Breast - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

This article is about the human breast. For other animals, see Udder
Udder
An udder is an organ formed of the mammary glands of female quadruped mammals, especially ruminants such as cattle, goats, sheep and deer. The udder is a single mass hanging beneath the animal, consisting of pairs of mammary glands...

and Mammary gland
Mammary gland
A mammary gland is an organ in mammals that produces milk to feed young offspring. Mammals get their name from the word "mammary". In ruminants such as cows, goats, and deer, the mammary glands are contained in their udders...

. "Boobs" redirects here. For other uses, see Boob (disambiguation). For other uses, see Breast (disambiguation)
Breast (disambiguation)
The breast is the common name for the mammary gland of humans.Breast may also refer to:* Upper ventral region of a human or animal’s torso.* Breast meat, the meatiest part of poultry...

The breast is the upper ventral region of the torso

Torso

Trunk or torso is an anatomical term for the central part of the many animal bodies from which extend the neck and limbs. The trunk includes the thorax and abdomen.-Major organs:...

of a primate

Primate

A primate is a mammal of the order Primates , which contains prosimians and simians. Primates arose from ancestors that lived in the trees of tropical forests; many primate characteristics represent adaptations to life in this challenging three-dimensional environment...

, in left and right sides, which in a female

Female

Female is the sex of an organism, or a part of an organism, which produces non-mobile ova .- Defining characteristics :The ova are defined as the larger gametes in a heterogamous reproduction system, while the smaller, usually motile gamete, the spermatozoon, is produced by the male...

contains the mammary gland

Mammary gland

A mammary gland is an organ in mammals that produces milk to feed young offspring. Mammals get their name from the word "mammary". In ruminants such as cows, goats, and deer, the mammary glands are contained in their udders...

that secretes milk

Milk

Milk is a white liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the primary source of nutrition for young mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mother's antibodies to the baby and can reduce the risk of many...

used to feed infant

Infant

A newborn or baby is the very young offspring of a human or other mammal. A newborn is an infant who is within hours, days, or up to a few weeks from birth. In medical contexts, newborn or neonate refers to an infant in the first 28 days after birth...

s.

Both men and women develop breasts from the same embryological

Embryology

Embryology is a science which is about the development of an embryo from the fertilization of the ovum to the fetus stage...

tissues. However, at puberty

Puberty

Puberty is the process of physical changes by which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of reproduction, as initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads; the ovaries in a girl, the testes in a boy...

, female sex hormones, mainly estrogen

Estrogen

Estrogens , oestrogens , or œstrogens, are a group of compounds named for their importance in the estrous cycle of humans and other animals. They are the primary female sex hormones. Natural estrogens are steroid hormones, while some synthetic ones are non-steroidal...

, promote breast development which does not occur in men due to the higher level of testosterone

Testosterone

Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group and is found in mammals, reptiles, birds, and other vertebrates. In mammals, testosterone is primarily secreted in the testes of males and the ovaries of females, although small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands...

. As a result, women's breasts become far more prominent than those of men.

Etymology

The English word breast derives from the Old English word brēost (breast, bosom) from Proto-Germanic breustam (breast), from the Proto-Indo-European base bhreus– (to swell, to sprout). The breast spelling conforms to the Scottish and North English dialectal pronunciations.

Anatomy

Morphology

The human breast has two aspects — the functional and the anatomic
I. The functional breast
The breast is an apocrine gland

Apocrine

Apocrine is a term used to classify exocrine glands in the study of histology. Cells which are classified as apocrine bud their secretions off through the plasma membrane producing membrane-bound vesicles in the lumen. This method is also called decapitation secretion...

that produces milk to feed an infant child; for which the nipple

Nipple

In its most general form, a nipple is a structure from which a fluid emanates. More specifically, it is the projection on the breasts or udder of a mammal by which breast milk is delivered to a mother's young. In this sense, it is often called a teat, especially when referring to non-humans, and...

of the breast is centred in (surrounded by) an areola

Areola

This article is about the breast tissue. For the entomology term, see the glossary of Lepidopteran terms. For an artistic cloud motif, see aureola. For the cactus feature, see Areole....

(nipple-areola complex, NAC), the skin color of which varies from pink to dark brown, and has many sebaceous gland

Sebaceous gland

The sebaceous glands are microscopic glands in the skin that secrete an oily/waxy matter, called sebum, to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair of mammals...

s. For its offspring-feeding functions as a mammary gland

Mammary gland

, the lactiferous duct

Lactiferous duct

Lactiferous ducts lead from the lobules of the mammary gland to the tip of the nipple. They are also referred to as galactophores, galactophorous ducts, mammary ducts, mamillary ducts and milk ducts...

s that produce the fatty breast milk are distributed throughout the body of the breast; approximately two-thirds of the lactiferous tissue is within 30-mm of the base of the nipple. In each breast, 4–18 lactiferous ducts drain to the nipple; the milk-glands-to-fat ratio is 2:1 in a lactating

Lactation

Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands and the period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young. The process occurs in all female mammals, however it predates mammals. In humans the process of feeding milk is called breastfeeding or nursing...

woman, and 1:1 in a non-lactating woman. In addition to the milk glands, the breast also is composed of connective tissue

Connective tissue

"Connective tissue" is a fibrous tissue. It is one of the four traditional classes of tissues . Connective Tissue is found throughout the body.In fact the whole framework of the skeleton and the different specialized connective tissues from the crown of the head to the toes determine the form of...

s (collagen

Collagen

Collagen is a group of naturally occurring proteins found in animals, especially in the flesh and connective tissues of mammals. It is the main component of connective tissue, and is the most abundant protein in mammals, making up about 25% to 35% of the whole-body protein content...

, elastin

Elastin

Elastin is a protein in connective tissue that is elastic and allows many tissues in the body to resume their shape after stretching or contracting. Elastin helps skin to return to its original position when it is poked or pinched. Elastin is also an important load-bearing tissue in the bodies of...

), white fat

Adipose tissue

In histology, adipose tissue or body fat or fat depot or just fat is loose connective tissue composed of adipocytes. It is technically composed of roughly only 80% fat; fat in its solitary state exists in the liver and muscles. Adipose tissue is derived from lipoblasts...

, and the suspensory Cooper's ligaments

Cooper's ligaments

Cooper's ligaments are connective tissue in the breast that help maintain structural integrity.Transmission diffraction tomography can reveal the anatomy....

. Sensation in the breast is provided by the peripheral nervous system innervation

Peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord. The main function of the PNS is to connect the central nervous system to the limbs and organs. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by the bone of spine and skull, or by the blood–brain...

, by means of the front (anterior) and side (lateral) cutaneous branches of the fourth-, the fifth-, and the sixth intercostal nerves

Intercostal nerves

The intercostal nerves are the anterior divisions of the thoracic spinal nerves from T1 to T11.Each nerve is connected with the adjoining ganglion of the sympathetic trunk by a gray and a white ramus communicans...

