Adaptive immune system - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

The adaptive immune system is composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate or prevent pathogen

Pathogen

A pathogen gignomai "I give birth to") or infectious agent — colloquially, a germ — is a microbe or microorganism such as a virus, bacterium, prion, or fungus that causes disease in its animal or plant host...

ic growth. Thought to have arisen in the first jawed vertebrates

Gnathostomata

Gnathostomata is the group of vertebrates with jaws. The term derives from Greek γνάθος "jaw" + στόμα "mouth". Gnathostome diversity comprises roughly 60,000 species, which accounts for 99% of all living vertebrates...

, the adaptive or "specific" immune system is activated by the “non-specific” and evolutionarily older innate immune system

Innate immune system

The innate immune system, also known as non-specific immune system and secondary line of defence, comprises the cells and mechanisms that defend the host from infection by other organisms in a non-specific manner...

(which is the major system of host defense against pathogens in nearly all other living things). The adaptive immune response provides the vertebrate immune system with the ability to recognize and remember specific pathogens (to generate immunity

Immunity (medical)

Immunity is a biological term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. Immunity involves both specific and non-specific components. The non-specific components act either as barriers or as eliminators of wide...

), and to mount stronger attacks each time the pathogen is encountered. It is adaptive immunity because the body's immune system prepares itself for future challenges.

The system is highly adaptable

Adaptation

An adaptation in biology is a trait with a current functional role in the life history of an organism that is maintained and evolved by means of natural selection. An adaptation refers to both the current state of being adapted and to the dynamic evolutionary process that leads to the adaptation....

because of somatic hypermutation

Somatic hypermutation

Somatic hypermutation is a mechanism inside cells that is part of the way the immune system adapts to the new foreign elements that confront it . SHM diversifies the receptors used by the immune system to recognize foreign elements and allows the immune system to adapt its response to new threats...

(a process of accelerated somatic

Somatic cell

A somatic cell is any biological cell forming the body of an organism; that is, in a multicellular organism, any cell other than a gamete, germ cell, gametocyte or undifferentiated stem cell...

mutation

Mutation

In molecular biology and genetics, mutations are changes in a genomic sequence: the DNA sequence of a cell's genome or the DNA or RNA sequence of a virus. They can be defined as sudden and spontaneous changes in the cell. Mutations are caused by radiation, viruses, transposons and mutagenic...

s), and V(D)J recombination

V(D)J recombination

VJ recombination, also known as somatic recombination, is a mechanism of genetic recombination in the early stages of immunoglobulin and T cell receptors production of the immune system...

(an irreversible genetic recombination

Genetic recombination

Genetic recombination is a process by which a molecule of nucleic acid is broken and then joined to a different one. Recombination can occur between similar molecules of DNA, as in homologous recombination, or dissimilar molecules, as in non-homologous end joining. Recombination is a common method...

of antigen receptor gene segments). This mechanism allows a small number of genes to generate a vast number of different antigen receptors, which are then uniquely expressed on each individual lymphocyte

Lymphocyte

A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell in the vertebrate immune system.Under the microscope, lymphocytes can be divided into large lymphocytes and small lymphocytes. Large granular lymphocytes include natural killer cells...

. Because the gene rearrangement leads to an irreversible change in the DNA

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...

of each cell, all of the progeny

Offspring

In biology, offspring is the product of reproduction, of a new organism produced by one or more parents.Collective offspring may be known as a brood or progeny in a more general way...

(offspring) of that cell will then inherit genes encoding the same receptor specificity, including the Memory B cell

Memory B cell

Memory B cells are a B cell sub-type that are formed following primary infection.-Primary response, paratopes, and epitopes:In wake of first infection involving a particular antigen, the responding naïve cells proliferate to produce a colony of cells, most of which differentiate into the plasma...

s and Memory T cells

Memory T cells

Memory T cells are a subset of infection- as well as potentially cancer-fighting T cells that have previously encountered and responded to their cognate antigen; thus, the term antigen-experienced T cell is often applied. Such T cells can recognize foreign invaders, such as bacteria or viruses,...

that are the keys to long-lived specific immunity. Immune network theory

Immune network theory

The immune network theory is a theory of how the adaptive immune system works, that has been developed since 1974 mainly by Niels Jerne and Geoffrey W. Hoffmann. The theory states that the immune system is an interacting network of lymphocytes and molecules that have variable regions...

is a theory of how the adaptive immune system works, that is based on interactions between the variable regions of the receptors of T cells, B cells and of molecules made by T cells and B cells that have variable regions.

