Augustus II the Strong
Encyclopedia
Frederick Augustus I or Augustus II the Strong was Elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus I) and King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania (as Augustus II).
Augustus's great physical strength earned him the nicknames "the Strong," "the Saxon Hercules" and "Iron-Hand." He liked to show that he lived up to his name by breaking horseshoe
s with his bare hands and engaging in fox tossing
with a single finger. His ancestor Cymburgis of Masovia
was also noted for her strength.
Augustus the Strong owed allegiance to the Imperial Habsburgs as a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece
.
As Elector of Saxony, he is perhaps best remembered as a patron of the arts and architecture. He established the Saxon capital of Dresden as a major cultural centre, attracting artists and musicians from across Europe to his court. Augustus also amassed an impressive art collection and built fantastic baroque palaces at Dresden and Warsaw.
As a politician, he is nowadays held in low esteem in Poland, in particular for his role in embroiling the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Great Northern War
. His attempts at internal reforms and at bolstering the royal power are considered failures, while his policies are thought to have allowed the Russian Empire
to strengthen its influence over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
, the second and youngest son of the Elector Johann Georg III and Anne Sophie of Denmark.
As the second son, Augustus had no expectation of inheriting the Electorate, since his older brother, Johann Georg IV
, assumed the post after the death of their father on 12 September 1691.
Augustus married Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth
in Bayreuth on 20 January 1693. They had a son, Frederick Augustus II
(1696–1763), who succeeded his father as Elector of Saxony and King of Poland as Augustus III.
While disporting himself during the carnival season in Venice, his older brother, the Elector Johann Georg IV, contracted smallpox from his mistress Magdalene Sybille of Neidschutz. On 27 April 1694 Johann Georg died without legitimate issue and Augustus became Elector of Saxony, as Frederick Augustus I.
In order to be eligible for the throne of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Augustus had to convert to Roman Catholicism. The Saxon dukes had traditionally been called "champions of the Reformation
." The duchy had been a stronghold of German Protestantism and Augustus's conversion was therefore considered shocking in Protestant Europe. The electors of Saxony had to cede its prestigious role as leader of the Protestant Estates in the Imperial Diet (see Reichstag
) to Brandenburg
-Prussia
. Since the prince-elector guaranteed Saxony's religious status quo, Augustus's conversion alienated many of his Protestant subjects. As a result of the enormous expenditure of money used to bribe the Polish nobility and clergy, Augustus's contemporaries derisively referred to the Saxon duke's royal ambitions as his "Polish adventure."
It is noteworthy that the directorate of the Corpus Evangelicorum, which was the official Imperial board of the Protestant Estates and the counterpart of the Corpus Catholicorum, remained under Saxon auspices with the Roman Catholic Augustus, paradoxically, at its head. His church policy within the Holy Roman Empire
followed orthodox Lutheranism and ran counter to his new- found religious and absolutist convictions. The Protestant Princes of the Empire and the two remaining Protestant Electors (of Hanover and Prussia) were anxious to keep Saxony well-integrated in their camp. According to the Peace of Augsburg
, Augustus theoretically had the right to re-introduce Roman Catholicism (see Cuius regio, eius religio
), or at least grant full religious freedom to his fellow Catholics in Saxony, but this never happened. Saxony remained Lutheran and the few Roman Catholics residing in Saxony were without any political or civil rights. In 1717 it became clear just how awkward the situation was: to realize his ambitious dynastic plans in Poland and Germany it was necessary for Augustus's heirs to become Roman Catholic. After five years as a convert, his son—the future Augustus III—publicly avowed his Roman Catholicism. The Saxon Estates were outraged and revolted. It was becoming clearer that the conversion to Roman Catholicism was not only a matter of form, but of substance as well.
The wife of Augustus I, the Electress Christiane Eberhardine, refused to follow her husband's example and remained a staunch Protestant. She did not attend her husband's coronation in Poland and led a rather quiet life outside of Dresden, gaining for herself some popularity and notoriety for her stubbornness.
and having successfully converted to Catholicism
, Augustus was elected King of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1697 with the backing of Imperial Russia and Austria
, which financed him through the Jewish
banker, Berend Lehmann
. At the time, some questioned the legality of Augustus's elevation, since another candidate, François Louis, Prince of Conti
had received more votes. Both candidates, Conti and Augustus, were proclaimed as king by different ecclesiastical authorities (by Primate Michaŀ Radziejowski and Bishop of Kujawy Stanisław Dąmbski, respectively, with Jacob Heinrich von Flemming
swearing to the pacta conventa
in Augustus' place). However, Augustus hurried to the Commonwealth with a Saxon army, while Conti stayed in France for two months.
He continued the war of the Holy League
against Turkey, and after a campaign in Moldavia his Polish army eventually defeated the Tatar expedition in the Battle of Podhajce
in 1698. This victory compelled the Ottoman Empire
to sign the Treaty of Karlowitz
in 1699. Podolia
and Kamieniec Podolski returned to Poland.
An ambitious ruler, Augustus hoped to make the Polish throne hereditary within his family, and to use his resources as Elector of Saxony to impose some order on the chaotic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was, however, soon distracted from his internal reform projects by the possibility of external conquest. He formed an alliance with Denmark's Frederick IV
and Russia's Peter I
to strip Sweden's young King Charles XII
(who incidently was Augustus's cousin) of his possessions. Poland's reward for participation in this Great Northern War
was to have been the Swedish territory of Livonia
. Charles proved an able military commander, however, quickly forcing the Danes out of the war and then driving back the Russians at Narva
, thereby allowing him to focus on the struggle with Augustus. Charles's decision ultimately proved as disastrous for Sweden as for Poland.
