English language learning and teaching

English language

English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...

as a second language

Second language

A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....

(ESL), English for speakers of other languages (ESOL) and English as a foreign language (EFL) all refer to the use or study of English by speakers with different native languages. The precise usage, including the different use of the terms ESL and ESOL in different countries, is described below. These terms are most commonly used in relation to teaching and learning English, but they may also be used in relation to demographic information.

English language teaching (ELT) is a widely-used teacher-centred term, as in the English language teaching divisions of large publishing houses, ELT training, etc. Teaching English as a second language (TESL), teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) and teaching English as a foreign language

Teaching English as a foreign language

Teaching English as a foreign language refers to teaching English to students whose first language is not English. TEFL usually occurs in the student's own country, either within the state school system, or privately, e.g., in an after-hours language school or with a tutor...

(TEFL) are also used.

Other terms used in this field include English as an additional language (EAL), English as an international language

International English

International English is the concept of the English language as a global means of communication in numerous dialects, and also the movement towards an international standard for the language...

(EIL), English as a lingua franca

English as a lingua franca

English as a lingua franca can be defined as “an additionally acquired language system which serves as a common means of communication for speakers of different first languages”...

(ELF), English for special purposes, or English for specific purposes

English for Specific Purposes

English for Specific Purposes is a sphere of teaching English language including Business English, Technical English, Scientific English, English for medical professionals, English for waiters, English for tourism, English for Art Purposes, etc...

(ESP), English for academic purposes

English for Academic Purposes

English for academic purposes entails training students, usually in a higher education setting, to use language appropriately for study. It is a challenging and multi-faceted area within the wider field of English language learning and teaching , and is one of the most common forms of English for...

(EAP). Some terms that refer to those who are learning English are English language learner

English language learner

An English language learner is a person who is learning the English language in addition to their native language...

(ELL), limited English proficiency (LEP) and culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD).

Terminology and types

The many acronyms

Acronym and initialism

Acronyms and initialisms are abbreviations formed from the initial components in a phrase or a word. These components may be individual letters or parts of words . There is no universal agreement on the precise definition of the various terms , nor on written usage...

and abbreviation

Abbreviation

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase...

s used in the field of English teaching and learning may be confusing. English is a language which has great reach and influence; it is taught all over the world under many different circumstances. In English-speaking countries, English language teaching is essentially evolved in two broad directions: instruction for people who intend to live in an English-speaking country and for those who do not. These divisions have grown firmer as the instructors of these two "industries" have used different terminology

Terminology

Terminology is the study of terms and their use. Terms are words and compound words that in specific contexts are given specific meanings, meanings that may deviate from the meaning the same words have in other contexts and in everyday language. The discipline Terminology studies among other...

, followed distinct training qualifications, formed separate professional associations, and so on. Crucially, these two arms have very different funding structures, public in the former and private in the latter, and to some extent this influences the way schools are established and classes are held. Matters are further complicated by the fact that the United States

United States

The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

and the United Kingdom

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...

, both major engines of the language, describe these categories in different terms: as many eloquent users of the language have observed, "England and America are two countries divided by a common language." (Attributed to Winston Churchill

Winston Churchill

Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, was a predominantly Conservative British politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century and served as Prime Minister twice...

, George Bernard Shaw

George Bernard Shaw

George Bernard Shaw was an Irish playwright and a co-founder of the London School of Economics. Although his first profitable writing was music and literary criticism, in which capacity he wrote many highly articulate pieces of journalism, his main talent was for drama, and he wrote more than 60...

, and Oscar Wilde

Oscar Wilde

Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde was an Irish writer and poet. After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s, he became one of London's most popular playwrights in the early 1890s...

.) The following technical definitions may therefore have their currency contested.

English outside English-speaking countries

EFL, English as a foreign language, indicates the use of English in a non–English-speaking region. Study can occur either in the student's home country, as part of the normal school curriculum or otherwise, or, for the more privileged minority, in an anglophone

English-speaking world

The English-speaking world consists of those countries or regions that use the English language to one degree or another. For more information, please see:Lists:* List of countries by English-speaking population...

country that they visit as a sort of educational tourist, particularly immediately before or after graduating from university. TEFL is the teaching of English as a foreign language

Teaching English as a Foreign Language

; note that this sort of instruction can take place in any country, English-speaking or not. Typically, EFL is learned either to pass exams as a necessary part of one's education, or for career progression while working for an organisation or business with an international focus. EFL may be part of the state school curriculum

Curriculum

See also Syllabus.In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses, and their content, offered at a school or university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults...

in countries where English has no special status (what linguist Braj Kachru calls the "expanding circle countries"); it may also be supplemented by lessons paid for privately. Teachers of EFL generally assume that students are literate in their mother tongue

First language

A first language is the language a person has learned from birth or within the critical period, or that a person speaks the best and so is often the basis for sociolinguistic identity...

. The Chinese EFL Journal and Iranian EFL Journal are examples of international journals dedicated to specifics of English language learning within countries where English is used as a foreign language.

English within English-speaking countries

The other broad grouping is the use of English within the Anglosphere

Anglosphere

Anglosphere is a neologism which refers to those nations with English as the most common language. The term can be used more specifically to refer to those nations which share certain characteristics within their cultures based on a linguistic heritage, through being former British colonies...

. In what theorist Braj Kachru calls "the inner circle", i.e. countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, this use of English is generally by refugee

Refugee

A refugee is a person who outside her country of origin or habitual residence because she has suffered persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or because she is a member of a persecuted 'social group'. Such a person may be referred to as an 'asylum seeker' until...

s, immigrants and their children. It also includes the use of English in "outer circle" countries, often former British colonies

Commonwealth of Nations

The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...

, where English is an official language

Official language

An official language is a language that is given a special legal status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically a nation's official language will be the one used in that nation's courts, parliament and administration. However, official status can also be used to give a...

even if it is not spoken as a mother tongue by the majority of the population.

In the US, Canada and Australia, this use of English is called ESL (English as a second language). This term has been criticized on the grounds that many learners already speak more than one language. A counter-argument says that the word "a" in the phrase "a second language" means there is no presumption that English is the second acquired language (see also Second language
Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....

). TESL is the teaching of English as a second language.

In the UK, Ireland and New Zealand, the term ESL has been replaced by ESOL (English for speakers of other languages). In these countries TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is normally used to refer to teaching English only to this group. In the UK, the term EAL (English as an additional language), rather than ESOL, is usually used when talking about primary and secondary schools, in order to clarify English is not the students' first language, but their second or third.

Other acronyms were created to describe the person rather than the language to be learned. The term LEP (Limited English proficiency) was created in 1975 by the Lau Remedies following a decision of the US Supreme Court. ELL (English Language Learner), used by United States governments and school systems, was created by James Crawford of the Institute for Language and Education Policy in an effort to label learners positively, rather than ascribing a deficiency to them. LOTE

Lote

Lote is a village in the municipality of Eid in Sogn og Fjordane county, Norway. The population of Lote was 132. The village is located about southeast of Nordfjordeid and about northwest of Sandane in Gloppen municipality...

(Languages other than English) is a parallel term used in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

Typically, this sort of English (called ESL in the United States, Canada, and Australia, ESOL in the United Kingdom, Ireland and New Zealand) is learned to function in the new host country, e.g. within the school system (if a child), to find and hold down a job (if an adult), to perform the necessities of daily life. The teaching of it does not presuppose literacy in the mother tongue. It is usually paid for by the host government to help newcomers settle into their adopted country, sometimes as part of an explicit citizenship

Citizenship

Citizenship is the state of being a citizen of a particular social, political, national, or human resource community. Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and responsibilities...

program. It is technically possible for ESL to be taught not in the host country, but in, for example, a refugee camp, as part of a pre-departure program sponsored by the government soon to receive new potential citizens. In practice, however, this is extremely rare.

