operated until 1935.
Aeronautical development became the responsibility of the Technical Section, Air Service, created January 1, 1919, consolidating the Aircraft Engineering Department BAP, the Technical Section DMA, and the Testing Squadron at Wilbur Wright Field
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base in Greene and Montgomery counties in the state of Ohio. It includes both Wright and Patterson Fields, which were originally Wilbur Wright Field and Fairfield Aviation General Supply Depot. Patterson Field is located approximately...
, which was renamed the Engineering Division on March 19 and relocated to McCook Field
McCook Field
McCook Field was an airfield and aviation experimentation station operated by the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps and its successor the United States Army Air Service from 1917-1927...
, Dayton, Ohio
Dayton, Ohio
Dayton is the 6th largest city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Montgomery County, the fifth most populous county in the state. The population was 141,527 at the 2010 census. The Dayton Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 841,502 in the 2010 census...
.
A formal training establishment was also created by the Air Service on February 25, 1920, when the War Department authorized the establishment of service schools. Flying training took place in Texas, divided between the 11th School Group (primary flying training) at Brooks Field and the 10th School Group (advanced flying training) at Kelly Field
Kelly Air Force Base
Kelly Field Annex and is a former United States Air Force facility located in San Antonio, Texas. In 2001, the runway and land west of the runway became "Kelly Field Annex" and control of it was transferred to the adjacent Lackland Air Force Base, part of Joint Base San Antonio...
, and a technical school for mechanics was at located at Chanute Field, Illinois
Illinois
Illinois is the fifth-most populous state of the United States of America, and is often noted for being a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois, and natural resources like coal,...
. The Air Service Tactical School
Air Corps Tactical School
The Air Corps Tactical School, also known as ACTS and "the Tactical School", was a military professional development school for officers of the United States Army Air Service and United States Army Air Corps, the first such school in the world. Created in 1920 at Langley Field, Virginia, it...
, supported by the 15th School Group, was set up at Langley Field, Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...
, to train officers for higher command and to instruct in doctrine and the employment of military aviation. The Engineering Division created an air engineering school at McCook Field and moved it to Wright Field
Wright Field
Wright Field was an airfield of the United States Army Air Corps and Air Forces near Riverside, Ohio. From 1927 to 1947 it was the research and development center for the Air Corps, and during World War II a flight test center....
when that base was established in 1924.
Groups of the Air Service
| Original Designation | Station | Date created | Redesignation (date) |
| Army Surveillance Group | Fort Bliss Fort Bliss Fort Bliss is a United States Army post in the U.S. states of New Mexico and Texas. With an area of about , it is the Army's second-largest installation behind the adjacent White Sands Missile Range. It is FORSCOM's largest installation, and has the Army's largest Maneuver Area behind the... , Texas Texas Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in... |
July 1, 1919 | 3d Group (Attack)² (1921) |
| 2d Group (Observation) | Luke Field Ford Island Ford Island is located in the middle of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. It is connected to the main island by the Ford Island Bridge. Before the bridge was built, Ford Island could only be reached by a ferry boat which ran at hourly intervals for cars and foot passengers. The island houses several naval... , Hawaii Hawaii Hawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states , and is the only U.S. state made up entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of... |
August 15, 1919 | 5th Group (Composite) 5th Operations Group The 5th Operations Group is an operational component of the United States Air Force 5th Bomb Wing, stationed at Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota... ² (1922) |
| 1st Pursuit Group | Selfridge Field, Michigan Michigan Michigan is a U.S. state located in the Great Lakes Region of the United States of America. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, meaning "large water" or "large lake".... |
August 22, 1919 | 1st Group (Pursuit)² (1921) |
| 1st Day Bombardment Group | Kelly Field, Texas | September 18, 1919 | 2d Group (Bombardment)² (1921) |
| 3d Observation Group | France Field Panama Canal Zone The Panama Canal Zone was a unorganized U.S. territory located within the Republic of Panama, consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending 5 miles on each side of the centerline, but excluding Panama City and Colón, which otherwise would have been partly within the limits of... , Panama Panama Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The... |
September 30, 1919 | 6th Group (Observation)² (1922) |
| First Army Observation Group | Langley Field, Virginia Virginia The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there... |
October 1, 1919 | 7th Group (Observation) (1921)¹ |
| 1st Observation Group | Ft. Stotsenburg Clark Air Base Clark Air Base is a former United States Air Force base on Luzon Island in the Philippines, located 3 miles west of Angeles City, about 40 miles northwest of Metro Manila. Clark Air Base was an American military facility from 1903 to 1991... , Luzon Luzon Luzon is the largest island in the Philippines. It is located in the northernmost region of the archipelago, and is also the name for one of the three primary island groups in the country centered on the Island of Luzon... |
March 3, 1920 | 4th Group (Composite)² (1922) |
| 9th Group (Observation)² | Mitchel Field, New York New York New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east... |
August 1, 1922 |
- ¹Inactivated (1921), redesignated Bombardment while inactive (1923), re-activated 1928
- ²Original 7 groups of US Army Air Corps
Annual Air Service strength
as of June 30 yearly| Year | Strength | Year | Strength | Year | Strength | ||
| 1918 | 138,997 | 1921 | 11,830 | 1924 | 10,488 | ||
| 1919 | 24,115 | 1922 | 9,888 | 1925 | 9,719 | ||
| 1920 | 9,358 | 1923 | 9,407 | 1926 | 9,578 |
Heads of the Air Service
Directors of Air Service- John D. Ryan (August 28, 1918–November 27, 1918)
- Maj.Gen. Charles T. MenoherCharles T. MenoherMajor General Charles Thomas Menoher was a U.S. Army general, first Chief of the United States Army Air Service, and commanded the U.S. Army Hawaiian Department from 1924-1925...