Charles defeated Augustus at Riga
on 17 June 1701, forcing the Polish-Saxon army to withdraw from Livonia, and followed this up with an invasion of Poland. He captured Warsaw
on 14 May 1702, defeated the Polish-Saxon army again at the Battle of Kliszów
, and took Kraków
. He defeated another of Augustus's armies under command of Generalfeldmarschall
Adam Heinrich von Steinau
at the Battle of Pułtusk in spring 1703, and besieged and captured Thorn (Toruń
).
By this time, Augustus was certainly ready for peace, but Charles felt that he would be more secure if he could establish someone more pliable on the Polish throne. In 1704 the Swedes installed Stanisław Leszczyński and tied the commonwealth to Sweden
, which compelled Augustus to initiate military operations in Poland alongside Russia (an alliance was concluded
in Narva
summer 1704). On 1 September 1706, Charles invaded Saxony
, forcing Augustus to yield the Polish throne to Leszczyński by the Treaty of Altranstädt
.
Meanwhile Russia's Tsar Peter the Great had reformed his army, and dealt a crippling defeat to the Swedes at the Battle of Poltava
. This spelled the end of the Swedish Empire
and the rise of the Russian Empire
.
of Russia. In 1709 Augustus II returned to the Polish throne under Russian auspices
. Once again he attempted to establish an absolute monarchy
in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but was faced with opposition from the nobility (szlachta
, see Tarnogród Confederation
). Peter the Great seized on this opportunity to pose as mediator, threatened the Commonwealth militarily, and in 1717 forced Augustus and the nobility to sign an accommodation favorable to Russian interests, at the Silent Sejm
(Sejm Niemy).
For the remainder of his reign, in an uneasy relationship, Augustus was more or less dependent on Russia (and to a lesser extent, on Austria) to maintain his throne. After the Silent Sejm
, he gave up his dynastic ambitions and concentrated instead on attempts to strengthen the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Faced with both internal and foreign opposition, however, he achieved little.
Augustus died at Warsaw in 1733. Although he had failed to make the Polish throne hereditary in his house, his eldest son, Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, did succeed him to the Polish throne as Augustus III of Poland
— although he had to be installed there by a Russian army in the War of the Polish Succession
.
Augustus II was called "the Strong" for his bear-like physical strength and for his numerous offspring (only one of them his legitimate child and heir). The most famous of the king’s children born out of wedlock was Maurice de Saxe, a brilliant strategist who attained the highest military ranks in the kingdom of France. In the War of the Polish Succession
he remained loyal to his employer Louis XV of France
, who was married to the daughter of Augustus’s rival Stanisław Leszczyński.
August was 1.76 meters (5’ 9½”) tall, above average height for that time, but despite his extraordinary physical strength he did not look big. In his final years he suffered from diabetes mellitus
and became obese, at his death weighing some 110 kg (242 lbs). August II's body was interred in Poland — all but his heart, which rests at Dresden's Katholische Hofkirche
.
In November 1705 August founded the Order of the White Eagle, Poland's first and preeminent order of chivalry. In Warsaw, the Saxon Garden
(Polish
: Ogród Saski) commemorates the role of August II in expanding the city's public places.
From 1687 to 1689 Augustus toured France and Italy. The extravagant court in Versailles
--perfectly tailored to fit the needs of an absolute monarch--impressed him deeply. In accordance with the spirit of the baroque
age, Augustus invested heavily in the representative splendor of his residence to advertise his wealth and power.
With strict edificial regulations, major urban development plans, and a certain feeling for art, the king began to transform Dresden into a renowned cultural center with one of Germany’s finest art collections, though most of the famous sights and landmarks of Dresden were completed during the reign of his son Augustus III. The most famous building that was started during his reign was the Zwinger
. Being a man of pleasure, the king sponsored lavish court balls, Venetian-style balli in maschera, and luxurious court gatherings, games, and garden festivities. His court acquired a reputation for extravagance throughout Europe
.
, who had fled from the court of the king of Prussia, Fredrick I, who had expected that he produce gold for him as he had boasted he could. King Augustus II imprisoned Böttger and tried to force him to reveal the secret of manufacturing gold. Böttger's transition from alchemist to potter was orchestrated as an attempt to avoid the impossible demands of the king. Being an alchemist by profession rather than a potter gave Böttger an advantage. He realized that the current approaches which involved mixing fine white substances like crushed egg shells into clay was not the answer. Rather, his approach was to attempt to bake clay at higher temperatures than had ever before been attained in European kilns. That approach yielded the breakthrough that had eluded European potters for a century. The manufacture of fine porcelain continues at the Meissen porcelain
factory.
, where she died.
August, a voracious womanizer, never missed his wife, spending his time with a series of mistresses:
Some contemporary sources, including Wilhelmine of Bayreuth
, claimed that Augustus had as many as 365 or 382 children. The number is extremely difficult to verify; Augustus officially recognized only a tiny fraction of that number as his bastards (the mothers of these "chosen ones," with the possible exception of Fatima, were all aristocratic ladies):
—With Maria Aurora of Königsmarck:
—With Ursula Katharina of Altenbockum:
—With the Turk Fatima, later Maria Aurora of Spiegel:
—With Anna Constantia of Brockdorff:
—With Henriette Renárd:
Augustus's great physical strength earned him the nicknames "the Strong," "the Saxon Hercules" and "Iron-Hand." He liked to show that he lived up to his name by breaking horseshoe
Horseshoe
A horseshoe, is a fabricated product, normally made of metal, although sometimes made partially or wholly of modern synthetic materials, designed to protect a horse's hoof from wear and tear. Shoes are attached on the palmar surface of the hooves, usually nailed through the insensitive hoof wall...
s with his bare hands and engaging in fox tossing
Fox tossing
Fox tossing was a popular competitive blood sport in parts of Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, which involved throwing live foxes and other animals high into the air.-Background:...
with a single finger. His ancestor Cymburgis of Masovia
Cymburgis of Masovia
Cymburgis of Masovia in January 1412 became the second wife of the Habsburg Duke Ernest the Iron of Austria and thus a Duchess/Archduchess of the Inner Austrian line in Styria, Carinthia and Carniola.Cimburgis was born at Warsaw in the Duchy of Masovia to Duke...
was also noted for her strength.