Particularly in Canada

Canada

Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...

and Australia

Australia

Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...

, the term ESD (English as a second dialect

Dialect

The term dialect is used in two distinct ways, even by linguists. One usage refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors,...

) is used alongside ESL, usually in reference to programs for Canadian First Nations

First Nations

First Nations is a term that collectively refers to various Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis. There are currently over 630 recognised First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. The...

people or indigenous Australians

Indigenous Australians

Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. The Aboriginal Indigenous Australians migrated from the Indian continent around 75,000 to 100,000 years ago....

, respectively. It refers to the use of standard English, which may need to be explicitly taught, by speakers of a creole

Creole language

A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable natural language developed from the mixing of parent languages; creoles differ from pidgins in that they have been nativized by children as their primary language, making them have features of natural languages that are normally missing from...

or non-standard variety. It is often grouped with ESL as ESL/ESD.

Umbrella terms

All these ways of denoting the teaching of English can be bundled together into an umbrella term

Umbrella term

An umbrella term is a word that provides a superset or grouping of concepts that all fall under a single common category. Umbrella term is also called a hypernym. For example, cryptology is an umbrella term that encompasses cryptography and cryptanalysis, among other fields...

. Unfortunately, all the English teachers in the world cannot agree on just one. The term TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is used in American English

American English

American English is a set of dialects of the English language used mostly in the United States. Approximately two-thirds of the world's native speakers of English live in the United States....

to include both TEFL and TESL. This is also the case in Canada. British English

British English

British English, or English , is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the United Kingdom from forms used elsewhere...

uses ELT (English language teaching), because TESOL has a different, more specific meaning; see above.

Systems of simplified English

Several models of "simplified English" have been suggested or developed for international communication, among them:

Basic English
Basic English
Basic English, also known as Simple English, is an English-based controlled language created by linguist and philosopher Charles Kay Ogden as an international auxiliary language, and as an aid for teaching English as a Second Language...

, developed by Charles Kay Ogden
Charles Kay Ogden
Charles Kay Ogden was an English linguist, philosopher, and writer. Described as a polymath but also an eccentric and outsider, he took part in many ventures related to literature, politics, the arts and philosophy, having a broad impact particularly as an editor, translator, and activist on...

(and later also I. A. Richards
I. A. Richards
Ivor Armstrong Richards was an influential English literary critic and rhetorician....

) in the 1930s; a recent revival has been initiated by Bill Templer
Threshold Level English, developed by van Ek and Alexander
Globish
Globish (Nerriere)
Globish is a subset of the English language formalized by Jean-Paul Nerriere. It uses a subset of standard English grammar, and a list of 1500 English words...

, developed by Jean-Paul Nerrière
Basic Global English, developed by Joachim Grzega
Nuclear English, proposed by Randolph Quirk and Gabriele Stein but never fully developed
The English collectively developed in the Simple English Wikipedia
Simple English Wikipedia
The Simple English Wikipedia is an English edition of the online encyclopedia Wikipedia, primarily written in Basic English and Special English. Founded in 2003, the site has the stated aim of providing an encyclopedia for "people with different needs, such as students, children, adults with...

, primarily Basic English
Basic English
Basic English, also known as Simple English, is an English-based controlled language created by linguist and philosopher Charles Kay Ogden as an international auxiliary language, and as an aid for teaching English as a Second Language...

and Special English
Special English
Special English is a controlled version of the English language first used on October 19, 1959, and still presented daily by the United States broadcasting service Voice of America. World news and other programs are read one-third slower than regular VOA English. Reporters avoid idioms and use a...

Difficulties for learners

Language teaching practice often assumes that most of the difficulties that learners face in the study of English

English language

are a consequence of the degree to which their native language differs from English (a contrastive analysis

Contrastive analysis

Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities. Historically it has been used to establish language genealogies....

approach). A native speaker of Chinese

Chinese language

The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...

, for example, may face many more difficulties than a native speaker of German

German language

German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....

, because German is closely related to English, whereas Chinese is not. Another example will be Spanish, because a lot of the words that come from this language are written in the same way though pronounced differently. This may be true for anyone of any mother tongue (also called first language, normally abbreviated L1) setting out to learn any other language (called a target language

Second language

, second language or L2). See also second language acquisition

Second language acquisition

Second-language acquisition or second-language learning is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language acquisition is also the name of the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process...

(SLA) for mixed evidence from linguistic research.

Language learners often produce errors of syntax

Syntax

In linguistics, syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentences in natural languages....

and pronunciation

Pronunciation

Pronunciation refers to the way a word or a language is spoken, or the manner in which someone utters a word. If one is said to have "correct pronunciation", then it refers to both within a particular dialect....

thought to result from the influence of their L1, such as mapping its grammatical patterns inappropriately onto the L2, pronouncing certain sounds incorrectly or with difficulty, and confusing items of vocabulary known as false friend

False friend

False friends are pairs of words or phrases in two languages or dialects that look or sound similar, but differ in meaning....

s. This is known as L1 transfer or "language interference". However, these transfer effects are typically stronger for beginners' language production, and SLA research has highlighted many errors which cannot be attributed to the L1, as they are attested in learners of many language backgrounds (for example, failure to apply 3rd person

Grammatical person

Grammatical person, in linguistics, is deictic reference to a participant in an event; such as the speaker, the addressee, or others. Grammatical person typically defines a language's set of personal pronouns...

present singular -s to verbs, as in 'he make').

Some students may have very different cultural perceptions in the classroom as far as learning a second language is concerned. Also, cultural differences in communication styles and preferences are significant. For example, a study looked at Chinese ESL students and British teachers and found that the Chinese learners did not see classroom discussion and interaction as important but placed a heavy emphasis on teacher-directed lectures.

Pronunciation

Consonant phonemes

English does not have more individual consonant

Consonant

In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are , pronounced with the lips; , pronounced with the front of the tongue; , pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced in the throat; and ,...

sounds than most languages. However, the interdentals, /θ/ and /ð/ (the sounds written with th), which are common in English (thin, thing, etc.; and the, this, that, etc.) are relatively rare in other languages, even others in the Germanic family

Germanic languages

The Germanic languages constitute a sub-branch of the Indo-European language family. The common ancestor of all of the languages in this branch is called Proto-Germanic , which was spoken in approximately the mid-1st millennium BC in Iron Age northern Europe...

(e.g., English thousand = German

German language

tausend), and these sounds are missing even in some English dialects. Some learners substitute a [t] or [d] sound, while others shift to [s] or [z], [f] or [v] and even [ts] or [dz].

Speakers of Japanese

Japanese language

is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...

, Korean

Korean language

Korean is the official language of the country Korea, in both South and North. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in People's Republic of China. There are about 78 million Korean speakers worldwide. In the 15th century, a national writing...

, Chinese

Chinese language

and Thai

Thai language

Thai , also known as Central Thai and Siamese, is the national and official language of Thailand and the native language of the Thai people, Thailand's dominant ethnic group. Thai is a member of the Tai group of the Tai–Kadai language family. Historical linguists have been unable to definitively...

may have difficulty distinguishing [ɹ] and [l]. Speakers of Xiang Chinese may have a similar difficulty distinguishing [n] and [l]. The distinction between [b] and [v] can cause difficulty for native speakers of Spanish

Spanish language

Spanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the...

, Arabic

Arabic language

Arabic is a name applied to the descendants of the Classical Arabic language of the 6th century AD, used most prominently in the Quran, the Islamic Holy Book...

, Japanese and Korean.