Functions

Adaptive immunity is triggered in vertebrates when a pathogen evades the innate immune system and generates a threshold level of antigen.

The major functions of the adaptive immune system include:

the recognition of specific “non-self” antigens in the presence of “self”, during the process of antigen presentation
Antigen presentation
Antigen presentation is a process in the body's immune system by which macrophages, dendritic cells and other cell types capture antigens and then enable their recognition by T-cells....

.
the generation of responses that are tailored to maximally eliminate specific pathogens or pathogen infected cells.
the development of immunological memory, in which each pathogen is “remembered” by a signature antibody. These memory cells can be called upon to quickly eliminate a pathogen should subsequent infections occur.

Effector cells

The cells of the adaptive immune system are a type of leukocyte, called a lymphocyte

Lymphocyte

. B cell

B cell

B cells are lymphocytes that play a large role in the humoral immune response . The principal functions of B cells are to make antibodies against antigens, perform the role of antigen-presenting cells and eventually develop into memory B cells after activation by antigen interaction...

s and T cell

T cell

T cells or T lymphocytes belong to a group of white blood cells known as lymphocytes, and play a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They can be distinguished from other lymphocytes, such as B cells and natural killer cells , by the presence of a T cell receptor on the cell surface. They are...

s are the major types of lymphocytes. The human body has about 2 trillion lymphocytes, constituting 20-40% of white blood cells (WBCs); their total mass is about the same as the brain

Brain

The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...

or liver. The peripheral blood contains 20–50% of circulating lymphocytes; the rest move within the lymphatic system

Lymphatic system

The lymphoid system is the part of the immune system comprising a network of conduits called lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph unidirectionally toward the heart. Lymphoid tissue is found in many organs, particularly the lymph nodes, and in the lymphoid follicles associated...

.

B cells and T cells are derived from the same multipotent hematopoietic stem cells, and are morphologically indistinguishable from one another until after they are activated. B cells play a large role in the humoral immune response, whereas T-cells are intimately involved in cell-mediated immune responses. However, in nearly all other vertebrate

Vertebrate

Vertebrates are animals that are members of the subphylum Vertebrata . Vertebrates are the largest group of chordates, with currently about 58,000 species described. Vertebrates include the jawless fishes, bony fishes, sharks and rays, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds...

s, B cells (and T-cells) are produced by stem cells in the bone marrow.
T-cells travel to and develop in the thymus

Thymus

The thymus is a specialized organ of the immune system. The thymus produces and "educates" T-lymphocytes , which are critical cells of the adaptive immune system....

, from which they derive their name. In humans, approximately 1-2% of the lymphocyte pool recirculates each hour to optimize the opportunities for antigen-specific lymphocytes to find their specific antigen within the secondary lymphoid tissues.

In an adult animal, the peripheral lymphoid organs contain a mixture of B and T cells in at least three stages of differentiation:

naive cells that have matured, left the bone marrow or thymus, have entered the lymphatic system, but that have yet to encounter their cognate antigen,
effector cells that have been activated by their cognate antigen, and are actively involved in eliminating a pathogen.
memory cells – the long-lived survivors of past infections.

Antigen presentation

Adaptive immunity relies on the capacity of immune cells to distinguish between the body's own cells and unwanted invaders.
The host's cells express "self" antigens. These antigens are different from those on the surface of bacteria ("non-self" antigens) or on the surface of virally infected host cells (“missing-self”). The adaptive response is triggered by recognizing non-self and missing-self antigens.

With the exception of non-nucleated cells (including erythrocytes), all cells are capable of presenting antigen and of activating the adaptive response. Some cells are specially equipped to present antigen, and to prime naive T cells. Dendritic cells and B-cells (and to a lesser extent macrophages) are equipped with special immunostimulatory receptors that allow for enhanced activation of T cells, and are termed professional antigen presenting cells (APC).

Several T cells subgroups can be activated by professional APCs, and each type of T cell is specially equipped to deal with each unique toxin or bacterial and viral pathogen. The type of T cell activated, and the type of response generated depends, in part, on the context in which the APC first encountered the antigen.