, while the T-4 nerve (Thoracic spinal nerve 4

Thoracic spinal nerve 4

The thoracic spinal nerve 4 is a spinal nerve of the thoracic segment..It originates from the spinal column from below the thoracic vertebra 4 ....

), which innervates the dermatomic area

Dermatomic area

A dermatome is an area of skin that is mainly supplied by a single spinal nerve.There are eight cervical nerves ,twelve thoracic nerves,five lumbar nerves and five sacral nerves....

, supplies sensation to the nipple-areola complex.

II. The anatomic breast
A woman’s breasts overlay the pectoralis major muscle

Pectoralis major muscle

The pectoralis major is a thick, fan-shaped muscle, situated at the chest of the body. It makes up the bulk of the chest muscles in the male and lies under the breast in the female...

s and usually extend from the level of the second rib to the level of the sixth rib in the front of the human rib cage

Human rib cage

-See also:*Terms for bones*Terms for anatomical location*Articulation of head of rib-References:* Clinically Oriented Anatomy, 4th ed. Keith L. Moore and Robert F. Dalley. pp. 62–64...

; thus, the breasts cover much of the chest area and the chest walls. At the front of the chest, the breast tissue can extend from the clavicle

Clavicle

In human anatomy, the clavicle or collar bone is a long bone of short length that serves as a strut between the scapula and the sternum. It is the only long bone in body that lies horizontally...

(collarbone) to the middle of the sternum

Sternum

The sternum or breastbone is a long flat bony plate shaped like a capital "T" located anteriorly to the heart in the center of the thorax...

(breastbone). At the sides of the chest, the breast tissue can extend into the axilla (armpit), and can reach as far to the back as the latissimus dorsi muscle

Latissimus dorsi muscle

The latissimus dorsi , meaning 'broadest muscle of the back' , is the larger, flat, dorso-lateral muscle on the trunk, posterior to the arm, and partly covered by the trapezius on its median dorsal region.The latissimus dorsi is responsible for extension,...

, extending from the lower back to the humerus

Humerus

The humerus is a long bone in the arm or forelimb that runs from the shoulder to the elbow....

bone (the longest bone of the upper arm). As a mammary gland, the breast is an inhomogeneous anatomic structure composed of layers of different types of tissue

Histology

Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. It is performed by examining cells and tissues commonly by sectioning and staining; followed by examination under a light microscope or electron microscope...

, among which predominate two types: (i) adipose tissue

Adipose tissue

and (ii) glandular tissue

Lactiferous duct

, which effects the lactation

Lactation

functions of the breasts.

Morphologically

Morphology (biology)

In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....

, the breast is a cone with the base at the chest wall, and the apex at the nipple, the center of the NAC (nipple-areola complex). The superﬁcial tissue layer (superficial fascia

Superficial fascia

Superficial fascia is found in the subcutis in most regions of the body, blending with the reticular layer of the dermis. It is present on the face, over the upper portion of the sternocleidomastoid, at the nape of the neck, and overlying the sternum. It is mainly loose areolar connective tissue...

) is separated from the skin by 0.5–2.5 cm of subcutaneous fat (adipose tissue). The suspensory Cooper’s ligaments are fibrous-tissue prolongations that radiate from the superficial fascia to the skin envelope. The adult breast contains 14–18 irregular lactiferous lobes that converge to the nipple, to ducts 2.0–4.5 mm in diameter; the milk ducts (lactiferous duct

Lactiferous duct

s) are immediately surrounded with dense connective tissue that functions as a support framework. The gland

Gland

A gland is an organ in an animal's body that synthesizes a substance for release of substances such as hormones or breast milk, often into the bloodstream or into cavities inside the body or its outer surface .- Types :...

ular tissue of the breast is biochemically supported with estrogen

Estrogen

; thus, when a woman reaches menopause

Menopause

Menopause is a term used to describe the permanent cessation of the primary functions of the human ovaries: the ripening and release of ova and the release of hormones that cause both the creation of the uterine lining and the subsequent shedding of the uterine lining...

(cessation of menstruation) and her body estrogen levels decrease, the milk gland tissue then atrophies, withers, and disappears, resulting in a breast composed of adipose tissue, superﬁcial fascia, suspensory ligaments, and the skin envelope.

The dimensions and the weight of the breast vary among women, ranging approximately 500–1,000 gm each; thus, a small-to-medium-sized breast weighs 500 gm or less; and a large breast weighs approximately 750–1,000 gm. The tissue composition ratios of the breast likewise vary among women; some breasts have greater proportions of glandular tissue than of adipose

Adipose tissue

or connective

Connective tissue

tissues, and vice versa; therefore the fat-to-connective-tissue ratio determines the density (firmness) of the breast. In the course of a woman’s life, her breasts will change size, shape, and weight, because of the hormonal bodily changes occurred in thelarche

Thelarche

Thelarche is the onset of secondary breast development, usually occurring at the beginning of puberty in girls. Its etymology is from Greek θηλή [tʰelḗ], “nipple” and ἀρχή [arkʰḗ], “beginning, onset”. Thelarche is usually noticed as a firm, tender lump directly under the centre of the nipple...

(pubertal breast development), menstruation

Menstruation

Menstruation is the shedding of the uterine lining . It occurs on a regular basis in sexually reproductive-age females of certain mammal species. This article focuses on human menstruation.-Overview:...

(fertility), pregnancy

Pregnancy

Pregnancy refers to the fertilization and development of one or more offspring, known as a fetus or embryo, in a woman's uterus. In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations, as in the case of twins or triplets...

(reproduction), the breast-feeding

Lactation

of an infant child, and the climacterium

Menopause

(the end of fertility).

Lymphatic drainage

Approximately 75 per cent of the lymph

Lymph

Lymph is considered a part of the interstitial fluid, the fluid which lies in the interstices of all body tissues. Interstitial fluid becomes lymph when it enters a lymph capillary...

from the breast travels to the ipsilateral (same-side) axillary lymph node

Lymph node

A lymph node is a small ball or an oval-shaped organ of the immune system, distributed widely throughout the body including the armpit and stomach/gut and linked by lymphatic vessels. Lymph nodes are garrisons of B, T, and other immune cells. Lymph nodes are found all through the body, and act as...

s, whilst 25 per cent of the lymph travels to the parasternal nodes (beside the sternum bone), to the other breast, and to the abdominal lymph nodes. The axillary lymph nodes include the pectoral (chest), subscapular (under the scapula), and humeral (humerus-bone area) lymph-node groups, which drain to the central axillary lymph nodes

Axillary lymph nodes

The Axillary lymph nodes are of large size, vary from twenty to thirty in number, and may be arranged in the following groups:* brachial lymph nodes * pectoral axillary lymph nodes...

and to the apical axillary lymph nodes. The lymphatic drainage of the breasts is especially relevant to oncology

Oncology

Oncology is a branch of medicine that deals with cancer...