(January 2, 1919–June 4, 1920)
Chiefs of Air Service
- Maj.Gen. Charles T. MenoherCharles T. MenoherMajor General Charles Thomas Menoher was a U.S. Army general, first Chief of the United States Army Air Service, and commanded the U.S. Army Hawaiian Department from 1924-1925...
(June 4, 1920–October 4, 1921) - Maj.Gen. Mason M. PatrickMason PatrickMason Mathews Patrick was a U.S. Army general and air power advocate.Patrick was born in Lewisburg, West Virginia and graduated from West Point in 1886. For three years he was at the Engineer School of Application, Willets Point, New York, graduating in 1889...
(October 5, 1921–July 2, 1926)
Framing the issues
The seven-year history of the post-war Air Service was essentially a prolonged debate between adherents of airpower and the supporters of the traditional military services about the value of an independent Air Force, spurred by the creation of the Royal Air ForceRoyal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
in 1918. On one side were Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell, Brig. Gen. Benjamin Foulois
Benjamin Foulois
Benjamin Delahauf Foulois , was a United States Army general who learned to fly the first military planes purchased from the Wright Brothers. He became the first military aviator as an airship pilot, and achieved numerous other military aviation "firsts"...
, a cadre of young former Reserve officers who made up the overwhelming majority of Army pilots, and a few like-minded politicians and newspapers. Opposed were the General Staff
General Staff
A military staff, often referred to as General Staff, Army Staff, Navy Staff or Air Staff within the individual services, is a group of officers and enlisted personnel that provides a bi-directional flow of information between a commanding officer and subordinate military units...
of the Army, its senior leadership from World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, and the Navy
United States Navy
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world; its battle fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 largest navies combined. The U.S...
. The doctrinal differences were both defined and intensified by struggles for funds caused by the skimpy budgets authorized for the War Department, first by the penurious policies of the Republican administrations in the 1920s, and then by the fiscal realities of the Great Depression
Great Depression
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in about 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s or early 1940s...
. In the end, the struggle for funds as much as any other factor caused the impetus for an independent Air Force.
United States Department of War
The United States Department of War, also called the War Department , was the United States Cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the United States Army...
had appointed Maj.Gen. Charles Menoher, who had commanded the Rainbow Division in France, to be Director of the Air Service to replace Secretary Ryan, signaling to the nation and the airpower proponents its intent to keep the air arm under the direction of the ground forces. Mitchell received the vacant position of Director of Military Aeronautics, but its responsibilities had been transferred to Menoher by Executive Order 3066 to end the dual status mess of the DMA and BAP, and his position was titular only. Instead he became Third Assistant Executive (in effect, S-3), chief of the new Training and Operations Group, where he installed like-minded airmen who had served with him France as division heads and used the position to expound his theories.Lt. Col. Oscar Westover
Oscar Westover
Oscar M. Westover was a major general and fourth chief of the United States Army Air Corps.-Biography:He was born in Bay City, Michigan and enlisted in the Army when he was 18. He began his service as a private in 1901 before being appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point...
, a former infantryman and advocate of submission to "proper authority," was Menoher's deputy executive officer and urged him to relieve Mitchell and his followers if they did not cease their advocacy of an independent air force.
In 1919, Mitchell proposed a Cabinet-level Department of Aviation equal to the War and Navy Departments to control all aviation, including sea-based air, airmail
Airmail
Airmail is mail that is transported by aircraft. It typically arrives more quickly than surface mail, and usually costs more to send...