Exogenous antigens

Dendritic cells engulf exogenous

Exogenous

Exogenous refers to an action or object coming from outside a system. It is the opposite of endogenous, something generated from within the system....

pathogens, such as bacteria, parasites or toxins in the tissues and then migrate, via chemotactic signals, to the T cell enriched lymph nodes. During migration, dendritic cells undergo a process of maturation in which they lose most of their ability to engulf other pathogens and develop an ability to communicate with T-cells. The dendritic cell uses enzyme

Enzyme

Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process, called substrates, are converted into different molecules, called products. Almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates...

s to chop the pathogen into smaller pieces, called antigen

Antigen

An antigen is a foreign molecule that, when introduced into the body, triggers the production of an antibody by the immune system. The immune system will then kill or neutralize the antigen that is recognized as a foreign and potentially harmful invader. These invaders can be molecules such as...

s. In the lymph node, the dendritic cell will display these "non-self" antigens on its surface by coupling them to a "self"-receptor called the Major histocompatibility complex

Major histocompatibility complex

Major histocompatibility complex is a cell surface molecule encoded by a large gene family in all vertebrates. MHC molecules mediate interactions of leukocytes, also called white blood cells , which are immune cells, with other leukocytes or body cells...

, or MHC (also known in humans as Human leukocyte antigen

Human leukocyte antigen

The human leukocyte antigen system is the name of the major histocompatibility complex in humans. The super locus contains a large number of genes related to immune system function in humans. This group of genes resides on chromosome 6, and encodes cell-surface antigen-presenting proteins and...

(HLA)). This MHC:antigen complex is recognized by T-cells passing through the lymph node. Exogenous antigens are usually displayed on MHC class II

MHC class II

MHC Class II molecules are found only on a few specialized cell types, including macrophages, dendritic cells and B cells, all of which are professional antigen-presenting cells ....

molecules, which activate CD4+ helper T-cells.

Endogenous antigens

Endogenous

Endogenous substances are those that originate from within an organism, tissue, or cell. Endogenous retroviruses are caused by ancient infections of germ cells in humans, mammals and other vertebrates...

antigens are produced by viruses replicating within a host cell. The host cell uses enzymes to digest virally associated proteins, and displays these pieces on its surface to T-cells by coupling them to MHC. Endogenous antigens are typically displayed on MHC class I

MHC class I

MHC class I molecules are one of two primary classes of major histocompatibility complex molecules and are found on every nucleated cell of the body...

molecules, and activate CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells. With the exception of non-nucleated cells (including erythrocytes), MHC class I is expressed by all host cells.

CD8+ T lymphocytes and cytotoxicity

Cytotoxic T cells (also known as TC, killer T cell, or cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL)) are a sub-group of T cells which induce the death of cells that are infected with viruses (and other pathogens), or are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional.
Naive cytotoxic T cells are activated when their T-cell receptor (TCR) strongly interacts with a peptide-bound MHC class I molecule. This affinity depends on the type and orientation of the antigen/MHC complex, and is what keeps the CTL and infected cell bound together. Once activated, the CTL undergoes a process called clonal expansion in which it gains functionality, and divides rapidly, to produce an army of “armed”-effector cells. Activated CTL will then travel throughout the body in search of cells bearing that unique MHC Class I + peptide.

When exposed to these infected or dysfunctional somatic cell

Somatic cell

A somatic cell is any biological cell forming the body of an organism; that is, in a multicellular organism, any cell other than a gamete, germ cell, gametocyte or undifferentiated stem cell...

s, effector CTL release perforin

Perforin

Perforin-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PRF1 gene.- Function :Perforin is a cytolytic protein found in the granules of CD8 T-cells and NK cells. Upon degranulation, perforin inserts itself into the target cell's plasma membrane, forming a pore. The lytic membrane-inserting part...

and granulysin

Granulysin

Granulysin is a substance released by cytotoxic T cells when they are attached to infected body cells. It functions to create holes in the target cell membrane and destroy it...

: cytotoxins which form pores in the target cell's plasma membrane, allowing ion

Ion

An ion is an atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge. The name was given by physicist Michael Faraday for the substances that allow a current to pass between electrodes in a...

s and water to flow into the infected cell, and causing it to burst or lyse

Lysis

Lysis refers to the breaking down of a cell, often by viral, enzymic, or osmotic mechanisms that compromise its integrity. A fluid containing the contents of lysed cells is called a "lysate"....