Augustus the Strong owed allegiance to the Imperial Habsburgs as a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece
Order of the Golden Fleece
The Order of the Golden Fleece is an order of chivalry founded in Bruges by Philip III, Duke of Burgundy in 1430, to celebrate his marriage to the Portuguese princess Infanta Isabella of Portugal, daughter of King John I of Portugal. It evolved as one of the most prestigious orders in Europe...
.
As Elector of Saxony, he is perhaps best remembered as a patron of the arts and architecture. He established the Saxon capital of Dresden as a major cultural centre, attracting artists and musicians from across Europe to his court. Augustus also amassed an impressive art collection and built fantastic baroque palaces at Dresden and Warsaw.
As a politician, he is nowadays held in low esteem in Poland, in particular for his role in embroiling the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Great Northern War
Great Northern War
The Great Northern War was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in northern Central Europe and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter I the Great of Russia, Frederick IV of...
. His attempts at internal reforms and at bolstering the royal power are considered failures, while his policies are thought to have allowed the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
to strengthen its influence over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Royal titles
- In LatinLatinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
: Augustus Secundus, Dei Gratia rex Poloniae, magnus dux Lithuaniae, Russie, Prussiae, Masoviae, Samogitiae, Livoniae, Kijoviae, Volhyniae, Podoliae, Smolensciae, Severiae, Czerniechoviaeque, necnon haereditarius dux Saxoniae et princeps elector etc. - English translation: Augustus II, by the grace of GodBy the Grace of GodBy the Grace of God is an introductory part of the full styles of a monarch taken to be ruling by divine right, not a title in its own right....
, King of PolandPolandPoland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
, Grand Duke of LithuaniaLithuaniaLithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...
, RutheniaRutheniaRuthenia is the Latin word used onwards from the 13th century, describing lands of the Ancient Rus in European manuscripts. Its geographic and culturo-ethnic name at that time was applied to the parts of Eastern Europe. Essentially, the word is a false Latin rendering of the ancient place name Rus...
, PrussiaPrussiaPrussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
, Masovia, SamogitiaSamogitiaSamogitia is one of the five ethnographic regions of Lithuania. It is located in northwestern Lithuania. Its largest city is Šiauliai/Šiaulē. The region has a long and distinct cultural history, reflected in the existence of the Samogitian dialect...
, LivoniaLivoniaLivonia is a historic region along the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. It was once the land of the Finnic Livonians inhabiting the principal ancient Livonian County Metsepole with its center at Turaida...
, KievKievKiev or Kyiv is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population as of the 2001 census was 2,611,300. However, higher numbers have been cited in the press....
, VolhyniaVolhyniaVolhynia, Volynia, or Volyn is a historic region in western Ukraine located between the rivers Prypiat and Southern Bug River, to the north of Galicia and Podolia; the region is named for the former city of Volyn or Velyn, said to have been located on the Southern Bug River, whose name may come...
, PodoliaPodoliaThe region of Podolia is an historical region in the west-central and south-west portions of present-day Ukraine, corresponding to Khmelnytskyi Oblast and Vinnytsia Oblast. Northern Transnistria, in Moldova, is also a part of Podolia...
, SmolenskSmolenskSmolensk is a city and the administrative center of Smolensk Oblast, Russia, located on the Dnieper River. Situated west-southwest of Moscow, this walled city was destroyed several times throughout its long history since it was on the invasion routes of both Napoleon and Hitler. Today, Smolensk...
, SeveriaSeveriaSeveria or Siveria is a historical region in present-day northern Ukraine and southwestern Russia, centered around the city of Novhorod-Siverskyi in Ukraine.-Severians:...
and ChernihivChernihivChernihiv or Chernigov is a historic city in northern Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Chernihiv Oblast , as well as of the surrounding Chernihivskyi Raion within the oblast...
, and Hereditary Duke and Prince-ElectorPrince-electorThe Prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire were the members of the electoral college of the Holy Roman Empire, having the function of electing the Roman king or, from the middle of the 16th century onwards, directly the Holy Roman Emperor.The heir-apparent to a prince-elector was known as an...
of SaxonySaxonyThe Free State of Saxony is a landlocked state of Germany, contingent with Brandenburg, Saxony Anhalt, Thuringia, Bavaria, the Czech Republic and Poland. It is the tenth-largest German state in area, with of Germany's sixteen states....
, etc.
Biography
Augustus was born in DresdenDresden
Dresden is the capital city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the Czech border. The Dresden conurbation is part of the Saxon Triangle metropolitan area....
, the second and youngest son of the Elector Johann Georg III and Anne Sophie of Denmark.
As the second son, Augustus had no expectation of inheriting the Electorate, since his older brother, Johann Georg IV
John George IV, Elector of Saxony
John George IV was Elector of Saxony from 1691 to 1694.He was the eldest son of the Elector John George III and Anna Sophie of Denmark.-First years as elector:...
, assumed the post after the death of their father on 12 September 1691.