Vowel phonemes

The precise number of distinct vowel

Vowel

In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...

sounds depends on the variety of English: for example, Received Pronunciation

Received Pronunciation

Received Pronunciation , also called the Queen's English, Oxford English or BBC English, is the accent of Standard English in England, with a relationship to regional accents similar to the relationship in other European languages between their standard varieties and their regional forms...

has twelve monophthong

Monophthong

A monophthong is a pure vowel sound, one whose articulation at both beginning and end is relatively fixed, and which does not glide up or down towards a new position of articulation....

s (single or "pure" vowels), eight diphthong

Diphthong

A diphthong , also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: That is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel...

s (double vowels) and two triphthong

Triphthong

In phonetics, a triphthong is a monosyllabic vowel combination involving a quick but smooth movement of the articulator from one vowel quality to another that passes over a third...

s (triple vowels); whereas General American

General American

General American , also known as Standard American English , is a major accent of American English. The accent is not restricted to the United States...

has thirteen monophthongs and three diphthongs. Many learners, such as speakers of Spanish

Spanish language

, Japanese

Japanese language

or Arabic

Arabic language

Arabic is a name applied to the descendants of the Classical Arabic language of the 6th century AD, used most prominently in the Quran, the Islamic Holy Book...

, have fewer vowels, or only pure ones, in their mother tongue and so may have problems both with hearing and with pronouncing these distinctions.

Syllable structure

In its syllable structure

Syllable

A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. For example, the word water is composed of two syllables: wa and ter. A syllable is typically made up of a syllable nucleus with optional initial and final margins .Syllables are often considered the phonological "building...

, English allows for a cluster of up to three consonants

Consonant cluster

In linguistics, a consonant cluster is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups and are consonant clusters in the word splits....

before the vowel and four after it (e.g., straw, desks, glimpsed). The syllable structure causes problems for speakers of many other languages. Japanese

Japanese language

, for example, broadly alternates consonant and vowel sounds so learners from Japan often try to force vowels in between the consonants (e.g., desks /desks/ becomes "desukusu" or milk shake /mɪlk ʃeɪk/ becomes "mirukushēku").

Learners from languages where all words end in vowels sometimes tend to make all English words end in vowels, thus make /meɪk/ can come out as [meɪkə]. The learner's task is further complicated by the fact that native speakers may drop consonants in the more complex blends (e.g., [mʌns] instead of [mʌnθs] for months).

Unstressed vowels - Native English speakers frequently replace almost any vowel in an unstressed syllable with an unstressed vowel
Unstressed vowel
In English, vowel reduction is the centralization and weakening of an unstressed vowel, such as the characteristic change of many vowels at the ends of words to schwa. Stressed vowels are never reduced in English.-Reduced vowels :...

, often schwa
Schwa
In linguistics, specifically phonetics and phonology, schwa can mean the following:*An unstressed and toneless neutral vowel sound in some languages, often but not necessarily a mid-central vowel...

. For example, from has a distinctly pronounced short 'o' sound when it is stressed (e.g., Where are you from?), but when it is unstressed, the short 'o' reduces to a schwa (e.g., I'm from London.). In some cases, unstressed vowels may disappear altogether, in words such as chocolate (which has four syllables in Spanish, but only two as pronounced by Americans: "choc-lit".)

Stress in English more strongly determines vowel quality than it does in most other world languages (although there are notable exceptions such as Russian

Russian language

Russian is a Slavic language used primarily in Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. It is an unofficial but widely spoken language in Ukraine, Moldova, Latvia, Turkmenistan and Estonia and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics...

). For example, in some varieties the syllables an, en, in, on and un are pronounced as homophone

Homophone

A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning. The words may be spelled the same, such as rose and rose , or differently, such as carat, caret, and carrot, or to, two, and too. Homophones that are spelled the same are also both homographs and homonyms...

s, that is, exactly alike. Native speakers can usually distinguish an able, enable, and unable because of their position in a sentence, but this is more difficult for inexperienced English speakers. Moreover, learners tend to overpronounce these unstressed vowels, giving their speech an unnatural rhythm.

Stress timing - English tends to be a stress-timed language - this means that stressed syllables are roughly equidistant in time, no matter how many syllables come in between. Although some other languages, e.g., German
German language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....

and Russian
Russian language
Russian is a Slavic language used primarily in Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. It is an unofficial but widely spoken language in Ukraine, Moldova, Latvia, Turkmenistan and Estonia and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics...

, are also stress-timed, most of the world's other major languages are syllable-timed, with each syllable coming at an equal time after the previous one. Learners from these languages often have a staccato
Staccato
Staccato is a form of musical articulation. In modern notation it signifies a note of shortened duration and separated from the note that may follow by silence...

rhythm when speaking English that is disconcerting to a native speaker.

"Stress for emphasis" - students' own languages may not use stress for emphasis as English does.

"Stress for contrast" - stressing the right word or expression. This may not come easily to some non-native speakers.

"Emphatic apologies" - the normally unstressed auxiliary is stressed (I really am very sorry)

In English there are quite a number of words - about fifty - that have two different pronunciations, depending on whether they are stressed. They are "grammatical words": pronouns, prepositions, auxiliary verbs and conjunctions. Most students tend to overuse the strong form, which is pronounced with the written vowel.

Connected speech

Phonological processes such as assimilation

Assimilation (linguistics)

Assimilation is a common phonological process by which the sound of the ending of one word blends into the sound of the beginning of the following word. This occurs when the parts of the mouth and vocal cords start to form the beginning sounds of the next word before the last sound has been...

, elision

Elision

Elision is the omission of one or more sounds in a word or phrase, producing a result that is easier for the speaker to pronounce...

and epenthesis

Epenthesis

In phonology, epenthesis is the addition of one or more sounds to a word, especially to the interior of a word. Epenthesis may be divided into two types: excrescence, for the addition of a consonant, and anaptyxis for the addition of a vowel....

together with indistinct word boundaries can confuse learners when listening to natural spoken English, as well as making their speech sound too formal if they do not use them. For example, in RP

Received Pronunciation

eight beetles and three ants /eɪt biːtəlz ənd θriː ænts/ becomes [eɪtbiːtl̩znθɹiːjæns].

Grammar

Tense, aspect, and mood - English has a relatively large number of tense–aspect–mood forms with some quite subtle differences, such as the difference between the simple past "I ate" and the present perfect "I have eaten." Progressive and perfect progressive forms add complexity. (See English verbs
English verbs
Verbs in the English language are a part of speech and typically describe an action, an event, or a state.While English has many irregular verbs , for the regular ones the conjugation rules are quite straightforward...

.)
Functions of auxiliaries - Learners of English tend to find it difficult to manipulate the various ways in which English uses auxiliary verb
Auxiliary verb
In linguistics, an auxiliary verb is a verb that gives further semantic or syntactic information about a main or full verb. In English, the extra meaning provided by an auxiliary verb alters the basic meaning of the main verb to make it have one or more of the following functions: passive voice,...

s. These include negation (e.g. He hasn't been drinking.), inversion with the subject to form a question (e.g. Has he been drinking?), short answers (e.g. Yes, he has.) and tag questions (has he?). A further complication is that the dummy auxiliary verb do /does /did is added to fulfil these functions in the simple present and simple past, but not for the verb to be.
Modal verbs - English also has a significant number of modal auxiliary verbs which each have a number of uses. For example, the opposite of "You must be here at 8" (obligation) is usually "You don't have to be here at 8" (lack of obligation, choice), while "must" in "You must not drink the water" (prohibition) has a different meaning from "must" in "You must not be a native speaker" (deduction). This complexity takes considerable work for most English language learners to master.
Idiomatic usage - English is reputed to have a relatively high degree of idiom
Idiom
Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning or definition of the words of which it is made...

atic usage. For example, the use of different main verb forms in such apparently parallel constructions as "try to learn", "help learn", and "avoid learning" pose difficulty for learners. Another example is the idiomatic distinction between "make" and "do": "make a mistake", not "do a mistake"; and "do a favor", not "make a favor".
Articles - English has an appreciable number of articles
Article (grammar)
An article is a word that combines with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. Articles specify the grammatical definiteness of the noun, in some languages extending to volume or numerical scope. The articles in the English language are the and a/an, and some...

