Brian David Josephson
Encyclopedia
Brian David Josephson, FRS (born 4 January 1940; Cardiff
, Wales
) is a Welsh physicist. He became a Nobel Prize laureate in 1973 for the prediction of the eponymous Josephson effect
.
As of late 2007, he was a retired professor
at the University of Cambridge
, where he is the head of the Mind–Matter Unification Project in the Theory of Condensed Matter
(TCM) research group. He is also a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge
.
and then Cambridge University
, where he gained a BA in 1960. Whilst an undergraduate, he became notorious as a brilliant and self-assured student. A former lecturer remembers the importance of being particularly precise
if addressing a class that included Josephson; if a mistake was made, Josephson would not be afraid to politely point it out after the lecture. As an undergraduate he published a paper in which he calculated a thermal correction to the Mössbauer effect
that reconciled previously different measurements of gravitational red shifts reported by teams in the US and UK. After completing his undergraduate degree he continued to study at Cambridge, and in 1964 was awarded his PhD in physics. In the 1970s he learned Transcendental Meditation
.
in 1962 before moving to the United States
to take a position as Research Assistant Professor at the University of Illinois. He returned to Cambridge University in 1967 as an Assistant Director of Research at the Cavendish Laboratory
and then a professor of physics in 1974, a position he retained until his retirement in 2007.
Since 1983 Josephson has been appointed a Visiting Professor at various institutions including the Wayne State University
in 1983, the Indian Institute of Science in 1984 and the University of Missouri-Rolla in 1987.
Josephson has been a member of the Theory of Condensed Matter (TCM) Group, a theoretical physics group at the Cavendish Laboratory
, for much of his research career. While working at TCM group he was jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1973 while still only a Reader
in Physics. He shared the award with Japanese physicist Leo Esaki
and American physicist Ivar Giaever
, who each received 1/4 of the prize, with 1/2 going to Josephson. Unusually, along with Josephson, neither Esaki nor Giaever held professorships at the time of the award. It is rare that academics ranked below professors win the prestigious prize. In addition and also unusually, each of the three performed the relevant research prior to being awarded his PhD.
Josephson also directs the Mind–Matter Unification Project in the TCM Group. He currently sits on the Advisory and Editorial Board of NeuroQuantology: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Neuroscience and Quantum Physics
.
, earning him a 1/2 share of the 1973 Nobel Prize for Physics. Specifically, it was awarded for "his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effect
s", which led to the invention of the Josephson junction. These junctions are key components in devices used to make highly sensitive measurements in magnetic field
s. Further use for his discoveries was realised by researchers at IBM
who, by 1980, had assembled an experimental computer switch structure, which would permit switching speeds from 10 to 100 times faster than those possible with conventional silicon-based chips, increasing data processing capabilities by a vast amount.
is not a complete picture of nature even though it is correct in its own domain". He believes ideas such as complementarity
in physics
may also apply to biology
.
Despite his retirement Josephson continues to be active within the Mind-Matter Unification project. Among his aims is to find mechanisms behind phenomena such as the possibility that organisms can learn to bias the statistics of supposedly random physical processes through having a better understanding of its patterns than non-living matter.
phenomena may be real, and is also interested in the possibility that Eastern mysticism
may have relevance to scientific understanding. He has said that one of his guiding principles has been nullius in verba (take nobody's word, the motto of the Royal Society
), saying that "if scientists as a whole denounce an idea, this should not necessarily be taken as proof that the said idea is absurd; rather, one should examine carefully the alleged grounds for such opinions and judge how well these stand up to detailed scrutiny."
In 2001 Josephson's views on the paranormal were under the spotlight when he wrote about them in a booklet to accompany six special stamps to honour the 100th anniversary of the Nobel prize. The Royal mail had sent Josephson a request to write a small article about their award and the implication of research in their field they could use in conjunction with the special Nobel Centenary stamp issue. He wrote the following:
He came under criticism from several fellow physicists including David Deutsch
, a quantum physicist at Oxford University who stated: "It is utter rubbish. Telepathy simply does not exist. The Royal Mail has let itself be hoodwinked into supporting ideas that are complete nonsense". However, Josephson maintains "There is a lot of evidence to support the existence of telepathy, for example, but papers on the subject are being rejected - quite unfairly".