Augustus married Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth
Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth
Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth was Electress of Saxony from 1694 to 1727 and titular Queen of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1697 to 1727 as the wife of Augustus II the Strong. Not once throughout the whole of her thirty-year queenship did she set foot in Poland, instead...
in Bayreuth on 20 January 1693. They had a son, Frederick Augustus II
Augustus III of Poland
Augustus III, known as the Saxon ; ; also Prince-elector Friedrich August II was the Elector of Saxony in 1733-1763, as Frederick Augustus II , King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1734-1763.-Biography:Augustus was the only legitimate son of Augustus II the Strong, Imperial Prince-Elector...
(1696–1763), who succeeded his father as Elector of Saxony and King of Poland as Augustus III.
While disporting himself during the carnival season in Venice, his older brother, the Elector Johann Georg IV, contracted smallpox from his mistress Magdalene Sybille of Neidschutz. On 27 April 1694 Johann Georg died without legitimate issue and Augustus became Elector of Saxony, as Frederick Augustus I.
Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century split within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin and other early Protestants. The efforts of the self-described "reformers", who objected to the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church, led...
." The duchy had been a stronghold of German Protestantism and Augustus's conversion was therefore considered shocking in Protestant Europe. The electors of Saxony had to cede its prestigious role as leader of the Protestant Estates in the Imperial Diet (see Reichstag
Reichstag (Holy Roman Empire)
The Imperial Diet was the Diet, or general assembly, of the Imperial Estates of the Holy Roman Empire.During the period of the Empire, which lasted formally until 1806, the Diet was not a parliament in today's sense; instead, it was an assembly of the various estates of the realm...
) to Brandenburg
Brandenburg
Brandenburg is one of the sixteen federal-states of Germany. It lies in the east of the country and is one of the new federal states that were re-created in 1990 upon the reunification of the former West Germany and East Germany. The capital is Potsdam...
-Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
. Since the prince-elector guaranteed Saxony's religious status quo, Augustus's conversion alienated many of his Protestant subjects. As a result of the enormous expenditure of money used to bribe the Polish nobility and clergy, Augustus's contemporaries derisively referred to the Saxon duke's royal ambitions as his "Polish adventure."
It is noteworthy that the directorate of the Corpus Evangelicorum, which was the official Imperial board of the Protestant Estates and the counterpart of the Corpus Catholicorum, remained under Saxon auspices with the Roman Catholic Augustus, paradoxically, at its head. His church policy within the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
followed orthodox Lutheranism and ran counter to his new- found religious and absolutist convictions. The Protestant Princes of the Empire and the two remaining Protestant Electors (of Hanover and Prussia) were anxious to keep Saxony well-integrated in their camp. According to the Peace of Augsburg
Peace of Augsburg
The Peace of Augsburg, also called the Augsburg Settlement, was a treaty between Charles V and the forces of the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Lutheran princes, on September 25, 1555, at the imperial city of Augsburg, now in present-day Bavaria, Germany.It officially ended the religious...
, Augustus theoretically had the right to re-introduce Roman Catholicism (see Cuius regio, eius religio
Cuius regio, eius religio
Cuius regio, eius religio is a phrase in Latin translated as "Whose realm, his religion", meaning the religion of the ruler dictated the religion of the ruled...
), or at least grant full religious freedom to his fellow Catholics in Saxony, but this never happened. Saxony remained Lutheran and the few Roman Catholics residing in Saxony were without any political or civil rights. In 1717 it became clear just how awkward the situation was: to realize his ambitious dynastic plans in Poland and Germany it was necessary for Augustus's heirs to become Roman Catholic. After five years as a convert, his son—the future Augustus III—publicly avowed his Roman Catholicism. The Saxon Estates were outraged and revolted. It was becoming clearer that the conversion to Roman Catholicism was not only a matter of form, but of substance as well.
The wife of Augustus I, the Electress Christiane Eberhardine, refused to follow her husband's example and remained a staunch Protestant. She did not attend her husband's coronation in Poland and led a rather quiet life outside of Dresden, gaining for herself some popularity and notoriety for her stubbornness.
King of Poland for the first time
Following the death of Polish King John III SobieskiJohn III Sobieski
John III Sobieski was one of the most notable monarchs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, from 1674 until his death King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. Sobieski's 22-year-reign was marked by a period of the Commonwealth's stabilization, much needed after the turmoil of the Deluge and...
and having successfully converted to Catholicism
Catholicism
Catholicism is a broad term for the body of the Catholic faith, its theologies and doctrines, its liturgical, ethical, spiritual, and behavioral characteristics, as well as a religious people as a whole....
, Augustus was elected King of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1697 with the backing of Imperial Russia and Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
, which financed him through the Jewish
Judaism
Judaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
banker, Berend Lehmann
Issachar Berend Lehmann
Issachar Berend Lehmann, Berend Lehmann, Yissakhar Bermann Segal, Yissakhar ben Yehuda haLevi, Berman Halberstadt * Essen Apr...
. At the time, some questioned the legality of Augustus's elevation, since another candidate, François Louis, Prince of Conti
François Louis, Prince of Conti
François Louis de Bourbon, Prince of Conti was Prince de Conti, succeeding his brother Louis Armand I, Prince of Conti in 1685. Until this date he used the title of Prince of La Roche-sur-Yon. He was son of Armand de Bourbon and Anne Marie Martinozzi, niece of Cardinal Jules Mazarin...
had received more votes. Both candidates, Conti and Augustus, were proclaimed as king by different ecclesiastical authorities (by Primate Michaŀ Radziejowski and Bishop of Kujawy Stanisław Dąmbski, respectively, with Jacob Heinrich von Flemming
Jacob Heinrich von Flemming
Jakob Heinrich von Flemming was a Saxon count, military officer and politician. He was born in Hoff, Prussian Province of Pomerania to a noble family. He completed his law studies in 1688, after which he entered service with Brandenburg...
swearing to the pacta conventa
Pacta conventa
Pacta conventa may mean:*Pacta conventa , a contractual agreement between the Polish nobility and king, in force from 1573 to 1764*Pacta conventa , a contractual agreement between the Croatian nobility and the Hungarian king, in force from 1102 to 1918...
in Augustus' place). However, Augustus hurried to the Commonwealth with a Saxon army, while Conti stayed in France for two months.