. CTL release granzyme

Granzyme

Granzymes are serine proteases that are released by cytoplasmic granules within cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells. Their purpose is to induce apoptosis within virus-infected cells, thus destroying them....

, a serine protease

Serine protease

Serine proteases are enzymes that cleave peptide bonds in proteins, in which serine serves as the nucleophilic amino acid at the active site.They are found ubiquitously in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes...

that enters cells via pores to induce apoptosis

Apoptosis

Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation...

(cell death). To limit extensive tissue damage during an infection, CTL activation is tightly controlled and generally requires a very strong MHC/antigen activation signal, or additional activation signals provided by "helper" T-cells (see below).

Upon resolution of the infection, most of the effector cells will die and be cleared away by phagocytes, but a few of these cells will be retained as memory cells. Upon a later encounter with the same antigen, these memory cells quickly differentiate into effector cells, dramatically shortening the time required to mount an effective response.

Helper T-cells

CD4+ lymphocytes, or helper T cells, are immune response mediators, and play an important role in establishing and maximizing the capabilities of the adaptive immune response. These cells have no cytotoxic or phagocytic activity; and cannot kill infected cells or clear pathogens, but, in essence "manage" the immune response, by directing other cells to perform these tasks.

Helper T cells express T-cell receptors (TCR) that recognize antigen bound to Class II MHC molecules. The activation of a naive helper T-cell causes it to release cytokines, which influences the activity of many cell types, including the APC that activated it. Helper T-cells require a much milder activation stimulus than cytotoxic T-cells. Helper T-cells can provide extra signals that "help" activate cytotoxic cells.

Th1 and Th2: helper T cell responses

Two types of effector CD4+ T helper cell responses can be induced by a professional APC, designated Th1 and Th2, each designed to eliminate different types of pathogens. The factors that dictate whether an infection will trigger a Th1 or Th2 type response are not fully understood, but the response generated does play an important role in the clearance of different pathogens.

The Th1 response is characterized by the production of Interferon-gamma

Interferon-gamma

Interferon-gamma is a dimerized soluble cytokine that is the only member of the type II class of interferons. This interferon was originally called macrophage-activating factor, a term now used to describe a larger family of proteins to which IFN-γ belongs...

, which activates the bactericidal activities of macrophages, and induces B-cells to make opsonizing (coating) antibodies, and leads to "cell-mediated immunity

Cell-mediated immunity

Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells , antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen...

". The Th2 response is characterized by the release of Interleukin 4

Interleukin 4

Interleukin-4, abbreviated IL-4, is a cytokine that induces differentiation of naive helper T cells to Th2 cells. Upon activation by IL-4, Th2 cells subsequently produce additional IL-4. The cell that initially produces IL-4, thus inducing Th0 differentiation, has not been identified, but recent...

, which results in the activation of B-cells to make neutralizing (killing) antibodies, leading to "humoral immunity

Humoral immunity

The Humoral Immune Response is the aspect of immunity that is mediated by secreted antibodies produced in the cells of the B lymphocyte lineage . B Cells transform into plasma cells which secrete antibodies...

". Generally, Th1 responses are more effective against intracellular

Intracellular

Not to be confused with intercellular, meaning "between cells".In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word intracellular means "inside the cell".It is used in contrast to extracellular...

pathogens (viruses and bacteria that are inside host cells), while Th2 responses are more effective against extracellular

Extracellular

In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word extracellular means "outside the cell". This space is usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid...

bacteria, parasites and toxin

Toxin

A toxin is a poisonous substance produced within living cells or organisms; man-made substances created by artificial processes are thus excluded...

s. Like cytotoxic T-cells, most of the CD4+ helper cells will die upon resolution of infection, with a few remaining as CD4+ memory cells.

HIV

HIV

Human immunodeficiency virus is a lentivirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome , a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive...

is able to subvert the immune system by attacking the CD4+ T cells, precisely the cells that could drive the destruction of the virus, but also the cells that drive immunity against all other pathogens encountered during an organisms' lifetime.