In 2005, Josephson said that "parapsychology should now have become a conventional field of research, and yet parapsychology's claims are still not generally accepted". He compared this situation to that of Alfred Wegener
's hypothesis of continental drift
, where he believed there was initially great resistance to acceptance despite the strength of the evidence. Only after Wegener's death did further evidence lead to a gradual change of opinion and ultimate acceptance of his ideas. Josephson said that many scientists are not yet swayed by the evidence for parapsychology and the paranormal
. Josephson contends that some scientists feel uncomfortable about ideas such as telepathy
and that their emotions sometimes get in the way.
Cardiff
Cardiff is the capital, largest city and most populous county of Wales and the 10th largest city in the United Kingdom. The city is Wales' chief commercial centre, the base for most national cultural and sporting institutions, the Welsh national media, and the seat of the National Assembly for...
, Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
) is a Welsh physicist. He became a Nobel Prize laureate in 1973 for the prediction of the eponymous Josephson effect
Josephson effect
The Josephson effect is the phenomenon of supercurrent across two superconductors coupled by a weak link...
.
As of late 2007, he was a retired professor
Emeritus
Emeritus is a post-positive adjective that is used to designate a retired professor, bishop, or other professional or as a title. The female equivalent emerita is also sometimes used.-History:...
at the University of Cambridge
University of Cambridge
The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in both the United Kingdom and the English-speaking world , and the seventh-oldest globally...
, where he is the head of the Mind–Matter Unification Project in the Theory of Condensed Matter
Condensed Matter
Condensed matter may refer to several things*Condensed matter physics, the study of the physical properties of condensed phases of matter*European Physical Journal B: Condensed Matter and Complex Systems, a scientific journal published by EDP sciences...
(TCM) research group. He is also a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge
Trinity College, Cambridge
Trinity College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. Trinity has more members than any other college in Cambridge or Oxford, with around 700 undergraduates, 430 graduates, and over 170 Fellows...
.
Education
Brian Josephson attended Cardiff High SchoolCardiff High School
Cardiff High School is a comprehensive school in the Cyncoed area of Cardiff, Wales. Cardiff High School is two miles from the city centre, serving a neighbourhood of privately-owned houses. According to the 2007 ESTYN Report, "Cardiff High School is a very good school with many outstanding...
and then Cambridge University
University of Cambridge
The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in both the United Kingdom and the English-speaking world , and the seventh-oldest globally...
, where he gained a BA in 1960. Whilst an undergraduate, he became notorious as a brilliant and self-assured student. A former lecturer remembers the importance of being particularly precise
Measurement uncertainty
In metrology, measurement uncertainty is a non-negative parameter characterizing the dispersion of the values attributed to a measured quantity. The uncertainty has a probabilistic basis and reflects incomplete knowledge of the quantity. All measurements are subject to uncertainty and a measured...
if addressing a class that included Josephson; if a mistake was made, Josephson would not be afraid to politely point it out after the lecture. As an undergraduate he published a paper in which he calculated a thermal correction to the Mössbauer effect
Mössbauer effect
The Mössbauer effect, or recoilless nuclear resonance fluorescence, is a physical phenomenon discovered by Rudolf Mössbauer in 1958. It involves the resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of γ radiation by atomic nuclei bound in a solid...
that reconciled previously different measurements of gravitational red shifts reported by teams in the US and UK. After completing his undergraduate degree he continued to study at Cambridge, and in 1964 was awarded his PhD in physics. In the 1970s he learned Transcendental Meditation
Transcendental Meditation
Transcendental Meditation refers to the Transcendental Meditation technique, a specific form of mantra meditation, and to the Transcendental Meditation movement, a spiritual movement...
.