He continued the war of the Holy League
Holy League (1684)
Holy League of 1684 was initiated in by Pope Innocent XI, and composed of the Holy Roman Empire, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Venetian Republic. Tsardom of Russia joined the League in 1686. This alliance opposed the Ottoman Empire in the Great Turkish War and lasted until the Treaty...
against Turkey, and after a campaign in Moldavia his Polish army eventually defeated the Tatar expedition in the Battle of Podhajce
Battle of Podhajce (1698)
Battle of Podhajce took place on 8–9 September 1698 near Podhajce in Ruthenian Voivodship during the Great Turkish War. 6000-strong Polish army under Field Crown Hetman Feliks Kazimierz Potocki repelled a 14,000 man Tatar expedition under Kaplan-Girey...
in 1698. This victory compelled the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
to sign the Treaty of Karlowitz
Treaty of Karlowitz
The Treaty of Karlowitz was signed on 26 January 1699 in Sremski Karlovci , concluding the Austro-Ottoman War of 1683–1697 in which the Ottoman side had been defeated at the Battle of Zenta...
in 1699. Podolia
Podolia
The region of Podolia is an historical region in the west-central and south-west portions of present-day Ukraine, corresponding to Khmelnytskyi Oblast and Vinnytsia Oblast. Northern Transnistria, in Moldova, is also a part of Podolia...
and Kamieniec Podolski returned to Poland.
An ambitious ruler, Augustus hoped to make the Polish throne hereditary within his family, and to use his resources as Elector of Saxony to impose some order on the chaotic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was, however, soon distracted from his internal reform projects by the possibility of external conquest. He formed an alliance with Denmark's Frederick IV
Frederick IV of Denmark
Frederick IV was the king of Denmark and Norway from 1699 until his death. Frederick was the son of King Christian V of Denmark and Norway and Charlotte Amalie of Hesse-Kassel .-Foreign affairs:...
and Russia's Peter I
Peter I of Russia
Peter the Great, Peter I or Pyotr Alexeyevich Romanov Dates indicated by the letters "O.S." are Old Style. All other dates in this article are New Style. ruled the Tsardom of Russia and later the Russian Empire from until his death, jointly ruling before 1696 with his half-brother, Ivan V...
to strip Sweden's young King Charles XII
Charles XII of Sweden
Charles XII also Carl of Sweden, , Latinized to Carolus Rex, Turkish: Demirbaş Şarl, also known as Charles the Habitué was the King of the Swedish Empire from 1697 to 1718...
(who incidently was Augustus's cousin) of his possessions. Poland's reward for participation in this Great Northern War
Great Northern War
The Great Northern War was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in northern Central Europe and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter I the Great of Russia, Frederick IV of...
was to have been the Swedish territory of Livonia
Livonia
Livonia is a historic region along the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. It was once the land of the Finnic Livonians inhabiting the principal ancient Livonian County Metsepole with its center at Turaida...
. Charles proved an able military commander, however, quickly forcing the Danes out of the war and then driving back the Russians at Narva
Battle of Narva (1700)
The Battle of Narva on 19 November 1700 was an early battle in the Great Northern War. A Swedish relief army under Charles XII of Sweden defeated a Russian siege force three times its size. Before, Charles XII had forced Denmark-Norway to sign the Treaty of Travendal...
, thereby allowing him to focus on the struggle with Augustus. Charles's decision ultimately proved as disastrous for Sweden as for Poland.
Crossing of the Daugava
The Crossing of the Düna on July 9, 1701 was a Swedish push into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after the Swedes' victory at the Narva in late 1700. The Swedish king Charles XII was in hot pursuit king Augustus II the Strong of Poland and Saxony, who was commanding Saxon and Russian troops...
on 17 June 1701, forcing the Polish-Saxon army to withdraw from Livonia, and followed this up with an invasion of Poland. He captured Warsaw
Warsaw
Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River, roughly from the Baltic Sea and from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population in 2010 was estimated at 1,716,855 residents with a greater metropolitan area of 2,631,902 residents, making Warsaw the 10th most...
on 14 May 1702, defeated the Polish-Saxon army again at the Battle of Kliszów
Battle of Kliszów
The Battle of Klissow took place on July 8 / July 9 / July 19, 1702 near Kliszów, Poland-Lithuania, during the Great Northern War...
, and took Kraków
Kraków
Kraków also Krakow, or Cracow , is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life...
. He defeated another of Augustus's armies under command of Generalfeldmarschall
Generalfeldmarschall
Field Marshal or Generalfeldmarschall in German, was a rank in the armies of several German states and the Holy Roman Empire; in the Austrian Empire, the rank Feldmarschall was used...
Adam Heinrich von Steinau
Adam Heinrich von Steinau
Adam Heinrich Graf von Steinau was a Saxon Generalfeldmarschall.Steinau served in the Bavarian contingent in the 1685-1688 campaign in Ottoman Hungary against the Ottoman Empire. He then participated in the War of the Grand Alliance against France under Charles V, Duke of Lorraine and in the...
at the Battle of Pułtusk in spring 1703, and besieged and captured Thorn (Toruń
Torun
Toruń is an ancient city in northern Poland, on the Vistula River. Its population is more than 205,934 as of June 2009. Toruń is one of the oldest cities in Poland. The medieval old town of Toruń is the birthplace of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus....
).