, because breast cancer

Breast cancer

Breast cancer is cancer originating from breast tissue, most commonly from the inner lining of milk ducts or the lobules that supply the ducts with milk. Cancers originating from ducts are known as ductal carcinomas; those originating from lobules are known as lobular carcinomas...

is a cancer common to the mammary gland, and cancer

Cancer

Cancer , known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a large group of different diseases, all involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the...

cells can metastasize

Metastasis

Metastasis, or metastatic disease , is the spread of a disease from one organ or part to another non-adjacent organ or part. It was previously thought that only malignant tumor cells and infections have the capacity to metastasize; however, this is being reconsidered due to new research...

(break away) from a tumour and be dispersed to other parts of the woman’s body by means of the lymphatic system.

Shape and support

The morphologic

Morphology (biology)

In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....

variations in the size, shape, volume, tissue

Histology

density, pectoral locale, and spacing of the breasts determine their natural shape, appearance, and configuration upon the chest of a woman; yet such features do not indicate its mammary-gland composition (fat-to-milk-gland ratio), nor the potential for nursing

Lactation

an infant child. The size and the shape of the breasts are influenced by normal-life hormonal

Hormone

A hormone is a chemical released by a cell or a gland in one part of the body that sends out messages that affect cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. In essence, it is a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one...

changes (thelarche

Thelarche

, menstruation

Menstruation

, pregnancy

Pregnancy

, menopause

Menopause

) and medical conditions (e.g. virginal breast hypertrophy). The shape of the breasts is naturally determined by the support of the suspensory Cooper's ligaments

Cooper's ligaments

Cooper's ligaments are connective tissue in the breast that help maintain structural integrity.Transmission diffraction tomography can reveal the anatomy....

, the underlying muscle and bone structures of the chest, and the skin envelope. The supensory ligaments sustain the breast from the clavicle (collarbone) and the clavico-pectoral fascia (collarbone and chest), by traversing and encompassing the fat and milk-gland tissues, the breast is positioned, affixed to, and supported upon the chest wall, while its shape is established and maintained by the skin envelope.

The base of each breast is attached to the chest by the deep fascia over the pectoralis major muscles

Pectoralis major muscle

The pectoralis major is a thick, fan-shaped muscle, situated at the chest of the body. It makes up the bulk of the chest muscles in the male and lies under the breast in the female...

. Some breasts are mounted high upon the chest wall, are of rounded shape, and project almost horizontally from the chest, which features are common to girls and women in the early stages of thelarchic

Thelarche

development, the sprouting of the breasts. In the high-breast configuration, the dome-shaped and the cone-shaped breast is affixed to the chest at the base, and the weight is evenly distributed over the base area. In the low-breast configuration, a proportion of the breast weight is supported by the chest, against which rests the lower surface of the breast, thus is formed the inframammary fold

Inframammary fold

Inframammary fold , inframammary crease or inframammary line is the feature of human anatomy which is a natural boundary of a breast from below, the place where the breast and the chest meet. The choice of the term depends on the prominence of the feature. It is also sometimes called inframammary...

(IMF). Because the base is deeply affixed to the chest, the weight of the breast is distributed over a greater area, and so reduces the weight-bearing strain upon the chest, shoulder, and back muscles that bear the weight of the bust. The chest (thoracic cavity

Thoracic cavity

The thoracic cavity is the chamber of the human body that is protected by the thoracic wall ....

) progressively slopes outwards from the thoracic inlet (atop the breastbone) and above to the lowest ribs that support the breasts. The inframammary fold, where the lower portion of the breast meets the chest, is an anatomic feature created by the adherence of the breast skin and the underlying connective tissues of the chest; the IMF is the lower-most extent of the anatomic breast. In the course of thelarche, some girls develop breasts the lower skin-envelope of which touches the chest below the IMF, and some girls do not; both breast anatomies are statistically normal morphologic variations of the size and shape of women’s breasts.

Development

The basic morphological

Morphology (biology)

In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....

structure of the human breast — female and male — is determined during the prenatal development stage. For a girl in puberty

Puberty

, during thelarche

Thelarche

(the breast-development stage), the female sex hormones (principally estrogen

Estrogen

s) promote the sprouting, growth, and development of the breasts, in the course of which, as mammary gland

Mammary gland

s, they grow in size and volume, and usually rest on her chest; these development stages of secondary sex characteristic

Secondary sex characteristic

Secondary sex characteristics are features that distinguish the two sexes of a species, but that are not directly part of the reproductive system. They are believed to be the product of sexual selection for traits which give an individual an advantage over its rivals in courtship and aggressive...

s (breasts, pubic hair, etc.) are illustrated in the five-stage Tanner Scale

Tanner stage

The Tanner scale is a scale of physical development in children, adolescents and adults. The scale defines physical measurements of development based on external primary and secondary sex characteristics, such as the size of the breasts, genitalia, and development of pubic hair, and was first...

. During thelarche, the developing breasts sometimes are of unequal size, and usually the left breast is slightly larger; said condition of asymmetry is transitory and statistically normal to female physical and sexual development. Moreover, breast development sometimes is abnormal, manifested either as overdevelopment (e.g. virginal breast hypertrophy) or as underdevelopment (e.g. tuberous breast deformity

Tuberous breast deformity

Tuberous breasts are a result of a congenital breast deformity or abnormality which can occur in both men and women . During puberty breast development is stymied and the breasts fail to develop normally and fully. The exact cause of this is as yet unclear...

) in girls and women; and manifested in boys and men as gynecomastia

Gynecomastia

Gynecomastia or Gynaecomastia, , is the abnormal development of large mammary glands in males resulting in breast enlargement. The term comes from the Greek γυνή gyné meaning "woman" and μαστός mastós meaning "breast"...

(woman's breasts), the consequence of a biochemical imbalance between the normal levels of the estrogen

Estrogen

and testosterone

Testosterone

hormones of the male body.

Asymmetry

Approximately two (2) years after the pubertal occurrence of a girl’s first menstrual cycle

Menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycle is the scientific term for the physiological changes that can occur in fertile women for the purpose of sexual reproduction. This article focuses on the human menstrual cycle....

, the hormone oestrogen

Estrogen

stimulates the development and growth of the glandular

Mammary gland

, fat

Adipose tissue

, and suspensory

Cooper's ligaments

Cooper's ligaments are connective tissue in the breast that help maintain structural integrity.Transmission diffraction tomography can reveal the anatomy....

tissues that compose the breast; and continues for approximately four (4) years until establishing the final shape of the the breast (size, volume, density) when she is a woman of approximately 21 years of age. Approximately 90 per cent of women possess breasts that are asymmetrical, either in size, volume, or relative position upon the chest; whilst notable breast asymmetry — a breast-size difference of at least one brassière-cup size — is present in 25 per cent of women. For approximately 5–10 per cent of women, the asymmetry of the breasts is notably different, with the left breast usually bigger in 62 per cent of the women. The asymmetry can be manifested in the size of the breast, the position of the nipple-areola complex (NAC), the angle of the breast, and the position of the inframammary fold

Inframammary fold

, where the breast meets the chest. The usual resolution for such conditions is corrective mammoplasty

Mammoplasty

Mammoplasty or mammaplasty can refer to the surgical procedure to insert cheek implants or augmentation mammoplasty, an enlarging of the breasts via implants...