, and commercial operations. His goal was not only independent and centralized control of airpower, but also encouragement of the peacetime U.S. aviation industry. Mitchell insisted that the debate be both "broad and civil". Foulois, however, complained bitterly to the United States Congress
United States Congress
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
about the historical neglect and indifference of the Army to its air service.Foulois and Menoher testified together at subcommittee hearings on the bill, at which time Menoher suggested that enthusiasm of aviators for an independent air service was the result of desire for personal promotions, a theme repeated by numerous opponents of an independent air force in the next two decades, and characterized them as "temperamental". Foulois, a firebrand who later learned to work within the system, had been reduced in rank from brigadier general to major by the armistice and was stung by the comments. In a solicited statement following Menoher's, he acidly defied the General Staff to name one instance in which it had done anything constructive towards aviation. Although two bills were introduced, in the Senate by Sen. Harry S. New of Indiana and in the House
United States House of Representatives
The United States House of Representatives is one of the two Houses of the United States Congress, the bicameral legislature which also includes the Senate.The composition and powers of the House are established in Article One of the Constitution...
by Rep. Charles F. Curry
Charles F. Curry
Charles Forrest Curry was a U.S. Representative from California and the father of Charles Forrest Curry, Jr.....
of California, both Republicans
Republican Party (United States)
The Republican Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Democratic Party. Founded by anti-slavery expansion activists in 1854, it is often called the GOP . The party's platform generally reflects American conservatism in the U.S...
, to create Mitchell's proposed department and initially garnered strong support, the opposition of the Army's wartime leaders (especially General Pershing) frustrated the effort at the start. Gen. Menoher headed a board consisting of himself and three other generals, all artillery officers, appointed to report back to Congress on the proposed legislation and predictably argued that Unity of Command and conformity to Army discipline overrode all other considerations. The opposition resulted in the passage of the less radical though still significant National Defense Act of 1920.
Mitchell was not discouraged by the failure of his first proposal. He recognized the value of public opinion in the debate and changed tactics, embarking on a publicity campaign on behalf of military aviation. General Menoher, when he was unable to persuade the Secretary of War, John Weeks
John W. Weeks
John Wingate Weeks was an American politician in the Republican Party. He served as a United States Representative for Massachusetts from 1905 to 1913, as a United States Senator from 1913 to 1919, and as Secretary of War from 1921 to 1925.-Life and career:Weeks was born and raised in Lancaster,...
to silence Mitchell, resigned his position on October 4, 1921, and was replaced by Maj.Gen. Mason Patrick
Mason Patrick
Mason Mathews Patrick was a U.S. Army general and air power advocate.Patrick was born in Lewisburg, West Virginia and graduated from West Point in 1886. For three years he was at the Engineer School of Application, Willets Point, New York, graduating in 1889...
. Although an engineer and not an aviator, Patrick had been Pershing's Chief of Air Service in France, where his primary duty had been to coordinate the activities of Foulois and Mitchell, then rivals. Patrick had also testified before Congress against Mitchell's plan for an independent air force.
Patrick was not hostile to aviation, however. He underwent flight training and obtained his wings, then issued a series of reports to the War Department emphasizing the need to expand and modernize the Air Service. In his first annual report in 1922, he warned that the Air Service had been degraded by budget cuts to the degree that it could no longer meet its peacetime obligations, much less mobilize for war. He supported and issued the first air doctrine for the service, Fundamental Conceptions (patterned on Army Training Regulation 10-5 Doctrines Principles and Methods), which outlined strategy and tactics for the air arm.In 1923 Army doctrine was organized into Field Service Regulations, which were general in character, and Training Regulations (TR), which stated combat principles for each combatant arm. Patrick was also critical of the policy that placed air units under the command of corps commanders and proposed that only observation squadrons should be part of the ground forces, with all combat forces centralized under the command of a General Headquarters air force.Under the terminology of the day, "air service aviation" was an auxiliary force (primarily observation units) supporting the ground forces, while "air force aviation" was a combat force whose primary mission was to gain control of the air, then destroy the most important enemy forces on land or sea.
Investigating committees and boards
Naval aviation
Naval aviation is the application of manned military air power by navies, including ships that embark fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters. In contrast, maritime aviation is the operation of aircraft in a maritime role under the command of non-naval forces such as the former RAF Coastal Command or a...
(in effect, shared), was rejected by the Navy, and the reorganization could not be implemented.
The U.S. House of Representatives then appointed the Lampert
Florian Lampert
Florian Lampert , was a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from 1918–1930, serving Wisconsin's 6th District.-Career:...
Committee"The Select Committee of Inquiry into the Operations of the U.S. Air Services", chaired by Rep. Florian Lampert (Republican, Wisconsin). in October 1924 to investigate Patrick's criticisms. Mitchell testified before the committee and, upset by the failure of the War Department to even negotiate with the Navy in order to save the reforms of the Lassiter Board, harshly criticized Army leadership and attacked other witnesses. He had already antagonized the flag and general officers of both services with speeches and articles delivered in 1923 and 1924, and the Army refused to retain him as Assistant Chief of the Air Service when his term expired in March 1925. He was reduced in rank to colonel by Secretary Weeks and exiled to the Eighth Corps Area
Corps area
A Corps area was a geographically-based organizational structure of the United States Army used to accomplish domestic administrative, training and tactical tasks from 1920 to 1942. Each corps area included divisions of the Regular Army, Organized Reserve and National Guard of the United States...
in San Antonio as air officer, where his continuing, reckless, and increasingly strident criticisms prompted President Calvin Coolidge to order his court-martial
Court-martial
A court-martial is a military court. A court-martial is empowered to determine the guilt of members of the armed forces subject to military law, and, if the defendant is found guilty, to decide upon punishment.Most militaries maintain a court-martial system to try cases in which a breach of...