A third type of T lymphocyte, the regulatory T cells (Treg), limits and suppresses

Immune tolerance

Immune tolerance or immunological tolerance is the process by which the immune system does not attack an antigen. It can be either 'natural' or 'self tolerance', in which the body does not mount an immune response to self antigens, or 'induced tolerance', in which tolerance to external antigens can...

the immune system, and may control aberrant immune responses to self-antigens; an important mechanism in controlling the development of autoimmune diseases.

γδ T cells

γδ T cells (gamma delta cells) possess an alternative T cell receptor

T cell receptor

The T cell receptor or TCR is a molecule found on the surface of T lymphocytes that is responsible for recognizing antigens bound to major histocompatibility complex molecules...

(TCR) as opposed to CD4+ and CD8+ αβ T cells and share characteristics of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells. Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant TCRs, such as CD1d

CD1d receptor

CD1d is a member of the CD1 family of glycoproteins expressed on the surface of various human antigen-presenting cells. They are related to the class I MHC molecules, and are involved in the presentation of lipid antigens to T cells...

-restricted Natural Killer T cell

Natural Killer T cell

Natural killer T cells are a heterogeneous group of T cells that share properties of both T cells and natural killer cells. Many of these cells recognize the non-polymorphic CD1d molecule, an antigen-presenting molecule that binds self- and foreign lipids and glycolipids...

s, γδ T cells exhibit characteristics that place them at the border between innate and adaptive immunity. On one hand, γδ T cells may be considered a component of adaptive immunity in that they rearrange TCR genes via V(D)J recombination

V(D)J recombination

VJ recombination, also known as somatic recombination, is a mechanism of genetic recombination in the early stages of immunoglobulin and T cell receptors production of the immune system...

, which also produces junctional diversity

Junctional diversity

Junctional diversity describes the DNA sequence variations introduced by the improper joining of gene segments during the process of VJ recombination...

, and develop a memory phenotype. On the other hand however, the various subsets may also be considered part of the innate immune system where a restricted TCR and/or NK receptors may be used as a pattern recognition receptor

Pattern recognition receptor

Pattern recognition receptors are a primitive part of the immune system. They are proteins expressed by cells of the innate immune system to identify pathogen-associated molecular patterns , which are associated with microbial pathogens or cellular stress, as well as damage-associated molecular...

. For example, according to this paradigm, large numbers of Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to common molecules

Non-peptidic antigen

Non-peptidic antigens are low-molecular-weight compounds that stimulate human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells. The most potent activator for Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells is -4-hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate , a natural intermediate of the non-mevalonate pathway of isopentenyl pyrophosphate biosynthesis...

produced by microbes, and highly restricted intraepithelial Vδ1 T cells will respond to stressed epithelial cells.

B lymphocytes and antibody production

B Cells are the major cells involved in the creation of antibodies that circulate in blood plasma

Blood plasma

Blood plasma is the straw-colored liquid component of blood in which the blood cells in whole blood are normally suspended. It makes up about 55% of the total blood volume. It is the intravascular fluid part of extracellular fluid...

and lymph, known as humoral immunity

Humoral immunity

. Antibodies (or immunoglobulin, Ig), are large Y-shaped proteins used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects. In mammals there are five types of antibody: IgA

IGA

Iga or IGA may stand for:-Given name:* a female given name of Polish origin. The name originates from the female given name Jadwiga and stands for gia,or gina in the USA....

, IgD

IGD

IGD can refer to:*Internet Gateway Device as defined in UPnP.*İGD, İlerici Gençler Derneği, Progressive Young Association of Turkey*Immunoglobulin D, an antibody protein involved in the maturation of B cells....

, IgE

IGE

IGE was one of the largest services company buying and selling virtual currencies and accounts for MMORPG. During its peak time, it had offices in Los Angeles, China , and headquarters & customer service centre in Hong Kong. IGE was one of the main monopoly in virtual economy services, also known...

, IgG, and IgM

IGM

IGM as an acronym or abbreviation can refer to:* Immunoglobulin M , the primary antibody against A and B antigens on red blood cells* International Grandmaster, a chess ranking* intergalactic medium* Intragroup medium - see: Intracluster medium...

, differing in biological properties, each has evolved to handle different kinds of antigens. Upon activation, B cells produce antibodies, each of which recognizes a unique antigen, and neutralize specific pathogens.