By this time, Augustus was certainly ready for peace, but Charles felt that he would be more secure if he could establish someone more pliable on the Polish throne. In 1704 the Swedes installed Stanisław Leszczyński and tied the commonwealth to Sweden
Treaty of Warsaw (1705)
The Treaty of Warsaw was concluded on 18 November / 28 November 1705 during the Great Northern War. It was a peace treaty and an alliance between the Swedish Empire and the faction of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth loyal to Stanisław Leszczyński....
, which compelled Augustus to initiate military operations in Poland alongside Russia (an alliance was concluded
Treaty of Narva
The Treaty of Narva was concluded on 19 August / 30 August 1704 during the Great Northern War. The faction of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth loyal to Augustus the Strong joined the anti-Swedish alliance between the Saxon electorate and the Tsardom of Russia.-Background:At the onset of the...
in Narva
Narva
Narva is the third largest city in Estonia. It is located at the eastern extreme point of Estonia, by the Russian border, on the Narva River which drains Lake Peipus.-Early history:...
summer 1704). On 1 September 1706, Charles invaded Saxony
Electorate of Saxony
The Electorate of Saxony , sometimes referred to as Upper Saxony, was a State of the Holy Roman Empire. It was established when Emperor Charles IV raised the Ascanian duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg to the status of an Electorate by the Golden Bull of 1356...
, forcing Augustus to yield the Polish throne to Leszczyński by the Treaty of Altranstädt
Treaty of Altranstädt (1706)
The Treaty of Altranstädt was concluded between Charles XII of Sweden and Augustus the Strong of Saxony and Poland-Lithuania, on 13 October 1706, during the Great Northern War...
.
Meanwhile Russia's Tsar Peter the Great had reformed his army, and dealt a crippling defeat to the Swedes at the Battle of Poltava
Battle of Poltava
The Battle of Poltava on 27 June 1709 was the decisive victory of Peter I of Russia over the Swedish forces under Field Marshal Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld in one of the battles of the Great Northern War. It is widely believed to have been the beginning of Sweden's decline as a Great Power; the...
. This spelled the end of the Swedish Empire
Swedish Empire
The Swedish Empire refers to the Kingdom of Sweden between 1561 and 1721 . During this time, Sweden was one of the great European powers. In Swedish, the period is called Stormaktstiden, literally meaning "the Great Power Era"...
and the rise of the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
.
King of Poland for the second time
The weakened Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth soon came to be regarded almost a protectorateProtectorate
In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
of Russia. In 1709 Augustus II returned to the Polish throne under Russian auspices
Treaty of Thorn (1709)
The Treaty of Thorn was concluded on 9 October 1709 between Augustus the Strong and Peter the Great in Thorn , during the Great Northern War...
. Once again he attempted to establish an absolute monarchy
Absolute monarchy
Absolute monarchy is a monarchical form of government in which the monarch exercises ultimate governing authority as head of state and head of government, his or her power not being limited by a constitution or by the law. An absolute monarch thus wields unrestricted political power over the...
in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but was faced with opposition from the nobility (szlachta
Szlachta
The szlachta was a legally privileged noble class with origins in the Kingdom of Poland. It gained considerable institutional privileges during the 1333-1370 reign of Casimir the Great. In 1413, following a series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of...
, see Tarnogród Confederation
Tarnogród Confederation
The Tarnogród Confederation was a confederation of szlachta in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in the years 1715–1716. It was formed on 26 November 1715 in Tarnogród by nobility angered by illegal taxation, levied for Saxon forces operating in Grand Duchy of Lithuania on behalf of Augustus II the...
). Peter the Great seized on this opportunity to pose as mediator, threatened the Commonwealth militarily, and in 1717 forced Augustus and the nobility to sign an accommodation favorable to Russian interests, at the Silent Sejm
Silent Sejm
Silent Sejm is the name given to the session of the Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth of 1 February 1717. A civil war in the Commonwealth was used by the Russian Tsar Peter the Great as an opportunity to intervene as a mediator...
(Sejm Niemy).
For the remainder of his reign, in an uneasy relationship, Augustus was more or less dependent on Russia (and to a lesser extent, on Austria) to maintain his throne. After the Silent Sejm
Silent Sejm
Silent Sejm is the name given to the session of the Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth of 1 February 1717. A civil war in the Commonwealth was used by the Russian Tsar Peter the Great as an opportunity to intervene as a mediator...
, he gave up his dynastic ambitions and concentrated instead on attempts to strengthen the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Faced with both internal and foreign opposition, however, he achieved little.
Augustus died at Warsaw in 1733. Although he had failed to make the Polish throne hereditary in his house, his eldest son, Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, did succeed him to the Polish throne as Augustus III of Poland
Augustus III of Poland
Augustus III, known as the Saxon ; ; also Prince-elector Friedrich August II was the Elector of Saxony in 1733-1763, as Frederick Augustus II , King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1734-1763.-Biography:Augustus was the only legitimate son of Augustus II the Strong, Imperial Prince-Elector...
— although he had to be installed there by a Russian army in the War of the Polish Succession
War of the Polish Succession
The War of the Polish Succession was a major European war for princes' possessions sparked by a Polish civil war over the succession to Augustus II, King of Poland that other European powers widened in pursuit of their own national interests...
.
Legacy
War of the Polish Succession
The War of the Polish Succession was a major European war for princes' possessions sparked by a Polish civil war over the succession to Augustus II, King of Poland that other European powers widened in pursuit of their own national interests...
he remained loyal to his employer Louis XV of France
Louis XV of France
Louis XV was a Bourbon monarch who ruled as King of France and of Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death. He succeeded his great-grandfather at the age of five, his first cousin Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, served as Regent of the kingdom until Louis's majority in 1723...
, who was married to the daughter of Augustus’s rival Stanisław Leszczyński.