, such as mastopexy, breast reduction

Breast reduction

Reduction mammoplasty is the plastic surgery procedure for correcting over-sized breasts...

, or breast augmentation

Breast augmentation

Breast augmentation denotes the breast implant and fat-graft mammoplasty procedures for correcting the defects, and for enhancing the size, form, and feel of a woman’s breasts...

, which treatment is determined by the particular form of breast asymmetry to correct.

Hormonal change

Because the breasts are principally composed of adipose tissue

Adipose tissue

, which surrounds the milk glands

Mammary gland

, their sizes and volumes fluctuate according to the hormonal changes particular to thelarche

Thelarche

(sprouting of breasts), menstruation

Menstruation

(egg production), pregnancy

Pregnancy

(reproduction), lactation

Lactation

(feeding of offspring), and menopause

Menopause

(end of menstruation). For example, during the menstrual cycle

Menstruation

, the breasts are enlarged by premenstrual water retention

Premenstrual water retention

Premenstrual water retention is a common phenomenon associated with the menstrual cycle. Water retention is most noticeable for its temporary, but uncomfortable, enlargement of the breasts. The excess fluid is lost during menstruation...

; during pregnancy the breasts become enlarged and denser (firmer) because of the prolactin

Prolactin

Prolactin also known as luteotropic hormone is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PRL gene.Prolactin is a peptide hormone discovered by Henry Friesen...

-caused organ hypertrophy

Hypertrophy

Hypertrophy is the increase in the volume of an organ or tissue due to the enlargement of its component cells. It should be distinguished from hyperplasia, in which the cells remain approximately the same size but increase in number...

, which begins breast milk production, increases the size of the nipples, and darkens the skin color of the nipple-areola complex (NAC); these changes continue during the lactation

Lactation

and the breastfeeding

Breastfeeding

Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with breast milk directly from female human breasts rather than from a baby bottle or other container. Babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk. It is recommended that mothers breastfeed for six months or...

periods. Afterwards, the breasts generally revert to their pre-pregnancy size, shape, and volume, yet might present stretch marks and breast ptosis. At menopause

Menopause

, the breasts can decrease in size when the levels of circulating estrogen

Estrogen

decline, followed by the withering of the adipose tissue and the milk glands. Additional to such natural biochemical stimuli, the breasts can become enlarged consequent to an adverse side effect

Adverse effect

In medicine, an adverse effect is a harmful and undesired effect resulting from a medication or other intervention such as surgery.An adverse effect may be termed a "side effect", when judged to be secondary to a main or therapeutic effect. If it results from an unsuitable or incorrect dosage or...

of combined oral contraceptive pills; and the size of the breasts can also increase and decrease in response to the body weight

Body weight

The term body weight is used in daily English speech as well as in the contexts of biological and medical sciences to describe the mass of an organism's body. Body weight is measured in kilograms throughout the world, although in some countries it is still measured in pounds or stones and pounds...

fluctuations of the woman. Moreover, the physical changes occurred to the breasts usually are recorded in the stretch marks

Stretch marks

Stretch marks or striae , as they are called in dermatology, are a form of scarring on the skin with an off-color hue. They are caused by tearing of the dermis, and over time can diminish but not disappear completely....

of the skin envelope; they are historical indicators of the increments and the decrements of the size and the volume of a woman’s breasts throughout the course of her life.

Breast ptosis

The prolapsation, the falling forward, of the breasts occurs in consequence to their weight, the loosening of the suspensory Cooper's ligaments

Cooper's ligaments

Cooper's ligaments are connective tissue in the breast that help maintain structural integrity.Transmission diffraction tomography can reveal the anatomy....

, and the force of gravity of the Earth. The relative relationship of the position of the nipple to the inframammary fold

Inframammary fold

(IMF) is described as the condition of breast ptosis

Ptosis (breasts)

Ptosis of the breast refers to drooping or sagging of the breast. Breast ptosis is related to the laxity of the superficial fascia, suspensory ligaments and skin....

, and the degree of sagging is determined by the distance from the nipple to the sternal notch (the central, upper border of the sternum bone). In the young woman, the nipple-to-sternal-notch measurement is 21 cm., which is the usual anthropometric

Anthropometry

Anthropometry refers to the measurement of the human individual...

number applied to assess breast ptosis and breast symmetry. The apex of the breast, which includes the nipple, can have a flat angle of projection (180 degrees) or acute angle of projection (>180 degrees), yet the apex rarely has an angle greater than 60 degrees. The angle of the breast-tip is partly determined by the tautness of the suspensory Cooper’s ligaments, therefore, the angle of the breast apex becomes a flat, obtuse angle (<180 degrees) when the woman lies supine (on her back), while the base-to-length ratio of the breast ranges from 0.5 to 1.0.

Lactation

The primary function of the breasts — as mammary gland

Mammary gland

s — is the feeding and the nourishing of an infant child with breast milk

Breast milk

Breast milk, more specifically human milk, is the milk produced by the breasts of a human female for her infant offspring...

during the maternal lactation

Lactation

period. The round shape of the breast helps to limit the loss of maternal body heat, because milk production depends upon a higher-temperature environment for the proper, milk-production function of the mammary gland tissues, the lactiferous ducts. Regarding the shape of the breast, the study The Evolution of the Human Beast (2001) proposed that the rounded shape of a woman's breast evolved to prevent the sucking infant offspring from suffocating while feeding at the teat; that is, because of the human infant's small jaw, which did not project from the face to reach the nipple

Nipple

, he or she might block the nostrils

Nose

Anatomically, a nose is a protuberance in vertebrates that houses the nostrils, or nares, which admit and expel air for respiration in conjunction with the mouth. Behind the nose are the olfactory mucosa and the sinuses. Behind the nasal cavity, air next passes through the pharynx, shared with the...

against the mother's breast if it were of a flatter form (cf. chimpanzee

Chimpanzee

Chimpanzee, sometimes colloquially chimp, is the common name for the two extant species of ape in the genus Pan. The Congo River forms the boundary between the native habitat of the two species:...

); theoretically, as the human jaw receded into the face, the woman's body compensated with round breasts.

In a woman, the condition of lactation unrelated to pregnancy can occur as galactorrhea

Galactorrhea

Galactorrhea or galactorrhoea is the spontaneous flow of milk from the breast, unassociated with childbirth or nursing.Contemporary Maternal-Newborn Nursing Care defines galactorrhea as "nipple discharge." -Causes:...

(spontaneous milk flow), and because of the adverse effect

Adverse effect

s of drugs (e.g. antipsychotic medications

Antipsychotic

An antipsychotic is a tranquilizing psychiatric medication primarily used to manage psychosis , particularly in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. A first generation of antipsychotics, known as typical antipsychotics, was discovered in the 1950s...

