Willingness to communicate
Encyclopedia
In second language acquisition
, willingness to communicate (WTC) refers to the idea that language students
(language learners) who are willing to communicate in the second language
(L2) actually look for chances to communicate
; and furthermore, these learners actually do communicate in the L2. Therefore, "the ultimate goal of the learning
process should be to engender in language education
students" the willingness to communicate (MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei & Noels:1998).
Language programs that do not instill this are therefore failed
programs.
The model, with six layers, has a total of twelve constructs. The layers, from top to bottom, are:
Layers VI, V, and IV are considered to be lasting influences. At layers III, II and I, the influences on actual L2 use are at a given time.
The twelve constructs, from top to bottom, are:
of Willingness to Communicate in Chinese students. They conclude that the reticence to verbally engage is rooted in “two aspects governing interpersonal relations: an other-directed self and a submissive way of learning.” (p. 19)
The “other-directed self” is based on the idea that Chinese culture, like many other Asian cultures, values the collective
over the individual. This value is traced back to the founding values of Chinese culture:
The value placed on relations to others defining the self relates closely to the concept of “face
.” Face is lost when one behaves badly in class. This has an inevitable effect on WtC “it seems likely that Chinese students would be even more sensitive to the judgment of the public upon their language behaviors and, therefore, lesses likely to get involved in classroom communication.” Not incidentally, Wen and Clement identify a cultural trait that places value on resisting “outsider culture,” which may result in additional difficulty in adapting to different norms of verbal participation (p. 21-22).
The second major factor detailed in this study is submission in learning:
To perhaps oversimplify, rigid adherence to infallible ancient teachings was believed to result in virtuous behavior and wisdom. Submission to canonical texts and to the teachers who had mastered them was then valued more than individuals’ participation and questioning.
Submission in learning deeply shapes how Chinese students engage in the American ESL classroom. The teacher is seen as the source of all knowledge, so Chinese students will not value partner and small group work as highly. This also accounts of “the enthusiasm for grammar, the ‘law’ of the English language.” Accuracy is valued much more than fluency. The resulting lack of fluency further diminishes students’ willingness to communicate (p. 23).
or MEXT, as Yashima (2002) noted, has, for a number of years, begun to place a greater emphasis on communication in the L2. Prior to this, English education
in Japanese classrooms
was, and still is for many, considered a knowledge-based subject, like mathematics
and sciences. Grammar
and vocabulary
have been learnt to solve increasingly complex linguistic puzzles — entrance exams — which had significant consequences for the test takers, and because they are still used today, still do.
According to MEXT guidelines, however, the objectives
for the study of foreign language
s is to develop practical communication abilities
, deepen the understanding of foreign cultures and foster positive attitudes toward communicating in an L2. Despite the stated goals and objectives in MEXT's guidelines, Fujita (2002) cautioned, however, that as yet there is no clear “consensus as to the purpose of learning English in Japan” (p. 19).
Yashima asked with whom and for what purposes Japanese will communicate in their L2. "For many learners, English symbolizes the world around Japan, something that connects them to foreign countries and foreigners […], with whom they can communicate by using English" (p. 57). Yashima called this desire by Japanese to learn English to communicate with the world around them international posture: a general attitude towards the international community that "influences motivation
[in learning an L2], which, in turn, predicts proficiency and L2 communication confidence" (Yashima, 2002, p. 63).
International posture, along with L2 confidence in communication, was also seen as directly influencing WTC. While proficiency was seen as influencing confidence in L2 communication, the path was not significant. In the Japanese context, this implies that students do have the abilities to perform in the L2, yet lack confidence in communicating in the L2.
Yashima (2002) concluded with a call that "EFL lessons should be designed to enhance students’ interest in different culture
s and international affairs and activities, as well as to reduce anxiety
and build confidence in communication" (p. 63).
(L1) does not necessarily transfer to the L2. “It is highly unlikely that WTC in the second language (L2) is a simple manifestation of WTC in the L1” (p. 546).
Hashimoto (2002) investigated affective variables as predictors of use of the L2 in the L2 classroom. In her study of advanced-level (500+ on the TOEFL
) Japanese students studying at the University of Hawai'i at Manoa, the path between perceived competence and greater frequency of use of the L2 was not significant. She suggested that less able students would be willing to speak in class if they perceived themselves as competent, but more able students would not.
Second language acquisition
Second-language acquisition or second-language learning is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language acquisition is also the name of the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process...
, willingness to communicate (WTC) refers to the idea that language students
Language acquisition
Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce and use words to understand and communicate. This capacity involves the picking up of diverse capacities including syntax, phonetics, and an extensive vocabulary. This language might be vocal as with...
(language learners) who are willing to communicate in the second language
Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
(L2) actually look for chances to communicate
Interpersonal communication
Interpersonal communication is usually defined by communication scholars in numerous ways, usually describing participants who are dependent upon one another. It...