. Mitchell's conviction on December 17, 1925, followed by three days the Lampert Committee's recommendations for creation of a unified air force independent of the Army and Navy; creation of "assistant secretaries for air" in the War, Navy, and Commerce Departments; and establishment of a Department of National Defense.
The third board was the Morrow Board,a "blue ribbon" panel convened by President Coolidge in September 1925 to make a general inquiry into U.S. aviation. Headed by an investment banker and personal friend of Coolidge's, Dwight Morrow
Dwight Morrow
Dwight Whitney Morrow was an American businessman, politician, and diplomat.-Life:Born in Huntington, West Virginia, he moved with his parents, James E. and Clara Morrow to Allegheny, Pennsylvania in 1875. His father James, was principal of Marshall College, which is now Marshall University...
, the board was made up of a federal judge, the head of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was a U.S. federal agency founded on March 3, 1915 to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautical research. On October 1, 1958 the agency was dissolved, and its assets and personnel transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and...
, former military officers now in industry, and the wartime head of the Board of Aircraft Production. The actual purpose of the Morrow Board was to minimize the political impact of the Mitchell trial, and Coolidge directed that it issue its findings by the end of November, to pre-empt the findings of not only the military court but also of the Lampert Committee that might be contrary to the Morrow Board. Its report was released on December 3. The major result of the Morrow Board was to maintain the status quo. It also made the recommendation, adopted in 1926, that the Air Service be renamed the Air Corps, but in doing so Congress denied it the autonomy enjoyed by the Marine Corps
Marine corps
A marine is a member of a force that specializes in expeditionary operations such as amphibious assault and occupation. The marines traditionally have strong links with the country's navy...
within the Navy Department, and thus the Air Corps remained as an auxiliary arm to the ground forces.
Advances in aviation
All American Pathfinders
The All American Pathfinders aeroplane unit was a squadron with 13 aircraft and associated road vehicles used in the "1919 Air Service Transcontinental Recruiting Convoy" from Hazelhurst Field to California that began on August 14, 1919...
, a provisional squadron, began a cross-country educational tour that supported the "1919 Air Service Transcontinental Recruiting Convoy" from Hazelhurst Field to California.http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F4091FF8385C1B728DDDAD0994D0405B898DF1D3 While using public pronouncements for propaganda purposes, Mitchell also fostered within the Air Service advances in aeronautical science that would not only increase its effectiveness as a military service, but would also generate public support.
His first project, undertaken at McCook Field, in Dayton, Ohio, was for the creation of a heavily armored attack plane for supporting ground forces. Although the designs that resulted were not practical and did not meet Mitchell's specifications for aircraft that could land troops behind enemy lines, the project led Mitchell to closely supervise aircraft development, not only at McCook but in Europe as well. On October 30, 1919, the McCook Field engineers tested the first reversible-pitch propeller.
This effort resulted in the development of a monoplane
Monoplane
A monoplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with one main set of wing surfaces, in contrast to a biplane or triplane. Since the late 1930s it has been the most common form for a fixed wing aircraft.-Types of monoplane:...
with retractable landing gear
Landing Gear
Landing Gear is Devin the Dude's fifth studio album. It was released on October 7, 2008. It was his first studio album since signing with the label Razor & Tie. It features a high-profile guest appearance from Snoop Dogg. As of October 30, 2008, the album has sold 18,906 copies.-Track...
, a metal propeller
Propeller (aircraft)
Aircraft propellers or airscrews convert rotary motion from piston engines or turboprops to provide propulsive force. They may be fixed or variable pitch. Early aircraft propellers were carved by hand from solid or laminated wood with later propellers being constructed from metal...
, and a streamlined engine design, the Verville R-3 Racer. Economy measures by the Air Service prevented the project from being fully completed, but contributed to a growing determination within the Air Service to set new aviation records for speed, altitude
Altitude
Altitude or height is defined based on the context in which it is used . As a general definition, altitude is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference datum and a point or object. The reference datum also often varies according to the context...
, distance, and endurance, which in turn contributed not only to technical improvements (and favorable publicity) but also advancements in aviation medicine
Aviation medicine
Aviation medicine, also called flight medicine or aerospace medicine, is a preventive or occupational medicine in which the patients/subjects are pilots, aircrews, or persons involved in spaceflight...
.
Air Service pilots established world records in altitude, distance, and speed. Speed in particular attracted public attention and, although a number of speed records were set in cross-country flying, records were also set on measured courses. Mitchell himself set a world speed record of 222.97 mph (99.7 m/s) over a closed course in a Curtiss R-6 racer
Curtiss CR
|-See also:-External links:* *...
on October 18, 1922, at the Pulitzer Trophy competition of the 1922 National Air Races. A later world speed record of 232 mph (103.7 m/s) was made by 1st Lt. James H. Doolittle in winning the Schneider Trophy
Schneider Trophy
The Coupe d'Aviation Maritime Jacques Schneider was a prize competition for seaplanes. Announced by Jacques Schneider, a financier, balloonist and aircraft enthusiast, in 1911, it offered a prize of roughly £1,000. The race was held eleven times between 1913 and 1931...
race at the 1925 Races.