), of extreme physical stress, and of endocrine disorders. In a newborn infant, the capability of lactation is consequence of the mother's circulating hormones (prolactin

Prolactin

Prolactin also known as luteotropic hormone is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PRL gene.Prolactin is a peptide hormone discovered by Henry Friesen...

, oxytocin

Oxytocin

Oxytocin is a mammalian hormone that acts primarily as a neuromodulator in the brain.Oxytocin is best known for its roles in sexual reproduction, in particular during and after childbirth...

, etc.) in his or her blood stream, which were introduced by the shared circulatory system of the placenta

Placenta

The placenta is an organ that connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother's blood supply. "True" placentas are a defining characteristic of eutherian or "placental" mammals, but are also found in some snakes and...

; neonatal milk, the milk from a lactating infant, is also known as witch's milk. In men, the mammary glands are also present in the body, but normally remain undeveloped because of the hormone testosterone

Testosterone

, however, when male lactation

Male lactation

Male lactation in zoology means production of milk from mammary glands in the presence of physiological stimuli connected with nursing infants. It is well documented in the Dayak fruit bat.The term male lactation is not used in human medicine...

occurs, it is considered a pathological symptom of a disorder of the pituitary gland

Pituitary gland

In vertebrate anatomy the pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 g , in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity covered by a dural fold...

Reproduction

In considering the human animal, zoologists

Zoology

Zoology |zoölogy]]), is the branch of biology that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct...

proposed that the human female — Woman — is the only primate

Primate

that possesses permanent, full-form breasts when not pregnant, the opposite case of most mammal females that develop full breasts only when pregnant. The zoologist Desmond Morris

Desmond Morris

Desmond John Morris, born 24 January 1928 in Purton, north Wiltshire, is a British zoologist and ethologist, as well as a popular anthropologist. He is also known as a painter, television presenter and popular author.-Life:...

proposed that the rounded shape of a woman's breasts evolved as frontal, secondary sex characteristic

Secondary sex characteristic

that is a sexual-attraction counterpart to the buttocks

Buttocks

The buttocks are two rounded portions of the anatomy, located on the posterior of the pelvic region of apes and humans, and many other bipeds or quadrupeds, and comprise a layer of fat superimposed on the gluteus maximus and gluteus medius muscles. Physiologically, the buttocks enable weight to...

, and so encouraged frontal copulation. The reason being that, while other primates mate by means of the rear-entry position, the upright, bipedal human being was likelier to successfully copulate face to face. As an ethologist

Ethology

Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior, and a sub-topic of zoology....

, Morris further proposed that breasts — a secondary sex characteristic located on the woman's chest — encouraged face-to-face sexual intercourse that led to the establishment of an emotional bond between man and woman; social progress from an essentially procreational function of human biology. Furthermore, the symmetry

Fluctuating asymmetry

Fluctuating asymmetry is an organism’s deviation from bilateral symmetry. It can be measured in the body—as in bilateral symmetry of finger lengths—or in a particular organ...

of the breasts, and the general symmetry of the human body, influence what men and women consider physical attractiveness

Physical attractiveness

Physical attractiveness refers to a person's physical traits which are perceived to be aesthetically pleasing or beautiful. The term often implies sexual attractiveness or desirability, but can also be distinct from the two; for example, humans may regard the young as attractive for various...

in a mate with whom to reproduce. About which bodily beauty

Beauty

Beauty is a characteristic of a person, animal, place, object, or idea that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure, meaning, or satisfaction. Beauty is studied as part of aesthetics, sociology, social psychology, and culture...

, evolutionary psychology

Evolutionary psychology

Evolutionary psychology is an approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the functional...

proposes that a symmetrical body signals to a potential mate that he or she is genetically healthy, and so is the product of a morphologically

Morphology (biology)

In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....

stable line of people who physically developed without interference by disease. Therefore, because the breasts are especially sensitive to developmental interference (genetic and environmental), breast symmetry indicates a woman of good health and thus of good breeding stock, who shall successfully bear more (surviving) children than will a woman with asymmetrical breasts.

Mammary diseases

Because the breast is subject to abnormal conditions, such as macromastia and gigantomastia

Hypertrophy of breast

Hypertrophy of the breast is a rare disease of the breast connective tissues; the indication is a breast weight increase that exceeds , which enlargement causes muscular discomfort and over-stretching of the skin envelope, leading to ulceration...

(overdeveloped breasts), micromastia

Micromastia

Micromastia, or breast hypoplasia, is a medical term describing the postpubertal underdevelopment of a woman's breast tissue. Just as it is impossible to define 'normal' breast size, there is no objective definition of micromastia. Breast development is commonly asymmetric and one or both breasts...

(underdeveloped breasts), breast cancer

Breast cancer

, et cetera, for a woman, the style-of-life factors that can minimize the risks of breast disease are regular breast-examinations by a physician, mammogram monitoring, personal breast examination, a balanced diet with a minimal animal-fat content (e.g. cholesterol

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a complex isoprenoid. Specifically, it is a waxy steroid of fat that is produced in the liver or intestines. It is used to produce hormones and cell membranes and is transported in the blood plasma of all mammals. It is an essential structural component of mammalian cell membranes...

), and regular physical exercise.

Anthropomorphic geography

There are many mountains named after the breast, because they resemble it in appearance, and so are objects of religious and ancestral veneration as a fertility symbol

Fertility symbol

A fertility symbol is an object used by early historical human societies representing fertility, reminders of which remain in folklore today.-Ancient forms:...

and of well-being. In Asia, there was "Breast Mountain", which had a cave where the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma

Bodhidharma

Bodhidharma was a Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th/6th century AD. He is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Ch'an to China, and regarded as the first Chinese patriarch...

(Da Mo) spent much time in meditation

Meditation

Meditation is any form of a family of practices in which practitioners train their minds or self-induce a mode of consciousness to realize some benefit....

. Other such breast mountains are: Mount Elgon

Mount Elgon

Mount Elgon is an extinct shield volcano on the border of Uganda and Kenya, north of Kisumu and west of Kitale.- Physical features :It is the oldest and largest solitary volcano in East Africa, covering an area of around 3500 km²....

on the Uganda

Uganda

Uganda , officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. Uganda is also known as the "Pearl of Africa". It is bordered on the east by Kenya, on the north by South Sudan, on the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the southwest by Rwanda, and on the south by...

-Kenya

Kenya

Kenya , officially known as the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator, with the Indian Ocean to its south-east...

border, Beinn Chìochan

Lochnagar

Lochnagar or Beinn Chìochan is a mountain in the Grampians of Scotland, located about five miles south of the River Dee near Balmoral.-Names:...

in Scotland

Scotland

Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...

, the "Bundok ng Susong Dalaga" (Maiden's breast mountains) in Talim Island

Talim Island

Talim Island is an island in the Philippines.-Features:Talim Island is located at the center of the Laguna de Bay lake under the municipality of Binangonan on the western side and the municipality of Cardona on the eastern side in the province of Rizal...