; and furthermore, these learners actually do communicate in the L2. Therefore, "the ultimate goal of the learning
Learning
Learning is acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines. Progress over time tends to follow learning curves.Human learning...
process should be to engender in language education
Language education
Language education is the teaching and learning of a foreign or second language. Language education is a branch of applied linguistics.- Need for language education :...
students" the willingness to communicate (MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei & Noels:1998).
Language programs that do not instill this are therefore failed
Failure
Failure refers to the state or condition of not meeting a desirable or intended objective, and may be viewed as the opposite of success. Product failure ranges from failure to sell the product to fracture of the product, in the worst cases leading to personal injury, the province of forensic...
programs.
Pyramid model
A pyramid model has been established that describes learners' use of the L2. As the learner moves up the pyramid, the learner has more control over the act of communicating in the target language.The model, with six layers, has a total of twelve constructs. The layers, from top to bottom, are:
- communication behaviour (I)
- behavioural intention (II)
- situated antecedents (III)
- motivational propensities (IV)
- affective-cognitive context (V)
- social and individual context (VI)
Layers VI, V, and IV are considered to be lasting influences. At layers III, II and I, the influences on actual L2 use are at a given time.
The twelve constructs, from top to bottom, are:
- use (layer I)
- willingness to communicate (II)
- desire to communicate with a specific person (III)
- state of communicating self-confidence (III)
- interpersonal motivation (IV)
- intergroup motivation (IV)
- self-confidenceSelf-confidenceThe socio-psychological concept of self-confidence relates to self-assuredness in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc., sometimes manifested excessively.Being confident in yourself is infectious if you present yourself well, others will want to follow in your foot steps towards...
(IV) - intergroup attitudes (V)
- social situation (V)
- competenceSkillA skill is the learned capacity to carry out pre-determined results often with the minimum outlay of time, energy, or both. Skills can often be divided into domain-general and domain-specific skills...
(V) - intergroup climate (VI)
- personality (VI)
WTC in Chinese contexts
In their article “A Chinese Conceptualisation of Willingness to Communicate in ESL,” authors Wen and Clement attempt something of a cultural anthropologyAnthropology
Anthropology is the study of humanity. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean mankind or humanity, and -logia , "discourse" or "study", and was first used in 1501 by German...
of Willingness to Communicate in Chinese students. They conclude that the reticence to verbally engage is rooted in “two aspects governing interpersonal relations: an other-directed self and a submissive way of learning.” (p. 19)
The “other-directed self” is based on the idea that Chinese culture, like many other Asian cultures, values the collective
Collective
A collective is a group of entities that share or are motivated by at least one common issue or interest, or work together on a specific project to achieve a common objective...
over the individual. This value is traced back to the founding values of Chinese culture:
- only in the presence of the other, will the self be significant. For Confucius, the self did not exit [sic] as a single entity. It’s existential reality is dialectically related to the family, the community, the nation and the world (Chai & Chai, 1965). Self is relational, and it is defined by the surrounding relations (Gao, 1998). In Chinese culture, the social and moral process of ‘conducting oneself’ is to be aware of one’s relations with others. Chinese people can never separate themselves from obligation to others. (p. 20)
The value placed on relations to others defining the self relates closely to the concept of “face
Face (sociological concept)
Face, idiomatically meaning dignity/prestige, is a fundamental concept in the fields of sociology, sociolinguistics, semantics, politeness theory, psychology, political science, communication, and Face Negotiation Theory.-Definitions:...
.” Face is lost when one behaves badly in class. This has an inevitable effect on WtC “it seems likely that Chinese students would be even more sensitive to the judgment of the public upon their language behaviors and, therefore, lesses likely to get involved in classroom communication.” Not incidentally, Wen and Clement identify a cultural trait that places value on resisting “outsider culture,” which may result in additional difficulty in adapting to different norms of verbal participation (p. 21-22).
The second major factor detailed in this study is submission in learning:
- The tendency of Chinese teachers to play an authoritative role and of Chinese students to submit to authority in the process of learning goes back to ConfucianismConfucianismConfucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
and the teaching of Confucian Classics. In Imperial China, ‘the whole process of learning and education was oriented to the mechanical memorisation of ideals of antiquity, principally the Four Books and Five Great Classics’ (Pratt, 1992: 302) (p. 22).
To perhaps oversimplify, rigid adherence to infallible ancient teachings was believed to result in virtuous behavior and wisdom. Submission to canonical texts and to the teachers who had mastered them was then valued more than individuals’ participation and questioning.
Submission in learning deeply shapes how Chinese students engage in the American ESL classroom. The teacher is seen as the source of all knowledge, so Chinese students will not value partner and small group work as highly. This also accounts of “the enthusiasm for grammar, the ‘law’ of the English language.” Accuracy is valued much more than fluency. The resulting lack of fluency further diminishes students’ willingness to communicate (p. 23).