The practical and military applications of speed were not ignored, however. On September 4, 1922, Doolittle had made the first transcontinental crossing in one day, flying from Pablo Beach, Florida
Jacksonville Beach, Florida
Jacksonville Beach is a city on the Atlantic coast of Duval County, Florida, east of Jacksonville. It is part of the Jacksonville Beaches community, together with Mayport, Atlantic Beach, Neptune Beach, and Ponte Vedra Beach...
, to Rockwell Field
Rockwell Field
Rockwell Field was an Army air base located in Coronado, California, near San Diego. It shared the area known as North Island with Naval Air Station North Island from 1912 to 1935. Its functions were eventually moved to March Field so that the naval air station could take over the whole area...
, California, in 21 hours, 20 minutes, a distance of 2163 mi (3,481 km) in a DH-4 of the 90th Squadron
90th Fighter Squadron
The 90th Fighter Squadron is part of the 3d Wing at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska. It operates the F-22 Raptor aircraft conducting air superiority missions.-Mission:...
. Mitchell concluded that accomplishing the same feat by "daylight only", making only a single stop at Kelly Field, had tremendous value, and staged a dawn-to-dusk transcontinental flight across the United States in the summer of 1924 in a Curtiss PW-8 fighter acquired for the purpose.
Despite the emphasis in the press on speed, the Air Service also established a number of altitude, distance, and endurance records. The Packard-Le Peré LUSAC-11
Packard-Le Peré LUSAC-11
|-References:* . Flight 4 March 1920, p. 265.* Angelucci, Enzo and Peter M. Bowers. The American Fighter. Sparkford, UK:Haynes Publishing Group, 1987. ISBN 0-85429-635-2.* . Flight, 7 February 1924, pp. 73–75....
biplane set world altitude records over McCook Field of 33114 ft (10,093.1 m) on February 27, 1920, by Maj. Rudolph W. Schroeder; and 34507 ft (10,517.7 m) on September 28, 1921, by Lt. John A. Macready. The first nonstop flight across the U.S., made in 26 hours and 50 minutes at an average speed of 98.76 mph, was made May 2-May 3, 1923, from Roosevelt Field, New York, to Rockwell Field in a Fokker
Fokker
Fokker was a Dutch aircraft manufacturer named after its founder, Anthony Fokker. The company operated under several different names, starting out in 1912 in Schwerin, Germany, moving to the Netherlands in 1919....
T-2 (a converted F.IV airliner) by Macready and Lt. Oakley G. Kelly
Oakley G. Kelly
Oakley George Kelly was a record setting pilot for the United States Army Air Service.-Biography:He was born on December 3, 1891 in Pennsylvania.In May 1922, Lieutenant Oakley G...
. The feat was followed in August by a flight in which a DeHavilland DH-4 stayed aloft for more than 37 hours by means of aerial refueling
Aerial refueling
Aerial refueling, also called air refueling, in-flight refueling , air-to-air refueling or tanking, is the process of transferring fuel from one aircraft to another during flight....
. The Fokker T.2 is on display at the National Air and Space Museum
National Air and Space Museum
The National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution holds the largest collection of historic aircraft and spacecraft in the world. It was established in 1976. Located in Washington, D.C., United States, it is a center for research into the history and science of aviation and...
in Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the United States Congress approved the creation of a permanent national capital as permitted by the U.S. Constitution....
The greatest achievement of these projects, however, was the first flight around the world
First aerial circumnavigation
The first aerial circumnavigation of the world was conducted in 1924 by a team of aviators of the United States Army Air Service, the precursor of the United States Air Force...
. The Air Service set up support facilities along the proposed route and in April 1924 sent a flight of four aircraft west from Seattle, Washington. Six months later, two aircraft completed the flight. Even if considered as primarily a publicity stunt
Publicity stunt
A publicity stunt is a planned event designed to attract the public's attention to the event's organizers or their cause. Publicity stunts can be professionally organized or set up by amateurs...
, the flight was a brilliant accomplishment in which five nations had already failed.
Kelly and Macready, Doolittle, and the crews of the circumnavigation flight all won the Mackay Trophy
MacKay trophy
The Mackay Trophy was established on 27 January 1911 by Clarence Hungerford Mackay, who was then head of the Postal Telegraph-Cable Company and the Commercial Cable Company. Originally, aviators could compete for the trophy annually under rules made each year or the War Department could award the...
for the respective years in which they accomplished their feats.
Notable members of the Air Service
- Henry H. ArnoldHenry H. ArnoldHenry Harley "Hap" Arnold was an American general officer holding the grades of General of the Army and later General of the Air Force. Arnold was an aviation pioneer, Chief of the Air Corps , Commanding General of the U.S...