, Philippines, the twin hills known as the Paps of Anu

Paps of Anu

The Paps of Anu are twin hills located near Killarney, close to the border between County Cork and County Kerry.These breast-shaped hills are said to have been named after the ancient goddess Anann or Anu. On the top of each of these hills stands a tall cairn. With a height of , the cairn on the...

(Dá Chích Anann or the breasts of Anu

Anann

In Irish mythology, Anann was a goddess. 'Anann' is identified as the personal name of the Morrígan in many MSS of Lebor Gabála Érenn. With Badb and Macha, she is sometimes part of a triple goddess or a triad of war goddesses. As such, she may be a Celtic personification of death, and is depicted...

), near Killarney

Killarney

Killarney is a town in County Kerry, southwestern Ireland. The town is located north of the MacGillicuddy Reeks, on the northeastern shore of the Lough Lein/Leane which are part of Killarney National Park. The town and its surrounding region are home to St...

in Ireland

Ireland

Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...

, the 2,086 m high Tetica de Bacares or "La Tetica" in the Sierra de Los Filabres

Sierra de Los Filabres

Sierra de Los Filabres is the largest mountain range in Almería Province, Andalusia, Spain. It is forms the southern limit of the Almanzora Valley...

, Spain

Spain

Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...

, and Khao Nom Sao

Khao Nom Sao

Khao Nom Sao , "female breast mountain", is a land feature located in Ranong Province, Thailand.-Description:Khao Nom Sao is the highest summit of a rugged mountain massif that stretches roughly from north to south in the Kra Isthmus....

in Thailand

Thailand

Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...

, Cerro Las Tetas in Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is an unincorporated territory of the United States, located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of both the United States Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands.Puerto Rico comprises an...

and the Breasts of Aphrodite

Aphrodite

Aphrodite is the Greek goddess of love, beauty, pleasure, and procreation.Her Roman equivalent is the goddess .Historically, her cult in Greece was imported from, or influenced by, the cult of Astarte in Phoenicia....

in Mykonos, among many others. In the United States, the Teton Range

Teton Range

The Teton Range is a mountain range of the Rocky Mountains in North America. A north-south range, it is on the Wyoming side of the state's border with Idaho, just south of Yellowstone National Park. Most of the range is in Grand Teton National Park....

is named after the French word for "breast".

Art history

In European pre-historic societies, sculptures of female figures with pronounced or highly exaggerated breasts were common. A typical example is the so-called Venus of Willendorf

Venus of Willendorf

The Venus of Willendorf, also known as the Woman of Willendorf, is an high statuette of a female figure estimated to have been made between 24,000 and 22,000 BCE. It was discovered in 1908 by archaeologist Josef Szombathy at a paleolithic site near Willendorf, a village in Lower Austria near the...

, one of many Paleolithic

Paleolithic

The Paleolithic Age, Era or Period, is a prehistoric period of human history distinguished by the development of the most primitive stone tools discovered , and covers roughly 99% of human technological prehistory...

Venus figurines

Venus figurines is an umbrella term for a number of prehistoric statuettes of women portrayed with similar physical attributes from the Upper Palaeolithic, mostly found in Europe, but with finds as far east as Irkutsk Oblast, Siberia, extending their distribution to much of Eurasia, from the...

with ample hips and bosom. Artifacts such as bowls, rock carvings and sacred statues with breasts have been recorded from 15,000 BC up to late antiquity all across Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Many female deities representing love and fertility were associated with breasts and breast milk. Figures of the Phoenician goddess Astarte

Astarte

Astarte is the Greek name of a goddess known throughout the Eastern Mediterranean from the Bronze Age to Classical times...

were represented as pillars studded with breasts. Isis

Isis

Isis or in original more likely Aset is a goddess in Ancient Egyptian religious beliefs, whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. She was worshipped as the ideal mother and wife as well as the matron of nature and magic...

, an Egyptian goddess who represented, among many other things, ideal motherhood, was often portrayed as suckling pharaohs, thereby confirming their divine status as rulers. Even certain male deities representing regeneration and fertility were occasionally depicted with breast-like appendices, such as the river god Hapy

Hapy

Hapi, sometimes transliterated as Hapy, not to be confused with another god of the same name, was a deification of the annual flooding of the Nile River in Ancient Egyptian religion, which deposited rich silt on its banks, allowing the Egyptians to grow crops. His name means Running One, probably...

who was considered to be responsible for the annual overflowing of the Nile

Nile

The Nile is a major north-flowing river in North Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. It is long. It runs through the ten countries of Sudan, South Sudan, Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda and Egypt.The Nile has two major...

. Female breasts were also prominent in the Minoan civilization

Minoan civilization

The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization that arose on the island of Crete and flourished from approximately the 27th century BC to the 15th century BC. It was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century through the work of the British archaeologist Arthur Evans...

in the form of the famous Snake Goddess

Snake Goddess

Snake Goddess, indicates figurines of a woman holding a snake in each hand found during excavation of Minoan archaeological sites in Crete dating from approximately 1600 BCE.It seems that the two elegant idols found in Knossos represented goddesses and by implication, the term 'snake goddess'...

statuettes. In Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...

there were several cults worshipping the "Kourotrophos", the suckling mother, represented by goddesses such as Gaia

Gaia (mythology)

Gaia was the primordial Earth-goddess in ancient Greek religion. Gaia was the great mother of all: the heavenly gods and Titans were descended from her union with Uranus , the sea-gods from her union with Pontus , the Giants from her mating with Tartarus and mortal creatures were sprung or born...

, Hera

Hera

Hera was the wife and one of three sisters of Zeus in the Olympian pantheon of Greek mythology and religion. Her chief function was as the goddess of women and marriage. Her counterpart in the religion of ancient Rome was Juno. The cow and the peacock were sacred to her...

and Artemis

Artemis

Artemis was one of the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities. Her Roman equivalent is Diana. Some scholars believe that the name and indeed the goddess herself was originally pre-Greek. Homer refers to her as Artemis Agrotera, Potnia Theron: "Artemis of the wildland, Mistress of Animals"...

. The worship of deities symbolized by the female breast in Greece became less common during the first millennium. The popular adoration of female goddesses decreased significantly during the rise of the Greek city states, a legacy which was passed on to the later Roman Empire

Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....

.

During the middle of the first millennium BC, Greek culture experienced a gradual change in the perception of female breasts. Women in art were covered in clothing from the neck down, including female goddesses like Athena

Athena

In Greek mythology, Athena, Athenê, or Athene , also referred to as Pallas Athena/Athene , is the goddess of wisdom, courage, inspiration, civilization, warfare, strength, strategy, the arts, crafts, justice, and skill. Minerva, Athena's Roman incarnation, embodies similar attributes. Athena is...

, the patron of Athens who represented heroic endeavor. There were exceptions: Aphrodite

Aphrodite

, the goddess of love, was more frequently portrayed fully nude, though in postures that were intended to portray shyness or modesty, a portrayal that has been compared to modern pin ups by historian Marilyn Yalom. Although nude men were depicted standing upright, most depictions of female nudity in Greek art occurred "usually with drapery near at hand and with a forward-bending, self-protecting posture". A popular legend at the time was of the Amazons

Amazons

The Amazons are a nation of all-female warriors in Greek mythology and Classical antiquity. Herodotus placed them in a region bordering Scythia in Sarmatia...