Like the T cell receptor, B cells express a unique B cell receptor (BCR), in this case, an immobilized antibody molecule. The BCR recognizes and binds to only one particular antigen. A critical difference between B cells and T cells is how each cell "sees" an antigen. T cells recognize their cognate antigen in a processed form - as a peptide in the context of an MHC molecule, while B cells recognize antigens in their native form. Once a B cell encounters its cognate (or specific) antigen (and receives additional signals from a helper T cell (predominately Th2 type)), it further differentiate

Cellular differentiation

In developmental biology, cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. Differentiation occurs numerous times during the development of a multicellular organism as the organism changes from a simple zygote to a complex system of...

s into an effector cell, known as a plasma cell.

Plasma cells are short lived cells (2–3 days) which secrete antibodies. These antibodies bind to antigens, making them easier targets for phagocytes, and trigger the complement cascade. About 10% of plasma cells will survive to become long-lived antigen specific memory B cell

Memory B cell

s. Already primed to produce specific antibodies, these cells can be called upon to respond quickly if the same pathogen re-infects the host; while the host experiences few, if any, symptoms.

Alternative adaptive immune system

Although the classical molecules of the adaptive immune system (e.g. antibodies

Antibody

An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a large Y-shaped protein used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses. The antibody recognizes a unique part of the foreign target, termed an antigen...

and T cell receptor

T cell receptor

The T cell receptor or TCR is a molecule found on the surface of T lymphocytes that is responsible for recognizing antigens bound to major histocompatibility complex molecules...

s) exist only in jawed vertebrates, a distinct lymphocyte

Lymphocyte

-derived molecule has been discovered in primitive jawless vertebrates

Agnatha

Agnatha is a superclass of jawless fish in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata. The group excludes all vertebrates with jaws, known as gnathostomes....

, such as the lamprey

Lamprey

Lampreys are a family of jawless fish, whose adults are characterized by a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth. Translated from an admixture of Latin and Greek, lamprey means stone lickers...

and hagfish

Hagfish

Hagfish, the clade Myxini , are eel-shaped slime-producing marine animals . They are the only living animals that have a skull but not a vertebral column. Along with lampreys, hagfish are jawless and are living fossils whose next nearest relatives include all vertebrates...

. These animals possess a large array of molecules called variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs for short) that, like the antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates, are produced from only a small number (one or two) of gene

Gene

A gene is a molecular unit of heredity of a living organism. It is a name given to some stretches of DNA and RNA that code for a type of protein or for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism. Living beings depend on genes, as they specify all proteins and functional RNA chains...

s. These molecules are believed to bind pathogenic antigen

Antigen

s in a similar way to antibodies, and with the same degree of specificity.

Immunological memory

When B cells and T cells are activated some will become memory cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal these memory cells form a database of effective B and T lymphocytes. Upon interaction with a previously encountered antigen, the appropriate memory cells are selected and activated. In this manner, the second and subsequent exposures to an antigen produce a stronger and faster immune response. This is "adaptive" because the body's immune system prepares itself for future challenges. Immunological memory can either be in the form of passive short-term memory or active long-term memory.

Passive memory

Passive memory is usually short-term, lasting between a few days and several months. Newborn infant

Infant

A newborn or baby is the very young offspring of a human or other mammal. A newborn is an infant who is within hours, days, or up to a few weeks from birth. In medical contexts, newborn or neonate refers to an infant in the first 28 days after birth...

s have had no prior exposure to microbes and are particularly vulnerable to infection. Several layers of passive protection are provided by the mother. In utero
Uterus
The uterus or womb is a major female hormone-responsive reproductive sex organ of most mammals including humans. One end, the cervix, opens into the vagina, while the other is connected to one or both fallopian tubes, depending on the species...

, maternal IgG is transported directly across the placenta

Placenta

The placenta is an organ that connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother's blood supply. "True" placentas are a defining characteristic of eutherian or "placental" mammals, but are also found in some snakes and...

, so that at birth, human babies have high levels of antibodies, with the same range of antigen specificities as their mother. Breast milk

Breast milk

Breast milk, more specifically human milk, is the milk produced by the breasts of a human female for her infant offspring...

contains antibodies that are transferred to the gut of the infant, protecting against bacterial infections, until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies.