, including the "the" definite article
THE
THE is a three-letter acronym that may refer to:*Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven , a Dutch university of technology...

and the "a, an" indefinite article. At times English nouns can or indeed must be used without an article; this is called the zero article
Zero-marking in English
Zero-marking in English is the indication of a particular grammatical function by the absence of any morpheme . The most common types of zero-marking in English involve zero articles, zero relative pronouns, and zero subordinating conjunctions...

. Some of the differences between definite, indefinite and zero article are fairly easy to learn, but others are not, particularly since a learner's native language may lack articles or use them in different ways than English does. Although the information conveyed by articles is rarely essential for communication, English uses them frequently (several times in the average sentence), so that they require some effort from the learner.

Vocabulary

Phrasal verbs - Phrasal verb
Phrasal verb
A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and a preposition, a verb and an adverb, or a verb with both an adverb and a preposition, any of which are part of the syntax of the sentence, and so are a complete semantic unit. Sentences may contain direct and indirect objects in addition to the phrasal...

s in English can cause difficulties for many learners because they have several meanings and different syntactic patterns. There are also a number of phrasal verb differences between American and British English.
Prepositions - The correct use of Prepositions in the English language frequently creates confusion and can turn out to be quite a frustrating learning experience for ESL/EFL learners. For example, the prepositions "on" (come on, rely on, turn on), "of" (think of, because of, in the vicinity of), "at" (turn at, meet at, start at), "in" (listen in, turn in, step in) "up" (make up, give up, look up, turn up, get up) are used in so many different ways and contexts, it is very difficult to remember the exact meaning for each one. When translating back to the ESL learners' respective L1, a particular preposition's translation may be correct in one context, but when using the peposition in another context, the meaning is sometimes quite different. One "of" my friends translates to (transliterated) "wahed "min" isdiqa'i" in Arabic. "Min" is the Arabic word for "from" .... so one "from" my friends. "I am 'on' page 5" translates to "ich bin 'auf' Seite 5" in German just fine but in Arabic it is "Ana 'fee' safha raqm 5" .... I am "in" page 5.
Word derivation - Word derivation
Derivation (linguistics)
In linguistics, derivation is the process of forming a new word on the basis of an existing word, e.g. happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine...

in English requires a lot of rote learning
Rote learning
Rote learning is a learning technique which focuses on memorization. The major practice involved in rote learning is learning by repetition by which students commit information to memory in a highly structured way. The idea is that one will be able to quickly recall the meaning of the material the...

. For example, an adjective can be negated by using the prefix un- (e.g. unable), in- (e.g. inappropriate), dis- (e.g. dishonest), or a- (e.g. amoral), or through the use of one of a myriad related but rarer prefixes, all modified versions of the first four.
Size of lexicon - The history of English
History of the English language
English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic invaders from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the...

has resulted in a very large vocabulary, essentially one stream from Old English and one from the Norman
Normans
The Normans were the people who gave their name to Normandy, a region in northern France. They were descended from Norse Viking conquerors of the territory and the native population of Frankish and Gallo-Roman stock...

infusion of Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...

-derived terms. (Schmitt & Marsden claim that English has one of the largest vocabularies of any known language.) This inevitably requires more work for a learner to master the language.
Collocations - Collocations in English refer to the tendency for words to occur regularly with others. For example, nouns and verbs that go together (ride a bike/ drive a car). Native speakers tend to use chunks of collocations and the ESL learners make mistakes with collocations in their writing/speaking which sometimes results in awkwardness.
Slang and Colloquialisms In most native English speaking countries, large numbers of slang and colloquial terms are used in everyday speech. Many learners may find that classroom based English is significantly different from how English is spoken in normal situations. This can often be difficult and confusing for learners with little experience of using English in Anglophone countries. Also, slang terms differ greatly between different regions and can change quickly in response to popular culture. Some phrases can become unintentionally rude if misused.

Differences between spoken and written English

As with most languages, written language tends to use a more formal register

In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. For example, when speaking in a formal setting an English speaker may be more likely to adhere more closely to prescribed grammar, pronounce words ending in -ing with a velar nasal...

than spoken language

Spoken language

Spoken language is a form of human communication in which words derived from a large vocabulary together with a diverse variety of names are uttered through or with the mouth. All words are made up from a limited set of vowels and consonants. The spoken words they make are stringed into...

. The acquisition of literacy

Literacy

Literacy has traditionally been described as the ability to read for knowledge, write coherently and think critically about printed material.Literacy represents the lifelong, intellectual process of gaining meaning from print...

takes significant effort in English.

Spelling: probably the biggest difficulty for non-native speakers since English spelling does not follow the alphabetic principle
Alphabetic principle
According to the alphabetic principle, letters and combinations of letters are the symbols used to represent the speech sounds of a language based on systematic and predictable relationships between written letters, symbols, and spoken words...

consistently. Because of the many changes in pronunciation which have occurred since a written standard developed, the retention of many historical idiosyncrasies in spelling
Spelling
Spelling is the writing of one or more words with letters and diacritics. In addition, the term often, but not always, means an accepted standard spelling or the process of naming the letters...

, and the large influx of foreign words (mainly from Danish
Danish language
Danish is a North Germanic language spoken by around six million people, principally in the country of Denmark. It is also spoken by 50,000 Germans of Danish ethnicity in the northern parts of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, where it holds the status of minority language...

, Norman French
Norman language
Norman is a Romance language and one of the Oïl languages. Norman can be classified as one of the northern Oïl languages along with Picard and Walloon...

, Classical Latin
Classical Latin
Classical Latin in simplest terms is the socio-linguistic register of the Latin language regarded by the enfranchised and empowered populations of the late Roman republic and the Roman empire as good Latin. Most writers during this time made use of it...

and Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...

) with different and overlapping spelling patterns, English spelling is difficult even for native speakers to master. This difficulty is shown in such activities as spelling bee
Spelling bee
A spelling bee is a competition where contestants, usually children, are asked to spell English words. The concept is thought to have originated in the United States....

s that generally require the memorization of words. The generalizations that exist are quite complex and there are many exceptions leading to a considerable amount of rote learning
Rote learning
Rote learning is a learning technique which focuses on memorization. The major practice involved in rote learning is learning by repetition by which students commit information to memory in a highly structured way. The idea is that one will be able to quickly recall the meaning of the material the...

. The spelling system causes problems in both directions - a learner may know a word by sound but not be able to write it correctly (or indeed find it in a dictionary), or they may see a word written but not know how to pronounce it or mislearn the pronunciation. However, despite the variety of spelling patterns in English, there are dozens of rules that are 75% or more reliable.

Varieties of English

England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...

, the historical home of English, has significant regional language differences
English language in England
The English language in England refers to the English language as spoken in England. These forms of English are a subsection of British English, as spoken throughout Great Britain. Other terms used to refer to the English language as spoken in England include:...

in pronunciation, accent, vocabulary and grammar.
The thriving communities of English native speakers in countries all over the world
Anglosphere
Anglosphere is a neologism which refers to those nations with English as the most common language. The term can be used more specifically to refer to those nations which share certain characteristics within their cultures based on a linguistic heritage, through being former British colonies...

also have some noticeable differences in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar.
English has no organisation that determines the most prestigious form of the language - unlike the French language
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...

which has the Academie de la langue française, Spanish language
Spanish language
Spanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the...

's Real Academia Española
Real Academia Española
The Royal Spanish Academy is the official royal institution responsible for regulating the Spanish language. It is based in Madrid, Spain, but is affiliated with national language academies in twenty-one other hispanophone nations through the Association of Spanish Language Academies...

, the Brazilian Portuguese Academia Brasileira de Letras
Academia Brasileira de Letras
Academia Brasileira de Letras is a Brazilian literary non-profit society established at the end of the 19th century by a group of 40 writers and poets inspired by the Académie Française. The first president, Machado de Assis, declared its foundation on December 15, 1896, with the statutes being...