, a tribe of fierce female warriors who socialized with men only for procreation and even removed one breast to become better warriors (the idea being that the right breast would interfere with the operation of a bow and arrow). The legend was a popular motif in art during Greek and Roman antiquity and served as an antithetical cautionary tale.

Body image

Women regard their breasts, which are female secondary sex characteristic

Secondary sex characteristic

s, as important to their sexual attractiveness, as a sign of femininity

Femininity

Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Though socially constructed, femininity is made up of both socially defined and biologically created factors...

that is important to their sense of self

Self-concept

Self-concept is a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual's perception of "self" in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics , gender roles and sexuality, racial identity, and many others. Each of these characteristics is a research domain Self-concept (also...

. So, when a woman considers her breasts deficient in some respect, she might choose to undergo a plastic surgery procedure to enhance them, either to have them augmented

Breast augmentation

Breast augmentation denotes the breast implant and fat-graft mammoplasty procedures for correcting the defects, and for enhancing the size, form, and feel of a woman’s breasts...

or to have them reduced

Breast reduction

Reduction mammoplasty is the plastic surgery procedure for correcting over-sized breasts...

, or to have them reconstructed

Reconstructive surgery

Reconstructive surgery is, in its broadest sense, the use of surgery to restore the form and function of the body, although Maxillo-Facial Surgeons, Plastic Surgeons and Otolaryngologists do reconstructive surgery on faces after trauma and to reconstruct the head and neck after cancer.Other...

if she suffered a deformative disease, such as breast cancer

Breast cancer

. After mastectomy

Mastectomy

Mastectomy is the medical term for the surgical removal of one or both breasts, partially or completely. Mastectomy is usually done to treat breast cancer; in some cases, women and some men believed to be at high risk of breast cancer have the operation prophylactically, that is, to prevent cancer...

(the removal of a diseased breast), the reconstruction of the breast or breasts is done with breast implants or autologous tissue transfer, using fat and tissues from the abdomen, which is performed with a TRAM flap or with a back (latissiumus muscle flap). Breast reduction

Breast reduction

Reduction mammoplasty is the plastic surgery procedure for correcting over-sized breasts...

surgery is a common procedure that involves removing excess breast tissue, fat, and skin, and the repositioning of the nipple-areola complex (NAC).

Cosmetic improvement procedures include breast lift (mastopexy), breast augmentation

Breast augmentation

Breast augmentation denotes the breast implant and fat-graft mammoplasty procedures for correcting the defects, and for enhancing the size, form, and feel of a woman’s breasts...

with implants, and combination procedures; the two types of available breast implants are models filled with silicone gel

Silicone

Silicones are inert, synthetic compounds with a variety of forms and uses. Typically heat-resistant and rubber-like, they are used in sealants, adhesives, lubricants, medical applications , cookware, and insulation....

, and models filled with saline solution

Saline (medicine)

In medicine, saline is a general term referring to a sterile solution of sodium chloride in water but is only sterile when it is to be placed intravenously, otherwise, a saline solution is a salt water solution...

. These types of breast surgery can also repair inverted nipple

Inverted nipple

An inverted nipple is a condition where the nipple, instead of pointing outward, is retracted into the breast. In some cases, the nipple will be temporarily protruded if stimulated, but in others, the inversion remains regardless of stimulus...

s by releasing milk duct

Lactiferous duct

tissues that have become tethered. Furthermore, in the case of the obese

Obesity

Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health, leading to reduced life expectancy and/or increased health problems...

woman, a breast lift (mastopexy) procedure, with or without a breast volume reduction, can be part of an upper-body lift and contouring for the woman who has undergone massive body weight loss.

Surgery of the breast presents the health risk of interfering with the ability to breast-feed and infant child, which might include consequences such as altered sensation in the nipple-areola complex, interference with mammography

Mammography

Mammography is the process of using low-energy-X-rays to examine the human breast and is used as a diagnostic and a screening tool....

(breast x-rays images) when there are breast implants present in the breasts. Regarding breast-feeding capability after breast reduction surgery, studies reported that women who underwent breast reduction can retain the ability to nurse an infant child, when compared to women in a control group who underwent breast surgery using a modern pedicle surgical technique. Plastic surgery organizations generally discourage elective cosmetic breast augmentation surgery for teenaged girls, because, at that age range, the volume of the breast tissues (milk glands and fat) can continue to grow as the girl matures to womanhood. Breast reduction surgery for teenaged girls, however, is a matter handled according to the particulars of the case of hypoplasia

Hypoplasia

Hypoplasia is underdevelopment or incomplete development of a tissue or organ. Although the term is not always used precisely, it properly refers to an inadequate or below-normal number of cells. Hypoplasia is similar to aplasia, but less severe. It is technically not the opposite of hyperplasia...

. (see: breast hypertrophy

Hypertrophy of breast

)

Clothing

Breasts are flexible and their shape can, within individual limits, be molded by clothing, such as foundation garment

Foundation garment

A foundation garment is an undergarment designed to temporarily alter the wearer's body shape, to achieve a more fashionable figure...

s. A brassiere

Brassiere

A brassiere is an undergarment that covers, supports, and elevates the breasts. Since the late 19th century, it has replaced the corset as the most widely accepted method for supporting breasts....

(bra), for example, can give breast support (i.e. raise the breasts to compensate for any sag) and alter the shape of the breasts. There is some debate over whether such support is desirable. A long term clinical study showed that women with large breasts can suffer myalgia

Myalgia

Myalgia means "muscle pain" and is a symptom of many diseases and disorders. The most common causes are the overuse or over-stretching of a muscle or group of muscles. Myalgia without a traumatic history is often due to viral infections...

, or shoulder pain as a result of bra straps, although a well fitting bra should support most of the breasts' weight with proper sized cups and back band rather than on the shoulders.

The social norm of most cultures is for breasts to be covered in public, though the extent of expected coverage varies with context. Some religions afford the breast a special status, either in formal teachings or in symbolism. Islam

Islam

Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...

forbids public exposure of the female breasts. Many cultures associate breasts primarily with sexuality and tend to regard bare breasts in terms of modesty

Modesty

Standards of modesty are aspects of the culture of a country or people, at a given point in time, and is a measure against which an individual in society may be judged....

and decency

Decency

Decency is the quality or state of conforming to social or moral standards of taste and propriety.-See also:*Taste *Communications Decency Act*Public indecency*Indecent exposure*Sodomy law*Norm *Grotesque body...