Academic career
Josephson became a fellow of Trinity College, CambridgeTrinity College, Cambridge
Trinity College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. Trinity has more members than any other college in Cambridge or Oxford, with around 700 undergraduates, 430 graduates, and over 170 Fellows...
in 1962 before moving to the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
to take a position as Research Assistant Professor at the University of Illinois. He returned to Cambridge University in 1967 as an Assistant Director of Research at the Cavendish Laboratory
Cavendish Laboratory
The Cavendish Laboratory is the Department of Physics at the University of Cambridge, and is part of the university's School of Physical Sciences. It was opened in 1874 as a teaching laboratory....
and then a professor of physics in 1974, a position he retained until his retirement in 2007.
Since 1983 Josephson has been appointed a Visiting Professor at various institutions including the Wayne State University
Wayne State University
Wayne State University is a public research university located in Detroit, Michigan, United States, in the city's Midtown Cultural Center Historic District. Founded in 1868, WSU consists of 13 schools and colleges offering more than 400 major subject areas to over 32,000 graduate and...
in 1983, the Indian Institute of Science in 1984 and the University of Missouri-Rolla in 1987.
Josephson has been a member of the Theory of Condensed Matter (TCM) Group, a theoretical physics group at the Cavendish Laboratory
Cavendish Laboratory
The Cavendish Laboratory is the Department of Physics at the University of Cambridge, and is part of the university's School of Physical Sciences. It was opened in 1874 as a teaching laboratory....
, for much of his research career. While working at TCM group he was jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
Nobel Prize in Physics
The Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895 and awarded since 1901; the others are the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Literature, Nobel Peace Prize, and...
in 1973 while still only a Reader
Reader (academic rank)
The title of Reader in the United Kingdom and some universities in the Commonwealth nations like Australia and New Zealand denotes an appointment for a senior academic with a distinguished international reputation in research or scholarship...
in Physics. He shared the award with Japanese physicist Leo Esaki
Leo Esaki
Reona Esaki also known as Leo Esaki is a Japanese physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973 with Ivar Giaever and Brian David Josephson for his discovery of the phenomenon of electron tunneling. He is known for his invention of the Esaki diode, which exploited that phenomenon...
and American physicist Ivar Giaever
Ivar Giaever
Ivar Giaever is a physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973 with Leo Esaki and Brian Josephson "for their discoveries regarding tunnelling phenomena in solids". Giaever's share of the prize was specifically for his "experimental discoveries regarding tunnelling phenomena in ......
, who each received 1/4 of the prize, with 1/2 going to Josephson. Unusually, along with Josephson, neither Esaki nor Giaever held professorships at the time of the award. It is rare that academics ranked below professors win the prestigious prize. In addition and also unusually, each of the three performed the relevant research prior to being awarded his PhD.
Josephson also directs the Mind–Matter Unification Project in the TCM Group. He currently sits on the Advisory and Editorial Board of NeuroQuantology: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Neuroscience and Quantum Physics
Neuroquantology
NeuroQuantology is a quarterly peer-reviewed interdisciplinary scientific journal that covers the intersection of neuroscience and quantum mechanics. NeuroQuantology was established by Sultan Tarlacı. The journal was first published in April 2003...
.
Josephson effect
Josephson is best known for his pioneering theoretical work on superconductivitySuperconductivity
Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance occurring in certain materials below a characteristic temperature. It was discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8, 1911 in Leiden. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a quantum...
, earning him a 1/2 share of the 1973 Nobel Prize for Physics. Specifically, it was awarded for "his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effect
Josephson effect
The Josephson effect is the phenomenon of supercurrent across two superconductors coupled by a weak link...
s", which led to the invention of the Josephson junction. These junctions are key components in devices used to make highly sensitive measurements in magnetic field
Magnetic field
A magnetic field is a mathematical description of the magnetic influence of electric currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude ; as such it is a vector field.Technically, a magnetic field is a pseudo vector;...
s. Further use for his discoveries was realised by researchers at IBM
IBM
International Business Machines Corporation or IBM is an American multinational technology and consulting corporation headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software, and it offers infrastructure, hosting and consulting services in areas...
who, by 1980, had assembled an experimental computer switch structure, which would permit switching speeds from 10 to 100 times faster than those possible with conventional silicon-based chips, increasing data processing capabilities by a vast amount.