August was 1.76 meters (5’ 9½”) tall, above average height for that time, but despite his extraordinary physical strength he did not look big. In his final years he suffered from diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus, often simply referred to as diabetes, is a group of metabolic diseases in which a person has high blood sugar, either because the body does not produce enough insulin, or because cells do not respond to the insulin that is produced...
and became obese, at his death weighing some 110 kg (242 lbs). August II's body was interred in Poland — all but his heart, which rests at Dresden's Katholische Hofkirche
Katholische Hofkirche
The Katholische Hofkirche is a Roman Catholic Cathedral, located in the 'Altstadt' in the heart of Dresden, in Germany. Previously the most important Catholic parish church of the city, it was elevated to cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Dresden-Meissen in 1964.-Overview:The Hofkirche...
.
In November 1705 August founded the Order of the White Eagle, Poland's first and preeminent order of chivalry. In Warsaw, the Saxon Garden
Saxon Garden
The Saxon Garden is a 15.5–hectare public garden in downtown Warsaw, Poland, facing Piłsudski Square. It is the oldest public park in the city...
(Polish
Polish language
Polish is a language of the Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages, used throughout Poland and by Polish minorities in other countries...
: Ogród Saski) commemorates the role of August II in expanding the city's public places.
Augustus II and the arts
Augustus loved fine arts and architecture, and he had beautiful palaces built in Dresden, a city that became renowned for extraordinary cultural brilliance.From 1687 to 1689 Augustus toured France and Italy. The extravagant court in Versailles
Versailles
Versailles , a city renowned for its château, the Palace of Versailles, was the de facto capital of the kingdom of France for over a century, from 1682 to 1789. It is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and remains an important administrative and judicial centre...
--perfectly tailored to fit the needs of an absolute monarch--impressed him deeply. In accordance with the spirit of the baroque
Baroque
The Baroque is a period and the style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, literature, dance, and music...
age, Augustus invested heavily in the representative splendor of his residence to advertise his wealth and power.
With strict edificial regulations, major urban development plans, and a certain feeling for art, the king began to transform Dresden into a renowned cultural center with one of Germany’s finest art collections, though most of the famous sights and landmarks of Dresden were completed during the reign of his son Augustus III. The most famous building that was started during his reign was the Zwinger
Zwinger
The Zwinger is a palace in Dresden, eastern Germany, built in Baroque style. It served as the orangery, exhibition gallery and festival arena of the Dresden Court....
. Being a man of pleasure, the king sponsored lavish court balls, Venetian-style balli in maschera, and luxurious court gatherings, games, and garden festivities. His court acquired a reputation for extravagance throughout Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
.
Meissen porcelain
Augustus II successfully sponsored efforts to discover the secret of manufacturing porcelain. In 1701 he rescued the young alchemist Johann Friedrich BöttgerJohann Friedrich Böttger
Johann Friedrich Böttger was a Germanalchemist.He was generally acknowledged as the inventor of European porcelain although more recent sources ascribe this to Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus...
, who had fled from the court of the king of Prussia, Fredrick I, who had expected that he produce gold for him as he had boasted he could. King Augustus II imprisoned Böttger and tried to force him to reveal the secret of manufacturing gold. Böttger's transition from alchemist to potter was orchestrated as an attempt to avoid the impossible demands of the king. Being an alchemist by profession rather than a potter gave Böttger an advantage. He realized that the current approaches which involved mixing fine white substances like crushed egg shells into clay was not the answer. Rather, his approach was to attempt to bake clay at higher temperatures than had ever before been attained in European kilns. That approach yielded the breakthrough that had eluded European potters for a century. The manufacture of fine porcelain continues at the Meissen porcelain
Meissen porcelain
Meissen porcelain or Meissen china is the first European hard-paste porcelain that was developed from 1708 by Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus. After his death that October, Johann Friedrich Böttger, continued his work and brought porcelain to the market...
factory.
Ancestry
Illegitimate issue
The Electress Christiane, who remained Protestant and refused to move to Poland with her husband, preferred to spend her time in the Schloss Pretzsch at the ElbeElbe
The Elbe is one of the major rivers of Central Europe. It rises in the Krkonoše Mountains of the northwestern Czech Republic before traversing much of Bohemia , then Germany and flowing into the North Sea at Cuxhaven, 110 km northwest of Hamburg...
, where she died.
August, a voracious womanizer, never missed his wife, spending his time with a series of mistresses:
- 1694-1696 with Countess Maria Aurora of KönigsmarckMaria Aurora of KönigsmarckCountess Maria Aurora von Königsmarck was a Swedish noblewoman of Brandenburg extraction and mistress of Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland.-Biography:...
. - 1696-1699 with Countess Anna Aloysia Maximiliane von LambergAnna Aloysia Maximiliane von LambergAnna Aloysia Maximiliane Louise von Lamberg was an Austrian countess who was successively the mistress of Augustus II the Strong, King of Poland, and Aleksander Benedykt Sobieski...
. - 1698-1704 with Ursula Katharina of AltenbockumUrsula Katharina of AltenbockumUrsula Katharina of Altenbockum Lubomirska , later Princess of Teschen, was a Polish-German noblewoman and mistress of Augustus the Strong, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony.-Early life:...
, later Princess of Teschen. - 1701-1706 with FatimaMaria Aurora of SpiegelMaria Aurora of Spiegel, born Fatima , was a mistress of Augustus II the Strong and the wife of a Polish noble. Originally a Turkish slave, she was brought to the royal courts of Sweden and Poland from Buda and trained as a lady-in-waiting....