, aviation pioneer; Commanding General of the U. S. Army Air ForcesUnited States Army Air ForcesThe United States Army Air Forces was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II, and the direct predecessor of the United States Air Force.... - Hobey BakerHobey BakerHobart Amory Hare "Hobey" Baker was an American amateur athlete of the early twentieth century. Regarded as the first American star in ice hockey, he was also an accomplished football player. Born into a prominent family from Philadelphia, he enrolled at Princeton University in 1910...
, star athlete at Princeton UniversityPrinceton UniversityPrinceton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and is one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution....
- Hiram Bingham IIIHiram Bingham IIIHiram Bingham, formally Hiram Bingham III, was an academic, explorer, treasure hunter and politician from the United States. He made public the existence of the Quechua citadel of Machu Picchu in 1911 with the guidance of local indigenous farmers...
, United States Senator from Connecticut - Clayton BissellClayton BissellMajor General Clayton Lawrence Bissell was born in Kane, Pennsylvania, in 1896. He graduated from Valparaiso University, Indiana, in 1917 with a degree of doctor of laws. In his role as Gen...
, World War I ace, commander of Tenth Air ForceTenth Air ForceThe Tenth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Reserve Command . It is headquartered at Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Texas....
during World War II - Erwin R. BleckleyErwin R. BleckleyErwin Russell Bleckley was a United States Army Air Service aviator during World War I, and posthumous recipient of the Medal of Honor, killed in action on October 6, 1918. Bleckley entered service as a member of the Kansas National Guard, was commissioned as an artillery officer, then volunteered...
, artillery officer and Medal of HonorMedal of HonorThe Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed by the President, in the name of Congress, upon members of the United States Armed Forces who distinguish themselves through "conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his or her...
recipient - Raynal BollingRaynal BollingColonel Raynal Cawthorne Bolling was the first high-ranking U.S. officer to be killed in combat in World War I. He laid the foundation for the United States Army Air Service in the American Expeditionary Force...
, executive of US Steel; first high-ranking casualty of World War I - Leighton Brewer, Free verse poet and Boston University professor
- Arthur Raymond BrooksArthur Raymond BrooksArthur Raymond Brooks was a World War I flying ace of the United States Army Air Service credited with shooting down six enemy aircraft. He was a pioneer in the development of radio navigational aids used by pilots for location and navigation as well as air-to-ground communications...
, World War I ace - Dick CalkinsDick CalkinsDick Calkins , who often signed his work Lt. Dick Calkins, is a comic strip artist who is best known for being the first artist to draw the Buck Rogers comic strip....
, comic strip artist - Douglas CampbellDouglas Campbell (aviator)Douglas Campbell was an American aviator and World War I flying ace. He was the first American aviator flying in an American unit to achieve the status of ace.-Early life:...
, first American ace - Merian C. CooperMerian C. CooperMerian Caldwell Cooper was an American aviator, United States Air Force and Polish Air Force officer, adventurer, screenwriter, and film director and producer. His most famous film was the 1933 movie King Kong.-Early life:...
, adventurer and Hollywood film producer - Stephen W. CunninghamStephen W. CunninghamStephen W. Cunningham was the first graduate manager at the Southern Branch of the University of California, later UCLA, and a member of the Los Angeles City Council from 1933 to 1941.-Biography:Stephen W...
, UCLA graduate manager and Los Angeles City Council member - Jimmy DoolittleJimmy DoolittleGeneral James Harold "Jimmy" Doolittle, USAF was an American aviation pioneer. Doolittle served as a brigadier general, major general and lieutenant general in the United States Army Air Forces during the Second World War...
, daredevil pilot, aeronautical engineer, World War II general - Ira Eaker, commander of U.S. Eighth Air ForceEighth Air ForceThe Eighth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Global Strike Command . It is headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana....
during World War II - Benjamin Delahauf Foulois, aviation pioneer
- Harold Ernest GoettlerHarold Ernest GoettlerHarold Ernest Goettler was a U.S. Army Air Service aviator killed in action on October 6, 1918 while locating the Lost Battalion of the 77th Division during World War I. He died of wounds resulting from German fire from the ground during the flight...
, Medal of HonorMedal of HonorThe Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed by the President, in the name of Congress, upon members of the United States Armed Forces who distinguish themselves through "conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his or her...
recipient - Edgar Gorrell, Air Service historian and president of Stutz Motor CompanyStutz Motor CompanyThe Stutz Motor Company was a producer of luxury cars based in Indianapolis, Indiana, USA. Production began in 1911 and continued through 1935. The marque reappeared in 1968 under the aegis of Stutz Motor Car of America, Inc., and with a newly defined modern retro-look. Although the company is...
- Dick GraceDick GraceDick Grace was born in Morris, Minnesota and was an early stunt pilot who specialised in crashing planes for films. Grace was one of the few stunt pilots who died of old age. He was the author of several books including Squadron of Death, Crash Pilot, I am still alive, and Visibility Unlimited...