This is passive immunity because the fetus does not actually make any memory cells or antibodies, it only borrows them. Short-term passive immunity can also be transferred artificially from one individual to another via antibody-rich serum

Blood plasma

Active Memory

Active immunity is generally long-term and can be acquired by infection followed by B cells and T cells activation, or artificially acquired by vaccines, in a process called immunization.

Immunization

Historically, infectious disease has been the leading cause of death in the human population. Over the last century, two important factors have been developed to combat their spread; sanitation

Sanitation

Sanitation is the hygienic means of promoting health through prevention of human contact with the hazards of wastes. Hazards can be either physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease. Wastes that can cause health problems are human and animal feces, solid wastes, domestic...

and immunization

Immunization

Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which an individual's immune system becomes fortified against an agent ....

. Immunization (commonly referred to as vaccination

Vaccination

Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material to stimulate the immune system of an individual to develop adaptive immunity to a disease. Vaccines can prevent or ameliorate the effects of infection by many pathogens...

) is the deliberate induction of an immune response, and represents the single most effective manipulation of the immune system that scientists have developed. Immunizations are successful because they utilize the immune system's natural specificity as well as its inducibility.

The principle behind immunization is to introduce an antigen, derived from a disease-causing organism, that stimulates the immune system to develop protective immunity against that organism, but which does not itself cause the pathogenic effects of that organism. An antigen

Antigen

(short for antibody generator), is defined as any substance that binds to a specific antibody and elicits an adaptive immune response.

Most viral vaccine

Vaccine

A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism, and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe or its toxins...

s are based on live attenuated viruses, while many bacterial vaccines are based on acellular components of microorganisms, including harmless toxin

Toxin

A toxin is a poisonous substance produced within living cells or organisms; man-made substances created by artificial processes are thus excluded...

components. Many antigens derived from acellular vaccines do not strongly induce an adaptive response, and most bacterial vaccines require the addition of adjuvant
Immunologic adjuvant
In immunology, an adjuvant is an agent that may stimulate the immune system and increase the response to a vaccine, without having any specific antigenic effect in itself. The word “adjuvant” comes from the Latin word adiuvare, meaning to help or aid...

s that activate the antigen presenting cells of the innate immune system

Innate immune system

to enhance immunogenicity.

Immunological diversity

Most large molecules, including virtually all protein

Protein

Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...

s and many polysaccharide

Polysaccharide

Polysaccharides are long carbohydrate molecules, of repeated monomer units joined together by glycosidic bonds. They range in structure from linear to highly branched. Polysaccharides are often quite heterogeneous, containing slight modifications of the repeating unit. Depending on the structure,...

s, can serve as antigens. The parts of an antigen that interact with an antibody molecule or a lymphocyte receptor, are called epitope

Epitope

An epitope, also known as antigenic determinant, is the part of an antigen that is recognized by the immune system, specifically by antibodies, B cells, or T cells. The part of an antibody that recognizes the epitope is called a paratope...

s. Most antigens contain a variety of epitopes and can stimulate the production of antibodies, specific T cell responses, or both.

A very small proportion (less than 0.01%) of the total lymphocytes are able to bind to a particular antigen, which suggests that only a few cells will respond to each antigen.

For the adaptive response to "remember" and eliminate a large number of pathogens the immune system must be able to distinguish between many different antigens, and the receptors that recognize antigens must be produced in a huge variety of configurations, essentially one receptor (at least) for each different pathogen that might ever be encountered. Even in the absence of antigen stimulation, a human is capable of producing more than 1 trillion different antibody molecules. Millions of genes would be required to store the genetic information used to produce these receptors, but, the entire human genome contains fewer than 25,000 gene

Gene

s.

This myriad of receptors are produced through a process known as clonal selection

Clonal selection

The clonal selection hypothesis has become a widely accepted model for how the immune system responds to infection and how certain types of B and T lymphocytes are selected for destruction of specific antigens invading the body....

. According to the clonal selection theory, at birth, an animal will randomly generate a vast diversity of lymphocytes (each bearing a unique antigen receptor) from information encoded in a small family of genes. In order to generate each unique antigen receptor, these genes will have undergone a process called V(D)J recombination

V(D)J recombination

VJ recombination, also known as somatic recombination, is a mechanism of genetic recombination in the early stages of immunoglobulin and T cell receptors production of the immune system...