. Other cultures view female toplessness

Toplessness

Toplessness is the state in which a female's breasts are uncovered, with the areolae and nipples visible, usually in a public space. It can also refer to a female not wearing any clothing above the waist, which is the female equivalent to a male barechestedness.The history and even the present-day...

as acceptable, and in some countries the social norm is for women to be bare breasted, such as the Himba

Himba

The Himba are an ethnic group of about 20,000 to 50,000 people living in northern Namibia, in the Kunene region . Recently they have built two villages in Kamanjab which have become tourist destinations...

in northern Namibia

Namibia

Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia , is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east. It gained independence from South Africa on 21 March...

. In some African cultures, for example, the thigh is regarded as highly sexualised and never exposed in public, but breast exposure is not taboo

Taboo

A taboo is a strong social prohibition relating to any area of human activity or social custom that is sacred and or forbidden based on moral judgment, religious beliefs and or scientific consensus. Breaking the taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent by society...

. Opinion on the exposure of breasts often depends on the place and context, and in some Western societies

Western world

The Western world, also known as the West and the Occident , is a term referring to the countries of Western Europe , the countries of the Americas, as well all countries of Northern and Central Europe, Australia and New Zealand...

exposure of breasts on a beach may be acceptable, but not, for example, in town centres. In some areas the prohibition against the display of a woman's breasts only applies to the exposure of nipple

Nipple

s.

In Western culture

Western culture

Western culture, sometimes equated with Western civilization or European civilization, refers to cultures of European origin and is used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, religious beliefs, political systems, and specific artifacts and...

, a woman's breast-feeding her child in public often exposed her to legal and social sanctions for indecent exposure

Indecent exposure

Indecent exposure is the deliberate exposure in public or in view of the general public by a person of a portion or portions of his or her body, in circumstances where the exposure is contrary to local moral or other standards of appropriate behavior. Indecent exposure laws vary in different...

and for violating public dress codes, which prohibitions have been relaxed and eliminated as religious definitions of “female modesty” have been deleted from the legal system in the course of establishing cultural and legal gender equality

Gender equality

Gender equality is the goal of the equality of the genders, stemming from a belief in the injustice of myriad forms of gender inequality.- Concept :...

. In the U.S., the topfreedom

Topfreedom

Topfreedom is a cultural and political movement seeking to advance gender equality by the recognition of the right of women and girls to be topless in public on the same basis that men and boys are permitted to be barechested. In addition, topfreedom advocates seek recognition of the right of...

equality movement sought and won the redress of such sexism, in the case of People v. Santorelli (1992) wherein the New York State Court of Appeals ruled that the indecent exposure laws of the State of New York did not apply to a bare-breasted woman. Likewise, similar legal (gender equality) efforts succeeded in most of Canada in the 1990, while in Australia and much of Europe, bare-breasted women are legal, and culturally acceptable, at public beaches and piscines.

Sexual characteristic

In some cultures breasts play a role in human sexual activity. Breasts and especially the nipple are one of a woman's erogenous zone

Erogenous zone

An erogenous zone is an area of the human body that has heightened sensitivity, the stimulation of which may result in the production of erotic sensations or sexual excitement.People have erogenous zones all over their bodies, but which areas are more sensitive than others vary...

s. They are sensitive to the touch as they have many nerve endings; and it is common to press or massage

Massage

Massage is the manipulation of superficial and deeper layers of muscle and connective tissue to enhance function, aid in the healing process, and promote relaxation and well-being. The word comes from the French massage "friction of kneading", or from Arabic massa meaning "to touch, feel or handle"...

them with hands or orally before or during sexual activity. Some women can achieve breast orgasms. In the ancient Indian

History of India

The history of India begins with evidence of human activity of Homo sapiens as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including Homo erectus from about 500,000 years ago. The Indus Valley Civilization, which spread and flourished in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent from...

work the Kama Sutra
Kama Sutra
The Kama Sutra is an ancient Indian Hindu text widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature written by Vātsyāyana. A portion of the work consists of practical advice on sexual intercourse. It is largely in prose, with many inserted anustubh poetry verses...

, light scratching of the breasts with nails and biting with teeth are considered erotic. On sexual arousal

Sexual arousal

Sexual arousal, or sexual excitement, is the arousal of sexual desire, during or in anticipation of sexual activity. Things that precipitate human sexual arousal are called erotic stimuli, or colloquially known as turn-ons. There are many potential stimuli, both physical or mental, which can cause...

breast size increases, venous

Vein

In the circulatory system, veins are blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated blood to the heart...

patterns across the breasts become more visible, and nipples harden. Compared to other primates, human breasts are proportionately large throughout adult females' lives. Some writers have suggested that they may have evolved as a visual signal of sexual maturity and fertility.

Many people regard the female human body, of which breasts are an important aspect, to be aesthetically

Aesthetics

Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste...

pleasing, as well as erotic

Eroticism

Eroticism is generally understood to refer to a state of sexual arousal or anticipation of such – an insistent sexual impulse, desire, or pattern of thoughts, as well as a philosophical contemplation concerning the aesthetics of sexual desire, sensuality and romantic love...

. Research conducted at the Victoria University of Wellington

Victoria University of Wellington

Victoria University of Wellington was established in 1897 by Act of Parliament, and was a former constituent college of the University of New Zealand. It is particularly well known for its programmes in law, the humanities, and some scientific disciplines, but offers a broad range of other courses...

showed that breasts are often the first thing men look at, and for a longer time than other body parts. The writers of the study had initially speculated that the reason for this is due to endocrinology

Endocrinology

Endocrinology is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions called hormones, the integration of developmental events such as proliferation, growth, and differentiation and the coordination of...

with larger breasts indicating higher levels of estrogen

Estrogen

and a sign of greater fertility, but the researchers said that "Men may be looking more often at the breasts because they are simply aesthetically pleasing, regardless of the size."

Many people regard bare female breasts to be erotic, and they can elicit heightened sexual desires in some men in some cultures. Some people show a sexual interest in female breasts distinct from that of the person, which may be regarded as a breast fetish.

Symbolism

In Christian iconography

Saint symbology

Christianity has used symbolism from its very beginnings. Each saint has a story and a reason why he or she led an exemplary life. Symbols have been used to tell these stories throughout the history of the Church. A number of Christian saints are traditionally represented by a symbol or iconic...

, some works of art depict women with their breasts in their hands or on a platter, signifying that they died as a martyr by having their breasts severed; one example of this is Saint Agatha of Sicily

Agatha of Sicily

Saint Agatha of Sicily is a Christian saint. Her memorial is on 5 February. Agatha was born at Catania, Sicily, and she was martyred in approximately 251...

. In Silappatikaram, Kannagi

Kannagi

Kannagi or , a legendary Tamil woman, is the central character of the South Indian epic Silapathikaram. Legend states that Kannagi took revenge on the King of Madurai, for a mistaken death penalty imposed on her husband Kovalan, by cursing the city with disaster.-The story:Kovalan, the son of a...

tears off her left breast and flings it on Madurai

Madurai

Madurai is the third largest city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It served as the capital city of the Pandyan Kingdom. It is the administrative headquarters of Madurai District and is famous for its temples built by Pandyan and...

, cursing it, causing a devastating fire.

External links

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