, Hollywood stunt flyer - James Norman HallJames Norman HallJames Norman Hall was an American author best known for the novel Mutiny on the Bounty with co-author Charles Nordhoff.-Biography:Hall was born in Colfax, Iowa, where he attended the local schools...
, writer, co-author of Mutiny on the BountyMutiny on the BountyThe mutiny on the Bounty was a mutiny that occurred aboard the British Royal Navy ship HMS Bounty on 28 April 1789, and has been commemorated by several books, films, and popular songs, many of which take considerable liberties with the facts. The mutiny was led by Fletcher Christian against the... - Charles W. "Chic" HarleyChic HarleyCharles William "Chic" Harley was one of the outstanding American football players of the first half of the 20th century and the player who first brought the Ohio State University football program to national attention. Harley was Ohio State's first consensus first-team All-America selection and...
, All-American college football player - Arthur HarveyArthur HarveyMajor Arthur Harvey was born in Edom, Van Zandt County, Texas, on September 26, 1895. He was a writer, businessman, oil pioneer, family man and a veteran of both World War I and II.-Early life:...
, oil pioneer, author - Howard HawksHoward HawksHoward Winchester Hawks was an American film director, producer and screenwriter of the classic Hollywood era...
, film director - Field Kindley, World War I ace
- Fiorello LaGuardia, U.S. RepresentativeUnited States House of RepresentativesThe United States House of Representatives is one of the two Houses of the United States Congress, the bicameral legislature which also includes the Senate.The composition and powers of the House are established in Article One of the Constitution...
and Mayor of New York
- Reed G. LandisReed G. LandisMajor Reed Gresham Landis was a World War I flying ace credited with twelve aerial victories.-Early life and World War I:Landis was the son of federal judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis. In 1916, he enlisted in the 1st Illinois Cavalry of the National Guard, and served as a private along the Mexican...
, ace while flying with Royal Flying CorpsRoyal Flying CorpsThe Royal Flying Corps was the over-land air arm of the British military during most of the First World War. During the early part of the war, the RFC's responsibilities were centred on support of the British Army, via artillery co-operation and photographic reconnaissance...
(RFC) and early airline executive - Frederick LibbyFrederick LibbyFrederick Libby was the first American ace of World War I, and of all time, achieved while serving as an observer in the Royal Flying Corps.-Early life and service:Frederick Libby was born on 15 July 1891 in Sterling, Colorado...
, first U.S. born ace, while flying with the RFC - Charles LindberghCharles LindberghCharles Augustus Lindbergh was an American aviator, author, inventor, explorer, and social activist.Lindbergh, a 25-year-old U.S...
, aviation pioneer; first trans-Atlantic solo pilot - Raoul LufberyRaoul LufberyGervais Raoul Lufbery was aFrench-American fighter pilot and flying ace in World War I. Because he served in both French aviation, and later the United States Army Air Service in World War I, he is sometimes listed as a French ace and sometimes as an American ace, though all but one of his 17...
, member of Lafayette EscadrilleLafayette EscadrilleThe Lafayette Escadrille , was an escadrille of the French Air Service, the Aéronautique militaire, during World War I composed largely of American volunteer pilots flying fighters.-History:Dr. Edmund L...
and air tactics pioneer - Frank LukeFrank LukeFrank Luke Jr. was an American fighter ace, ranking second among U.S. Army Air Service pilots after Captain Eddie Rickenbacker in number of aerial victories during World War I . Frank Luke was the first airman to receive the Medal of Honor...
, ace and Medal of HonorMedal of HonorThe Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed by the President, in the name of Congress, upon members of the United States Armed Forces who distinguish themselves through "conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his or her...
recipient - Norman Z. McLeodNorman Z. McLeodNorman Zenos McLeod was an American film director, cartoonist and writer...
, Hollywood director - Thomas DeWitt Milling, aviation pioneer and first certified U.S. military pilot
- John Purroy MitchelJohn Purroy MitchelJohn Purroy Mitchel was the mayor of New York from 1914 to 1917. At age 34 he was the second-youngest ever; he is sometimes referred to as "The Boy Mayor of New York." Mayor Mitchel is remembered for his short career as leader of Reform politics in New York, as well as for his early death as an...
, mayor of New York CityNew York CityNew York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
and advocate of universal military training - Billy Mitchell, airpower visionary
- Odas MoonOdas MoonOdas Moon was an American aviation pioneer who was among a team of United States Army Air Corps aviators to break endurance records by performing aerial refueling. Moon was a founding member of the Order of Daedalians...
, pioneer in aerial refueling and bombing doctrine - Charles NordhoffCharles NordhoffCharles Bernard Nordhoff was an English-born American novelist and traveler.-Early life:Charles Nordhoff was born in London, England, on February 1, 1887, to American parents. His father was Walter Nordhoff, a wealthy businessman and author of The Journey of the Flame penned under the name...