, Turkish woman, renamed later as Maria Aurora of SpiegelMaria Aurora of SpiegelMaria Aurora of Spiegel, born Fatima , was a mistress of Augustus II the Strong and the wife of a Polish noble. Originally a Turkish slave, she was brought to the royal courts of Sweden and Poland from Buda and trained as a lady-in-waiting....
. - 1704-1713 with Anna Constantia of BrockdorffAnna Constantia of BrockdorffAnna Constantia von Brockdorff , later the Countess of Cosel, was a German noblewoman and mistress of Augustus the Strong, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony...
, later Countess of Cosel. - 1706-1707 with Henriette RénardHenriette RénardHenriette Rénard , was a mistress of Augustus the Strong, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony.- Biography :...
. - 1708 with Angélique Duparc, French dancer and actress.
- 1713-1719 with Maria Magdalena of Bielinski, by her first marriage Countess of Dönhoff and by the second Princess Lubomirska.
- 1720-1721 with Erdmuthe Sophie of Dieskau, by marriage of Loß
- 1721-1722 with Baroness Christine of Osterhausen, by marriage of Stanislawski.
- ?-? with Friederike, a black woman.
Some contemporary sources, including Wilhelmine of Bayreuth
Wilhelmine of Bayreuth
Princess Wilhelmine of Prussia was a German noblewoman and composer. She was the eldest daughter of Frederick William I of Prussia and Sophia Dorothea of Hanover. In 1731, she married Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth...
, claimed that Augustus had as many as 365 or 382 children. The number is extremely difficult to verify; Augustus officially recognized only a tiny fraction of that number as his bastards (the mothers of these "chosen ones," with the possible exception of Fatima, were all aristocratic ladies):
—With Maria Aurora of Königsmarck:
- Hermann Maurice (b. Goslar, 28 October 1696 - d. château de Chambord, 30 November 1750), Comte de Saxe.
—With Ursula Katharina of Altenbockum:
- Johann GeorgJohann Georg, Chevalier de SaxeJohann Georg, Chevalier de Saxe , also called Johann Georg of Saxony, was a Saxon Field Marshal and Governor of Dresden....
(b. 21 August 1704 - d. 25 February 1774), Chevalier de Saxe, later Governor of Dresden.
—With the Turk Fatima, later Maria Aurora of Spiegel:
- Frederick AugustusFrederick Augustus RutowskyFrederick Augustus, Count Rutowsky , was a Saxon Field Marshal who commanded Saxon forces in the Siege of Pirna during the Seven Years War.-Early years:...
(b. Warsaw/Dresden [?], 19 June 1702 - d. Pillnitz, 16 March 1764), Count Rutowsky. - Maria Anna KatharinaMaria Anna Katharina RutowskaMaria Anna Katharina Rutowska was a Polish noblewoman.She was the illegitimate daughter of Polish king Augustus II the Strong and his mistress, the Turk Fatima or Fatime, later renamed Maria Anna of Spiegel.-Life:...
(b. 1706 - d. 1746), Countess Rutowska; married firstly on January 1728 to Michał, Count Bieliński, but they divorced in the beginning of 1732; secondly, she married on February 1732 to Claude Marie Noyel, Comte du Bellegarde et d'Entremont.
—With Anna Constantia of Brockdorff:
- Augusta Anna Constantia (b. 24 February 1708 - d. 3 February 1728), Countess of Cosel; married on 3 June 1725 to Heinrich Friedrich, Count of Friesen.
- Fredericka Alexandrine (b. 27 October 1709 - d. 1784), Countess of Cosel; married on 18 February 1730 to Johann Xantius Anton, Count Moszinsky.
- Frederick Augustus (b. 27 August 1712 - d. 15 October 1770), Count of Cosel; married on 1 June 1749 to Countess Friederike Christiane of Holtzendorff. They had four children. The two sons, Gustav Ernst and Segismund, died unmarried. One of the two daughters, Constantia Alexandrina, married Johann Heinrich, Lehnsgraf Knuth. The other, named Charlotte, first married Count Rudolf of Bünau and then married Charles de Riviere.
—With Henriette Renárd:
- Anna Karolina (b. 26 November 1707 - d. Avignon, 27 September 1769), Countess Orzelska; married on 10 August 1730 to Karl Ludwig Frederick of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck. They divorced in 1733.
See also
- History of SaxonyHistory of SaxonyThe Saxons were originally a small tribe living on the North Sea between the Elbe and Eider Rivers in the present Holstein. Their name, derived from their weapon called Seax, a knife, is first mentioned by the Roman author Ptolemy ....
- Rulers of SaxonyRulers of SaxonyThis article lists Dukes, Electors, and Kings ruling over different territories named Saxony from the beginning of the Saxon Duchy in the 9th century to the end of the Saxon Kingdom in 1918.-Dukes of Saxony:...
- History of Poland (1569-1795)
- List of Lithuanian rulers
- Hans Carl von CarlowitzHans Carl von CarlowitzHans Carl von Carlowitz, originally Hannß Carl von Carlowitz, was a German tax accountant and mining administrator. His book Sylvicultura oeconomica, oder haußwirthliche Nachricht und Naturmäßige Anweisung zur wilden Baum-Zucht was the first comprehensive treatise about forestry...
- Fox tossingFox tossingFox tossing was a popular competitive blood sport in parts of Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, which involved throwing live foxes and other animals high into the air.-Background:...
External links
- http://earlymusicworld.com/id16.htmlArticle: "Dresden in the time of Zelenka and Hasse" by Brian RobinsBrian RobinsBrian Robins was born in Cheltenham, England, but spent most of his early life in Bournemouth. An early interest in music took him into the record industry, by which time he had realised that he had no future as a performer. This, coupled with an interest in history, led him to undertake the...
]
Publications
- Desroches de Parthénay, Histoire de Pologne sous le roi Auguste (Hague, 1733–34)