, or the Italian
Italian language
Italian is a Romance language spoken mainly in Europe: Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City, by minorities in Malta, Monaco, Croatia, Slovenia, France, Libya, Eritrea, and Somalia, and by immigrant communities in the Americas and Australia...

Accademia della Crusca
Accademia della Crusca
The Accademia della Crusca is an Italian society for scholars and Italian linguists and philologists established in Florence. After the Accademia Cosentina, it is the oldest Italian academy still in existence...

.

Teaching English therefore involves not only helping the student to use the form of English most suitable for his purposes, but also exposure to regional forms and cultural styles so that the student will be able to discern meaning even when the words, grammar or pronunciation are different to the form of English he is being taught to speak.

Exams for learners

Learners of English are often keen to get accreditation and a number of exams are known internationally:

University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations offers a suite of eighteen globally available examinations including General English: Key English Test (KET), Preliminary English Test
Preliminary English Test
The Preliminary English Test is an international examination sanctioning a certain level of mastery of the English language. It is the second easiest diploma offered by University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations in England....

(PET), First Certificate in English
First Certificate in English
The First Certificate in English is one of the examinations available from University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations in England. Its possession proves one's adequacy in the English language, and its successful completion means that one is able to interact socially efficiently.- Sections :The test...

(FCE), Certificate in Advanced English
Certificate in Advanced English
The Certificate in Advanced English is the advanced general English examination provided by University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations in England.- Overview :The examination comprises five parts:#Reading...

(CAE) and Certificate of Proficiency in English
Certificate of Proficiency in English
The Certificate of Proficiency in English or CPE is the most advanced general English exam provided by University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations. The English level of those who have passed the CPE is supposed to be similar to that of a fairly educated native speaker of English...

(CPE).
Trinity College London ESOL
Trinity College London ESOL
Trinity College London ESOL is an international English Language examinations board delivering assessments in English language learning and teaching and has been offering English language examinations since 1938...

offers Integrated Skills in English (ISE), series of 5 exams, which assesses Reading, Writing, Speaking and Listening accepted by academic institutions in the UK. They also offer Graded Examinations in Spoken English (GESE), series of 12 exams, which assesses Speaking and Listening and ESOL Skills for Life and ESOL for Work exams in the UK only.
IELTS
IELTS
IELTS , or 'International English Language Testing System', is an international standardised test of English language proficiency. It is jointly managed by University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations, the British Council and IDP Education Pty Ltd, and was established in 1989.There are two versions of...

(International English Language Testing System), accepted by academic institutions in the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Canada, and by many in the USA.
London Tests of English from Pearson Language Tests
Pearson Language Tests
Pearson Language Tests is a unit of the Pearson PLC group, dedicated to assessing and validating the English language usage of non-native English speakers...

, a series of six exams each mapped to a level from the Common European Framework (CEFR- see below)
Secondary Level English Proficiency test
Secondary Level English Proficiency test
The Secondary Level English Proficiency Test is a test created by ETS and administered by American middle and high schools to applicants whose first language is not English...
Pearson Test of English Academic (PTE Academic), a Pearson product, measure Reading, Writing, Speaking and Listening as well as Grammar, Oral Fluency, Pronunciation, Spelling, Vocabular and Written Discourse. The test is computer-based and is designed to reflect international English for academic admission into any university requiring English proficiency.
TOEFL
TOEFL
The Test of English as a Foreign Language, or TOEFL , evaluates the ability of an individual to use and understand English in an academic setting....

(Test of English as a Foreign Language), an Educational Testing Service
Educational Testing Service
Educational Testing Service , founded in 1947, is the world's largest private nonprofit educational testing and assessment organization...

product, developed and used primarily for academic institutions in the USA, and now widely accepted in tertiary institutions in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, the UK, and Ireland. The current test is an Internet-based test, and is thus known as the TOEFL iBT. Used as a proxy for English for Academic Purposes
English for Academic Purposes
English for academic purposes entails training students, usually in a higher education setting, to use language appropriately for study. It is a challenging and multi-faceted area within the wider field of English language learning and teaching , and is one of the most common forms of English for...

.
TOEIC
TOEIC
The Test of English for International Communication measures the ability of non-native English-speaking examinees to use English in everyday workplace activities.-Overview:...

(Test of English for International Communication), an Educational Testing Service product for Business English
Business English
Business English is English language especially related to international trade. It is a part of English for Specific Purposes and can be considered a specialism within English language learning and teaching; for example, the teachers' organisation IATEFL has a special interest group called BESIG...

used by 10,000 organizations in 120 countries. Includes a Listening & Reading test as well as a Speaking & Writing test introduced in selected countries beginning in 2006.
Workplace English Test Programs (ENERGIZERS), ENERGIZERS Workplace English is a combination of employee English training and testing plus business English communication. Current assessment instruments and testing programs include three radically innovative business English as a second language tests (spoken English) and certificates: Business English Test - Gateway (A1/A2), Higher (B1, B2), Pro (C1/C2). Successful candidates are awarded Certificates (Honors/Pass) which may be useful for: Business, Education, Hiring, Career Advancement. HR departments around the world have decided on Business English Tests (BET) to select, place, monitor progress and motivate personnel because BET tests are: Professional & Authentic (HR tool research & evidence-based, designed, developed and administered by ENERGIZERS, a truly global advisory boutique & market leader in expert HR, home to FULBRIGHT Scholars and faculty from top-ranked universities in the US & EU), Energizing & Candidate-Friendly (Boosting skills & confidence), Valid (Performance on the measure is related to what the measure is designed to assess), Reliable (Measurement is free from random error; tests generating consistent results) and available On Demand (Whenever & wherever required).

Many countries also have their own exams. ESOL learners in England, Wales and Northern Ireland usually take the national Skills for Life

Skills for life

Skills for Life is the national strategy in England for improving adult literacy, language and numeracy skills. The strategy was launched by the Prime Minister, Tony Blair, in March 2001....

qualifications, which are offered by several exam boards. EFL learners in China

People's Republic of China

China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...

may take the College English Test

College English Test

The College English Test, better known as CET, is a national English as a Foreign Language test in the People's Republic of China.-Before 2005 reform:...

. In Greece English students may take the PALSO (PanHellenic Association of Language School Owners) exams.

The Common European Framework

Between 1998 and 2000, the Council of Europe

Council of Europe

The Council of Europe is an international organisation promoting co-operation between all countries of Europe in the areas of legal standards, human rights, democratic development, the rule of law and cultural co-operation...

's language policy

Language policy

Many countries have a language policy designed to favour or discourage the use of a particular language or set of languages. Although nations historically have used language policies most often to promote one official language at the expense of others, many countries now have policies designed to...

division developed its Common European Framework of Reference for Languages

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment, abbreviated as CEFR, is a guideline used to describe achievements of learners of foreign languages across Europe and, increasingly, in other countries...

. The aim of this framework was to have a common system for foreign language testing and certification, to cover all European languages and countries.

The Common European Framework (CEF) divides language learners into three levels:

A. Basic User
B. Independent User
C. Proficient User

Each of these levels is divided into two sections, resulting in a total of six levels for testing (A1, A2, B1, etc.).