WTC in Japanese contexts
The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan)Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan)
The , also known as MEXT or Monkashō, is one of the ministries of the Japanese government.The Meiji government created the first Ministry of Education in 1871....
or MEXT, as Yashima (2002) noted, has, for a number of years, begun to place a greater emphasis on communication in the L2. Prior to this, English education
English language learning and teaching
English as a second language , English for speakers of other languages and English as a foreign language all refer to the use or study of English by speakers with different native languages. The precise usage, including the different use of the terms ESL and ESOL in different countries, is...
in Japanese classrooms
Education in Japan
In Japan, education is compulsory at the elementary and lower secondary levels. Approximately 98% of all students progress to the upper secondary level, which is voluntary . Most students attend public schools through the lower secondary level, but private education is popular at the upper...
was, and still is for many, considered a knowledge-based subject, like mathematics
Mathematics
Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...
and sciences. Grammar
Grammar
In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics,...
and vocabulary
Vocabulary
A person's vocabulary is the set of words within a language that are familiar to that person. A vocabulary usually develops with age, and serves as a useful and fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge...
have been learnt to solve increasingly complex linguistic puzzles — entrance exams — which had significant consequences for the test takers, and because they are still used today, still do.
According to MEXT guidelines, however, the objectives
Curriculum
See also Syllabus.In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses, and their content, offered at a school or university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults...
for the study of foreign language
Foreign language
A foreign language is a language indigenous to another country. It is also a language not spoken in the native country of the person referred to, i.e. an English speaker living in Japan can say that Japanese is a foreign language to him or her...
s is to develop practical communication abilities
Communicative competence
Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately....
, deepen the understanding of foreign cultures and foster positive attitudes toward communicating in an L2. Despite the stated goals and objectives in MEXT's guidelines, Fujita (2002) cautioned, however, that as yet there is no clear “consensus as to the purpose of learning English in Japan” (p. 19).
Yashima asked with whom and for what purposes Japanese will communicate in their L2. "For many learners, English symbolizes the world around Japan, something that connects them to foreign countries and foreigners […], with whom they can communicate by using English" (p. 57). Yashima called this desire by Japanese to learn English to communicate with the world around them international posture: a general attitude towards the international community that "influences motivation
Motivation
Motivation is the driving force by which humans achieve their goals. Motivation is said to be intrinsic or extrinsic. The term is generally used for humans but it can also be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation...
[in learning an L2], which, in turn, predicts proficiency and L2 communication confidence" (Yashima, 2002, p. 63).
International posture, along with L2 confidence in communication, was also seen as directly influencing WTC. While proficiency was seen as influencing confidence in L2 communication, the path was not significant. In the Japanese context, this implies that students do have the abilities to perform in the L2, yet lack confidence in communicating in the L2.
Yashima (2002) concluded with a call that "EFL lessons should be designed to enhance students’ interest in different culture
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
s and international affairs and activities, as well as to reduce anxiety
Anxiety
Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components. The root meaning of the word anxiety is 'to vex or trouble'; in either presence or absence of psychological stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness,...
and build confidence in communication" (p. 63).
Difference between L1 and L2 WTC
MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei & Noels (1998) noted that WTC in first languageFirst language
A first language is the language a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity...
(L1) does not necessarily transfer to the L2. “It is highly unlikely that WTC in the second language (L2) is a simple manifestation of WTC in the L1” (p. 546).
Hashimoto (2002) investigated affective variables as predictors of use of the L2 in the L2 classroom. In her study of advanced-level (500+ on the TOEFL
TOEFL
The Test of English as a Foreign Language, or TOEFL , evaluates the ability of an individual to use and understand English in an academic setting....
) Japanese students studying at the University of Hawai'i at Manoa, the path between perceived competence and greater frequency of use of the L2 was not significant. She suggested that less able students would be willing to speak in class if they perceived themselves as competent, but more able students would not.
Engendering WTC
There exist a variety of strategies to increase students' willingness to communicate in the classroom:- Enable students' interest in foreign affairsForeign AffairsForeign Affairs is an American magazine and website on international relations and U.S. foreign policy published since 1922 by the Council on Foreign Relations six times annually...
and foreign cultureCultureCulture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
s to grow. - Remove students' anxietyAnxietyAnxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components. The root meaning of the word anxiety is 'to vex or trouble'; in either presence or absence of psychological stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness,...
and build their confidence in using the L2. - Build on students' knowledge.
- Before students are asked to complete tasks in a large-group setting, have them perform the task in pairs.
- Use authentic materials in the classroom.
- Use a variety of activities and tasks.
See also
- Applied linguisticsApplied linguisticsApplied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems...
- English language learning and teachingEnglish language learning and teachingEnglish as a second language , English for speakers of other languages and English as a foreign language all refer to the use or study of English by speakers with different native languages. The precise usage, including the different use of the terms ESL and ESOL in different countries, is...
- Motivation in second language learning
- Second language acquisitionSecond language acquisitionSecond-language acquisition or second-language learning is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language acquisition is also the name of the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process...
- Language exchangeLanguage exchangeTandem language learning is a method of language learning based on mutual language exchange between tandem partners...