, co-author of Mutiny on the Bounty - Clyde Pangborn, aviation pioneer, first non-stop flight across the Pacific Ocean
- Eddie RickenbackerEddie RickenbackerEdward Vernon Rickenbacker was an American fighter ace in World War I and Medal of Honor recipient. He was also a race car driver and automotive designer, a government consultant in military matters and a pioneer in air transportation, particularly as the longtime head of Eastern Air Lines.-Early...
, highest ranking U.S. ace of World War I and Medal of HonorMedal of HonorThe Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed by the President, in the name of Congress, upon members of the United States Armed Forces who distinguish themselves through "conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his or her...
recipient - Quentin RooseveltQuentin RooseveltQuentin Roosevelt was the youngest and favorite son of President Theodore Roosevelt. Family and friends agreed that Quentin had many of his father's positive qualities and few of the negative ones. Inspired by his father and siblings, he joined the United States Army Air Service where he became a...
, youngest son of President Theodore RooseveltTheodore RooseveltTheodore "Teddy" Roosevelt was the 26th President of the United States . He is noted for his exuberant personality, range of interests and achievements, and his leadership of the Progressive Movement, as well as his "cowboy" persona and robust masculinity... - John Monk SaundersJohn Monk SaundersJohn Monk Saunders was an American novelist, screenwriter and film director.-Early life and career:...
, author and screenwriter - Carl Andrew Spaatz, first Chief of Staff of the United States Air ForceChief of Staff of the United States Air ForceThe Chief of Staff of the Air Force is a statutory office held by a four-star general in the United States Air Force, and is the most senior uniformed officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Air Force, and as such is the principal military advisor and a deputy to the Secretary of the...
- Elliott White SpringsElliott White SpringsElliott White Springs , was a South Carolina businessman and an American flying ace of World War I, credited with shooting down 16 enemy aircraft.-Early life:...
, ace with RFC and USAS, post-war pulp fiction writer - Stephen W. ThompsonStephen W. ThompsonStephen W. Thompson was an American aviator of World War I, and the first person in the U.S. Military to shoot down an enemy aircraft .-Early life:...
, first U. S. military aerial victor - George Augustus Vaughn, Jr.George Augustus Vaughn, Jr.George Augustus Vaughn, Jr. was an American fighter ace in World War I and Distinguished Service Cross, Britain's Distinguished Flying Cross, and Silver Star recipient....
, World War I Ace - Alfred V. VervilleAlfred V. VervilleAlfred Victor Verville was an aviation pioneer and designer who contributed to civilian and military aviation. During his 47 years in the aviation industry, he led the design and development of nearly a dozen commercial and military airplanes...
, aircraft designer - William Wellman, Hollywood film directorFilm directorA film director is a person who directs the actors and film crew in filmmaking. They control a film's artistic and dramatic nathan roach, while guiding the technical crew and actors.-Responsibilities:...
- Charles A. Willoughby, World War II general in the United States ArmyUnited States ArmyThe United States Army is the main branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military, and is one of seven U.S. uniformed services...
- John Gilbert WinantJohn Gilbert WinantJohn Gilbert Winant OM was an American politician with the Republican party after a brief career as a teacher in Concord, New Hampshire. Born in New York City, Winant held positions in New Hampshire, national, and international politics...
, educator, governor of New HampshireGovernor of New HampshireThe Governor of the State of New Hampshire is the supreme executive magistrate of the U.S. state of New Hampshire.The governor is elected at the biennial state general election in November of even-numbered years. New Hampshire is one of only two states, along with bordering Vermont, to hold...
, and ambassador to BritainUnited States Ambassador to the United KingdomThe office of United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom was traditionally, and still is very much so today due to the Special Relationship, the most prestigious position in the United States Foreign Service...
See also
- Organization of the Air Service of the American Expeditionary ForceOrganization of the Air Service of the American Expeditionary ForceThe Organization of the Air Service of the American Expeditionary Force on November 11, 1918 represents its maximum strength in World War I. Units of the Air Service are listed as assigned to the order of battle for that date, which was that of the Armistice with Germany...
- Organization of the U.S. Army Air Service in 1925Organization of the U.S. Army Air Service in 1925The Organization of the U.S. Army Air Service in 1925 is a snapshot of that service from its final major organizational change in June 1924, when the 1st Wing was inactivated, to its name change in July 1926 to the United States Army Air Corps...
- List of American Aero Squadrons
- List of American Balloon Squadrons
External links
- Military Times Hall of Fame, listing of 567 citations for gallantry for Air Service members
- 1st Pursuit Group history at www.acepilots.com
- United States Air Service overview, history and 90th Anniversary celebration photos at www.usaww1.com
- United States Air Service interactive Google Map of bases, etc. at www.usaww1.com
- 1st Pursuit Group history at www.1stfighter.com
- 50th Aero Squadron Harold Goettler and Erwin Bleckley to be Honored October 7, 2009
- History of the US 22nd Aero Squadron by Arthur R. Brooks (.pdf) - Call of the Air silent