This table compares ELT exams according to the CEF levels:

CEF Level	ALTE Association of Language Testers in Europe The Association of Language Testers in Europe is an association of language exam providers.The ALTE "Can Do" project developed a simplified set of 400+ descriptors for language examinations which relate to the Common Reference Levels... Level	NQF National Qualifications Framework The National Qualifications Framework is a credit transfer system developed for qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland.... Level	PTE General PTE General PTE General are international English language exams for speakers of English as a foreign language ....	TCL ESOL Trinity College London ESOL Trinity College London ESOL is an international English Language examinations board delivering assessments in English language learning and teaching and has been offering English language examinations since 1938... GESE	TCL ESOL Trinity College London ESOL Trinity College London ESOL is an international English Language examinations board delivering assessments in English language learning and teaching and has been offering English language examinations since 1938... ISE	UBELT exam	IELTS IELTS IELTS , or 'International English Language Testing System', is an international standardised test of English language proficiency. It is jointly managed by University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations, the British Council and IDP Education Pty Ltd, and was established in 1989.There are two versions of...	Cambridge ESOL University of Cambridge ESOL examination University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations is a non-profit assessment organization that provides examinations in English language ability for non-native speakers of English and English teaching qualifications.- Overview :... BULATS	Cambridge ESOL University of Cambridge ESOL examination University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations is a non-profit assessment organization that provides examinations in English language ability for non-native speakers of English and English teaching qualifications.- Overview :... BEC BEC -Schools:* Bapatla Engineering College* Basaveshwar Engineering College* Bengal Engineering College* Brislington Enterprise College-Companies:* Bahamas Electricity Corporation* Bandai Entertainment Company* Birmingham Electric Company...	Cambridge ESOL University of Cambridge ESOL examination University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations is a non-profit assessment organization that provides examinations in English language ability for non-native speakers of English and English teaching qualifications.- Overview :... General	Cambridge ESOL University of Cambridge ESOL examination University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations is a non-profit assessment organization that provides examinations in English language ability for non-native speakers of English and English teaching qualifications.- Overview :... YLE Cambridge Young Learners' English Tests Cambridge Young Learners' English Tests is one of the University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations tests targeted at children aged between seven and twelve....	Cambridge ESOL University of Cambridge ESOL examination University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations is a non-profit assessment organization that provides examinations in English language ability for non-native speakers of English and English teaching qualifications.- Overview :... Skills for Life
C2	Level 5	Level 3	Level 5	Grade 12	IV	4.0-5.0	8.5-9.0	90-100	n/a	CPE	n/a	n/a
C1	Level 4	Level 2	Level 4	Grade 10,11	III	3.0-3.5	7.0-8.0	75-89	Higher	CAE	n/a	Level 2
B2	Level 3	Level 1	Level 3	Grade 7,8,9	II	2.0-2.5	5.5 - 6.5	60-74	Vantage	FCE	n/a	Level 1
B1	Level 2	Entry 3	Level 2	Grade 5,6	I	1.5	4.0 - 5.0	40-59	Preliminary	PET	n/a	Entry 3
A2	Level 1	Entry 2	Level 1	Grades 3,4	0	1.0	n/a	20-39	n/a	KET	Flyers	Entry 2
A1	Breakthrough	Entry 1	Level A1	Grade 2	n/a	<1.0	n/a	0-19	n/a	n/a	Movers	Entry 1

Non-native speakers

Most people who teach English are in fact not native speakers of that language. They are state school teachers in countries around the world, and as such they hold the relevant teaching qualification

Teaching qualification

A teaching qualification or teacher qualification is one of a number of academic and professional degrees that enables a person to become a registered teacher in primary or secondary school...

of their country, usually with a specialization in teaching English. For example, teachers in Hong Kong

Hong Kong

Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...

hold the Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers

Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers

The Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers is an assessment examination for the language proficiency of teachers in Hong Kong. According to regulations, any teachers teaching English language or Putonghua in Hong Kong, where Cantonese Chinese is mostly spoken, must have passed the LPAT, i.e...

. Those who work in private language school

Language school

A language school is a school where one studies a foreign language. Classes at a language school are usually geared towards, but not limited to, communicative competence in a foreign language...

s may, from commercial pressures, have the same qualifications as native speakers (see below). Widespread problems exist of minimal qualifications and poor quality providers of training, and as the industry becomes more professional, it is trying to self-regulate to eliminate these.

United States qualifications

Most U.S. instructors at community college

Community college

A community college is a type of educational institution. The term can have different meanings in different countries.-Australia:Community colleges carry on the tradition of adult education, which was established in Australia around mid 19th century when evening classes were held to help adults...

s and universities qualify by taking a Master of Arts

Master of Arts (postgraduate)

A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...

(MA) in TESOL . This degree also qualifies them to teach in most EFL contexts. In some areas of the United States

United States

The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

, a growing number of elementary school

Elementary school

An elementary school or primary school is an institution where children receive the first stage of compulsory education known as elementary or primary education. Elementary school is the preferred term in some countries, particularly those in North America, where the terms grade school and grammar...

teachers are involved in teaching ELLs (English Language Learners, that is, children who come to school speaking a home language other than English.) The qualifications for these classroom teachers vary from state to state but always include a state-issued teaching certificate for public instruction. This state licensing requires substantial practical experience as well as course work. The MA in TESOL typically includes both graduate work in English as one of the classical liberal arts

Liberal arts

The term liberal arts refers to those subjects which in classical antiquity were considered essential for a free citizen to study. Grammar, Rhetoric and Logic were the core liberal arts. In medieval times these subjects were extended to include mathematics, geometry, music and astronomy...

(literature, linguistics, media studies) with a theoretical component in language pedagogy. Admission to the MA in TESOL typically requires at least a bachelor's degree with a minor in English or linguistics, or, sometimes, a degree in a foreign language

Foreign language

A foreign language is a language indigenous to another country. It is also a language not spoken in the native country of the person referred to, i.e. an English speaker living in Japan can say that Japanese is a foreign language to him or her...

instead.

It is important to note that the issuance of a teaching certificate or license is not automatic following completion of degree requirements. All teachers must complete a battery of exams (typically the Praxis

Praxis test

A Praxis test is one of a series of American teacher certification exams written and administered by the Educational Testing Service. Various Praxis tests are usually required before, during, and after teacher training courses in the U.S....

subject and method exams or similar, state-sponsored exams) as well as supervised instruction as student teacher

Student teacher

A student teacher is a college or graduate student who is teaching under the supervision of a certified teacher in order to qualify for a degree in education...

s. Often, ESL certification can be obtained through extra college coursework. ESL certifications are usually only valid when paired with an already existing teaching certificate. Certification requirements for ESL teachers vary greatly from state to state; out-of-state teaching certificates are recognized if the two states have a reciprocity agreement.

British qualifications

Common, respected qualifications for teachers within the United Kingdom

United Kingdom

's sphere of influence include certificates and diplomas issued by Trinity College London ESOL

Trinity College London ESOL

Trinity College London ESOL is an international English Language examinations board delivering assessments in English language learning and teaching and has been offering English language examinations since 1938...

and University of Cambridge ESOL

UCLES

University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate is a non-teaching department of the University of Cambridge and is a not-for-profit organisation...

(henceforth Trinity and Cambridge).

A certificate course is usually undertaken before starting to teach. This is sufficient for most EFL jobs (see TEFL for an extended discussion of travel-teaching) and for some ESOL ones. CertTESOL

CertTESOL

The Certificate in TESOL is an accredited professional qualification awarded in the teaching of "English for speakers of other languages" by Trinity College London. It is a commonly taken teaching qualification in the field of English language learning and teaching . Many people take this...

(Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages), issued by Trinity, and CELTA

CELTA

The Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults is a professional credential held by many teachers of English as a foreign language.-Overview:...

(Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults), issued by Cambridge, are the most widely taken and accepted qualifications for new teacher trainees. Courses are offered in the UK and in many countries around the world. It is usually taught full-time over a one-month period or part-time over a period up to a year.

Teachers with two or more years of teaching experience who want to stay in the profession and advance their career prospects (including school management and teacher training) can take a diploma course. Trinity offers the Trinity Licentiate Diploma in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (DipTESOL

LTCL DipTESOL

The Licentiate Diploma in TESOL is a professional qualification awarded in the teaching of English for Speakers of Other Languages by Trinity College London...

) and Cambridge offers the Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults (DELTA

DELTA (ELT)

The Delta is a professional qualification in English language teaching consisting of three modules awarded by Cambridge Assessment, formerly UCLES, a part of the University of Cambridge...