, or combinatorial diversification, in which one gene segment recombines with other gene segments to form a single unique gene. It is this assembly process that generates the enormous diversity of receptors and antibodies, before the body ever encounters antigens, and enables the immune system to respond to an almost unlimited diversity of antigens. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, those lymphocytes that can react against the antigens an animal actually encounters, will be selected for action, directed against anything that expresses that antigen.

It is important to note that the innate and adaptive portions of the immune system work together and not in spite of each other. The adaptive arm, B and T cells, would be unable to function without the input of the innate system. T cells are useless without antigen-presenting cells to activate them, and B cells are crippled without T-cell help. On the other hand, the innate system would likely be overrun with pathogens without the specialized action of the adaptive immune response.

Adaptive immunity during pregnancy

The cornerstone of the immune system is the recognition of "self" versus "non-self". Therefore, the mechanisms which protect the human fetus

Fetus

A fetus is a developing mammal or other viviparous vertebrate after the embryonic stage and before birth.In humans, the fetal stage of prenatal development starts at the beginning of the 11th week in gestational age, which is the 9th week after fertilization.-Etymology and spelling variations:The...

(which is considered "non-self") from attack by the immune system, are particularly interesting. Although no comprehensive explanation has emerged to explain this mysterious, and often repeated, lack of rejection, two classical reasons may explain how the fetus is tolerated. The first is that the fetus occupies a portion of the body protected by a non-immunological barrier, the uterus

Uterus

The uterus or womb is a major female hormone-responsive reproductive sex organ of most mammals including humans. One end, the cervix, opens into the vagina, while the other is connected to one or both fallopian tubes, depending on the species...

, which the immune system does not routinely patrol. The second is that the fetus itself may promote local immunosuppression in the mother, perhaps by a process of active nutrient depletion. A more modern explanation for this induction of tolerance is that specific glycoproteins expressed in the uterus during pregnancy

Pregnancy

Pregnancy refers to the fertilization and development of one or more offspring, known as a fetus or embryo, in a woman's uterus. In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations, as in the case of twins or triplets...

suppress the uterine immune response (see eu-FEDS).

During pregnancy in viviparous

Vivipary

Vivipary has two different meanings. In animals, it means development of the embryo inside the body of the mother, eventually leading to live birth, as opposed to laying eggs...

mammals (all mammals except Monotreme

Monotreme

Monotremes are mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth to live young like marsupials and placental mammals...

s), endogenous retroviruses are activated and produced in high quantities during the implantation of the embryo. They are currently known to possess immunosuppressive properties, suggesting a role in protecting the embryo from its mother's immune system. Also viral fusion proteins apparently cause the formation of the placental syncytium

Syncytium

In biology, a syncytium is a large cell-like structure; filled with cytoplasm and containing many nuclei. Most cells in eukaryotic organisms have a single nucleus; syncytia are specialized forms used by various organisms.The term may also refer to cells that are connected by specialized membrane...

in order to limit the exchange of migratory cells between the developing embryo and the body of the mother (something an epithelium

Epithelium

Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surfaces of structures throughout the body, and also form many glands. Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective...

will not do sufficiently, as certain blood cells are specialized to be able to insert themselves between adjacent epithelial cells). The immunodepressive action was the initial normal behavior of the virus, similar to HIV, the fusion proteins were a way to spread the infection to other cells by simply merging them with the infected one (HIV does this too). It is believed that the ancestors of modern viviparous

Vivipary

Vivipary has two different meanings. In animals, it means development of the embryo inside the body of the mother, eventually leading to live birth, as opposed to laying eggs...

mammals evolved after an infection by this virus, enabling the fetus to survive the immune system of the mother.

The human genome project

Human Genome Project

The Human Genome Project is an international scientific research project with a primary goal of determining the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up DNA, and of identifying and mapping the approximately 20,000–25,000 genes of the human genome from both a physical and functional...

found several thousand ERVs classified into 24 families.

External links

The Center for Modeling Immunity to Enteric Pathogens (MIEP)

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.

Functions

Effector cells

Antigen presentation

Exogenous antigens

Endogenous antigens

CD8+ T lymphocytes and cytotoxicity

Helper T-cells

Th1 and Th2: helper T cell responses

γδ T cells

B lymphocytes and antibody production

Alternative adaptive immune system

Immunological memory

Passive memory

Active Memory

Immunization

Immunological diversity

Adaptive immunity during pregnancy

See also

External links