). These diplomas are considered to be equivalent and are both accredited at level 7 of the revised National Qualifications Framework

National Qualifications Framework

The National Qualifications Framework is a credit transfer system developed for qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland....

. Some teachers who stay in the profession go on to do an MA

Master of Arts (postgraduate)

A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...

in a relevant discipline such as applied linguistics

Applied linguistics

Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems...

or ELT. Many UK master's degrees require considerable experience in the field before a candidate is accepted onto the course.

The above qualifications are well-respected within the UK EFL sector, including private language school

Language school

A language school is a school where one studies a foreign language. Classes at a language school are usually geared towards, but not limited to, communicative competence in a foreign language...

s and higher education

Higher education

Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology...

language provision. However, in England and Wales, in order to meet the government's criteria for being a qualified teacher of ESOL in the Learning and Skills Sector (i.e. post-compulsory or further education

Further education

Further education is a term mainly used in connection with education in the United Kingdom and Ireland. It is post-compulsory education , that is distinct from the education offered in universities...

), teachers need to have the Certificate in Further Education Teaching Stage 3 at level 5 (of the revised NQF) and the Certificate for ESOL Subject Specialists at level 4. Recognised qualifications which confer one or both of these include a Postgraduate Certificate in Education

Postgraduate Certificate in Education

The Postgraduate Certificate in Education is a one-year course in England, Wales and Northern Ireland for undergraduate degree holders that allows them to train to be a teacher....

(PGCE) in ESOL, the CELTA module 2 and City & Guilds

City and Guilds of London Institute

The City and Guilds of London Institute is a leading United Kingdom vocational education organisation. City & Guilds offers more than 500 qualifications over the whole range of industry sectors through 8500 colleges and training providers in 81 countries worldwide...

9488. Teachers of any subject within the British state sector are normally expected to hold a PGCE, and may choose to specialise in ELT.

South Korea qualifications

To teach English in the Republic of Korea as an ESL teacher, one must be a native speaker from an English-speaking country. This includes the United Kingdom, United States of America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Nigeria, Jamaica, Ghana, South Africa, and Ireland.

One must have a Bachelor's or Master's degree in any field and must complete 10 years of education in one of the ten accepted countries (from grade 6 to university). One must have no criminal record (minor offenses such as traffic violations will be examined by the immigration office as well).

Teaching experience or language certificates (TESOL/TEFL/TESL/CELTA) are not required, but would be an aiding factor.

Chile qualifications

Native speakers will often be able to find work as an English teacher in Chile without an ESL teaching certificate. However, many private institutes give preference to teachers with a TEFL, CELTA or TOESL certificate. The Chilean Ministry of Education also sponsors the English Opens Doors

English Opens Doors

English Opens Doors, or Inglés Abre Puertas in Spanish language, is an initiative of the Chilean Ministry of Education to apply technical expertise and improve English as a Foreign Language teaching, making it more accessible to all Chileans...

program, which recruits native English speakers to come work as teaching assistants in Chilean public schools. English Opens Doors requires only a Bachelors degree in order to be considered for acceptance.

Professional associations and unions

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL Inc.) is a professional organization
Professional body
A professional association is usually a nonprofit organization seeking to further a particular profession, the interests of individuals engaged in that profession, and the public interest.The roles of these professional associations have been variously defined: "A group of people in a...

based in the United States. In addition, there are many large state-wide and regional affiliates, see below.
The International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL) is a professional organization based in the United Kingdom.
Professional organisations for teachers of English exist at national levels. Many contain phrases in their title such as the Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT), TESOL Greece in Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....

, or the Society of Pakistan English Language Teachers (SPELT). Some of these organisations may be bigger in structure (supra-national, such as TESOL Arabia in the Gulf states
Arab states of the Persian Gulf
"Arab states of the Persian Gulf" or "Arab Persian Gulf states" or "Persian Gulf Arab states" or "Arabic Persian Gulf states" or "Arab States of The Gulf", are terms that refer to the six Arab states of Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and Oman, bordering the Persian Gulf....

), or smaller (limited to one city, state, or province, such as CATESOL
CATESOL
CATESOL is the independent California and Nevada affiliate of TESOL International Association, a global nonprofit devoted to advancing excellence in English language teaching.- Mission statement :...

in California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...

). Some are affiliated to TESOL or IATEFL.
The National Association for Teaching English and other Community Languages to Adults (NATECLA
NATECLA
National Association for Teaching English and Community Languages to Adults is a British professional organisation of teachers of ESOL and what are known as "community languages" to adults....

) which focuses on teaching ESOL in the United Kingdom.
National Union of General Workers
National Union of General Workers
The The National Union of General Workers is the shortened, English title of the National Union of General Workers National Council , a national labour union council established in 1991...

is a Japanese union
Labor unions in Japan
Labour unions emerged in Japan in the second half of the Meiji period as the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization. Until 1945, however, the labour movement remained weak, impeded by lack of legal rights, anti-union legislation, management-organized factory councils, and political...

which includes English teachers.
University and College Union
University and College Union
The University and College Union is a British trade union formed by the merger in 2006 of the Association of University Teachers and the National Association of Teachers in Further and Higher Education ....

is a British trade union
Trade union
A trade union, trades union or labor union is an organization of workers that have banded together to achieve common goals such as better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with...

which includes lecturers of ELT.

Acronyms and abbreviations

See also: Language education

Language education

Language education is the teaching and learning of a foreign or second language. Language education is a branch of applied linguistics.- Need for language education :...

for information on general language teaching acronyms and abbreviations.

Types of English

BE - Business English
Business English
Business English is English language especially related to international trade. It is a part of English for Specific Purposes and can be considered a specialism within English language learning and teaching; for example, the teachers' organisation IATEFL has a special interest group called BESIG...
EAL - English as an additional language. The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
EAP - English for academic purposes
English for Academic Purposes
English for academic purposes entails training students, usually in a higher education setting, to use language appropriately for study. It is a challenging and multi-faceted area within the wider field of English language learning and teaching , and is one of the most common forms of English for...
EFL - English as a foreign language. English for use in a non-English-speaking region, by someone whose first language is not English. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
EIL - English as an international language
World language
A world language is a language spoken internationally which is learned by many people as a second language. A world language is not only characterized by the number of its speakers , but also by its geographical distribution, and its use in international organizations and in diplomatic relations...

(see main article at International English
International English
International English is the concept of the English language as a global means of communication in numerous dialects, and also the movement towards an international standard for the language...

)
ELF - English as a lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
ELL - English language learner. The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
ELT - English language teaching. The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
ESL - English as a second language. English for use in an English-speaking region, by someone whose first language is not English. The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
ESOL - English for speakers of other languages. This term is used differently in different countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
ESP - English for specific purposes
English for Specific Purposes
English for Specific Purposes is a sphere of teaching English language including Business English, Technical English, Scientific English, English for medical professionals, English for waiters, English for tourism, English for Art Purposes, etc...

, or English for special purposes (e.g. technical English, scientific English, English for medical professionals, English for waiters).
EST - English for science and technology (e.g. technical English, scientific English).
TEFL - Teaching English as a foreign language
Teaching English as a foreign language
Teaching English as a foreign language refers to teaching English to students whose first language is not English. TEFL usually occurs in the student's own country, either within the state school system, or privately, e.g., in an after-hours language school or with a tutor...

. This link is to a page about a subset of TEFL, namely travel-teaching. More generally, see the discussion in Terminology and types.
TESL - Teaching English as a second language. The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
TESOL - Teaching English to speakers of other languages, or Teaching English as a second or other language. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
TYLE - Teaching Young Learners English. Note that "Young Learners" can mean under 18, or much younger.

Other abbreviations

BULATS - Business Language Testing Services, a computer-based test of business English, produced by CambridgeEsol. The test also exists for French, German, and Spanish.
CELT - Certificate in English Language Teaching, certified by the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (ACELS).
CELTA
CELTA
The Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults is a professional credential held by many teachers of English as a foreign language.-Overview:...

- Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults
CELTYL - Certificate in English Language Teaching to Young Learners
DELTA
DELTA (ELT)
The Delta is a professional qualification in English language teaching consisting of three modules awarded by Cambridge Assessment, formerly UCLES, a part of the University of Cambridge...

- Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults
ECPE - Examination for the Certificate of Proficiency in English
IELTS
IELTS
IELTS , or 'International English Language Testing System', is an international standardised test of English language proficiency. It is jointly managed by University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations, the British Council and IDP Education Pty Ltd, and was established in 1989.There are two versions of...

- International English Language Testing System
LTE - London Tests of English by Pearson Language Tests
Pearson Language Tests
Pearson Language Tests is a unit of the Pearson PLC group, dedicated to assessing and validating the English language usage of non-native English speakers...
TOEFL
TOEFL
The Test of English as a Foreign Language, or TOEFL , evaluates the ability of an individual to use and understand English in an academic setting....

- Test of English as a Foreign Language
TOEIC
TOEIC
The Test of English for International Communication measures the ability of non-native English-speaking examinees to use English in everyday workplace activities.-Overview:...

- Test of English for International Communication
UCLES
UCLES
University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate is a non-teaching department of the University of Cambridge and is a not-for-profit organisation...

- University of Cambridge
University of Cambridge
The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in both the United Kingdom and the English-speaking world , and the seventh-oldest globally...

Local Examinations Syndicate, an exam board

Language terminology

Foreign language
Foreign language
A foreign language is a language indigenous to another country. It is also a language not spoken in the native country of the person referred to, i.e. an English speaker living in Japan can say that Japanese is a foreign language to him or her...
Glossary of language teaching terms and ideas
Glossary of language teaching terms and ideas
Language teaching, like other educational activities, may employ specialized vocabulary and word use. This list is a glossary for English language learning and teaching using the communicative approach.- Accuracy - Burnout :...
Language education
Language education
Language education is the teaching and learning of a foreign or second language. Language education is a branch of applied linguistics.- Need for language education :...
Second language
Second language
A second language or L2 is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue. Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas ....
Second-language acquisition
Standard Marine Communication Phrases
Standard Marine Communication Phrases
The Standard Marine Communication Phrases is a set of key phrases in the English language , supported by the international community for use at sea and developed by the International Maritime Organization...

General language teaching and learning

Applied linguistics
Applied linguistics
Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems...
Contrastive rhetoric
Contrastive rhetoric
Contrastive rhetoric is the study of how a person's first language and culture influence his or her writing in a second language.Research began in the 1960s, started by the American applied linguist Robert Kaplan...
Language education
Language education
Language education is the teaching and learning of a foreign or second language. Language education is a branch of applied linguistics.- Need for language education :...
Second language acquisition
Second language acquisition
Second-language acquisition or second-language learning is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language acquisition is also the name of the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process...

English language teaching and learning

English Language Institute an educational facility
Non-native pronunciations of English
Non-native pronunciations of English
Non-native pronunciations of English result from the common linguistic phenomenon in which non-native users of any language tend to carry the intonation, phonological processes and pronunciation rules from their mother tongue into their English speech...
Structured English Immersion
Structured English Immersion
Structured English Immersion is a technique for rapidly teaching English to English Language Learners. The term was coined by Keith Baker and Adriana de Kanter in a 1983 recommendation to schools to make use of Canada's successful French immersion programs. In the 2009 U.S. Supreme Court...

, a framework for teaching English language learners in public schools
Teaching English as a Foreign Language
Teaching English as a Foreign Language
Teaching English as a foreign language refers to teaching English to students whose first language is not English. TEFL usually occurs in the student's own country, either within the state school system, or privately, e.g., in an after-hours language school or with a tutor...

(TEFL), for an extended discussion of travel-teaching
L2 collaborative writing

Contemporary English

American and British English differences
American and British English differences
This is one of a series of articles about the differences between British English and American English, which, for the purposes of these articles, are defined as follows:...
English language
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
English studies
English studies
English studies is an academic discipline that includes the study of literatures written in the English language , English linguistics English studies is an academic discipline that includes the study of literatures written in the English language (including literatures from the U.K., U.S.,...
International English
International English
International English is the concept of the English language as a global means of communication in numerous dialects, and also the movement towards an international standard for the language...

English Language Schools

English Language Teachers Association
Discover English
Discover English
Discover English is a modern English language college located in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Discover English offers a wide range of general and specialised courses including General English, English for Academic Purposes, Business English, IELTS Preparation and OET Preparation.Discover English...
Gaba Corporation
Gaba Corporation
is a chain of eikaiwa in Japan. The company was founded in 1995 and is currently headquartered in Shibuya-ku in Tokyo with learning studios in the Tokyo, Chiba, Yokohama, Nagoya, Osaka, Kyoto, and Kobe areas...
EC English Language Schools
Oxford Intensive School of English
Oxford Intensive School of English
The Oxford Intensive School of English is a language school, established in 1973 in Oxford, England. The schools aim to allow students to learn English, French, German and Spanish in the countries where they are used...
Community English Program
Community English Program
The Community English Program was created as a unique program at Teachers College , Columbia University. It provides integrated English learning instruction to adults of diverse nationalities and backgrounds in the New York City area who are learning English as a second language.Anyone is...
English Language Matters

Other

Teach English in Chile
English Opens Doors
English Opens Doors, or Inglés Abre Puertas in Spanish language, is an initiative of the Chilean Ministry of Education to apply technical expertise and improve English as a Foreign Language teaching, making it more accessible to all Chileans...
English as a Second Language Podcast
English as a Second Language Podcast
English as a Second Language Podcastis a web-based English language-learning podcast. It is the first and longest-running English language learning podcast on the Internet. It was launched in July 2005 by two former university professors, Dr. Jeff McQuillan and Dr. Lucy Tse of the Center for...
International Language Academy of Canada
International Language Academy of Canada
The International Language Academy of Canada specializes in providing English language lessons to international students from over 70 countries. The company currently runs campuses in downtown Toronto and Vancouver, Canada....

(English Language Academy with campuses in Toronto and Vancouver Canada)
"Let's Speak English
Let's Speak English
Let's Speak English was a Canadian language instruction television series which aired on CBC Television from 1961 to 1962.-Premise:This series taught English as a foreign or second language. It was hosted by Betty Fullerton, John Wevers, and as of the seventh episode, Barry Callaghan...

" (CBC television series)
List of countries by English-speaking population
RoPeCast - an ESL podcast project
Ruth Hayman
Ruth Hayman
Ruth Hayman was a lawyer and anti-apartheid campaigner. She was one of the first women in South Africa to qualify as an attorney. Through the Black Sash organisation, Hayman offered free legal advice to many people, usually women, who had approached the Black Sash Advice Centre in Johannesburg,...

- ESL pioneer
The Students' English Debating Association (SEDA), Tsinghua University
EF English Proficiency Index
EF English Proficiency Index
The EF English Proficiency Index is a report which attempts to rank countries by the average level of English skills amongst adults. It is the product of EF Education First, a global language training company, and draws its conclusions from data collected via online English tests available for...

- Index of English proficiency skills across countries

External links

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.

Terminology and types

English outside English-speaking countries

English within English-speaking countries

Umbrella terms

Systems of simplified English

Difficulties for learners

Pronunciation

Grammar

Vocabulary

Differences between spoken and written English

Varieties of English

Exams for learners

The Common European Framework

Non-native speakers

United States qualifications

British qualifications

South Korea qualifications

Chile qualifications

Professional associations and unions

Acronyms and abbreviations

Types of English

Other abbreviations

Language terminology

General language teaching and learning

English language teaching and learning

Contemporary English

English Language Schools

Other

Further reading

External links