Mind–Matter Unification Project
Josephson directed the Mind–Matter Unification Project, which he describes as: "a project concerned primarily with the attempt to understand, from the viewpoint of the theoretical physicist, what may loosely be characterised as intelligent processes in nature, associated with brain function or with some other natural process". More generally, the research involves how the brain works, investigating topics such as language and consciousness, and pondering the fundamental connections between music and the mind. It is based on the belief that quantum mechanics is not the ultimate theory of nature. He maintains that "Quantum theoryQuantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics, also known as quantum physics or quantum theory, is a branch of physics providing a mathematical description of much of the dual particle-like and wave-like behavior and interactions of energy and matter. It departs from classical mechanics primarily at the atomic and subatomic...
is not a complete picture of nature even though it is correct in its own domain". He believes ideas such as complementarity
Complementarity (physics)
In physics, complementarity is a basic principle of quantum theory proposed by Niels Bohr, closely identified with the Copenhagen interpretation, and refers to effects such as the wave–particle duality...
in physics
Physics
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...
may also apply to biology
Biology
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...
.
Despite his retirement Josephson continues to be active within the Mind-Matter Unification project. Among his aims is to find mechanisms behind phenomena such as the possibility that organisms can learn to bias the statistics of supposedly random physical processes through having a better understanding of its patterns than non-living matter.
Parapsychology
Josephson is one of the more well-known scientists who say that parapsychologicalParapsychology
The term parapsychology was coined in or around 1889 by philosopher Max Dessoir, and originates from para meaning "alongside", and psychology. The term was adopted by J.B. Rhine in the 1930s as a replacement for the term psychical research...
phenomena may be real, and is also interested in the possibility that Eastern mysticism
Mysticism
Mysticism is the knowledge of, and especially the personal experience of, states of consciousness, i.e. levels of being, beyond normal human perception, including experience and even communion with a supreme being.-Classical origins:...
may have relevance to scientific understanding. He has said that one of his guiding principles has been nullius in verba (take nobody's word, the motto of the Royal Society
Royal Society
The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Society, is a learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society in existence. Founded in November 1660, it was granted a Royal Charter by King Charles II as the "Royal Society of London"...
), saying that "if scientists as a whole denounce an idea, this should not necessarily be taken as proof that the said idea is absurd; rather, one should examine carefully the alleged grounds for such opinions and judge how well these stand up to detailed scrutiny."
In 2001 Josephson's views on the paranormal were under the spotlight when he wrote about them in a booklet to accompany six special stamps to honour the 100th anniversary of the Nobel prize. The Royal mail had sent Josephson a request to write a small article about their award and the implication of research in their field they could use in conjunction with the special Nobel Centenary stamp issue. He wrote the following:
"Physicists attempt to reduce the complexity of nature to a single unifying theory, of which the most successful and universal, the quantum theory, has been associated with several Nobel prizes, for example those to Dirac and Heisenberg. Max Planck's original attempts a hundred years ago to explain the precise amount of energy radiated by hot bodies began a process of capturing in mathematical form a mysterious, elusive world containing 'spooky interactions at a distance', real enough however to lead to inventions such as the laser and transistor.
Quantum theory is now being fruitfully combined with theories of information and computation. These developments may lead to an explanation of processes still not understood within conventional science such as telepathyTelepathyTelepathy , is the induction of mental states from one mind to another. The term was coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Fredric W. H. Myers, a founder of the Society for Psychical Research, and has remained more popular than the more-correct expression thought-transference...
, an area where Britain is at the forefront of research."
He came under criticism from several fellow physicists including David Deutsch
David Deutsch
David Elieser Deutsch, FRS is an Israeli-British physicist at the University of Oxford. He is a non-stipendiary Visiting Professor in the Department of Atomic and Laser Physics at the Centre for Quantum Computation in the Clarendon Laboratory of the University of Oxford...
, a quantum physicist at Oxford University who stated: "It is utter rubbish. Telepathy simply does not exist. The Royal Mail has let itself be hoodwinked into supporting ideas that are complete nonsense". However, Josephson maintains "There is a lot of evidence to support the existence of telepathy, for example, but papers on the subject are being rejected - quite unfairly".
In 2005, Josephson said that "parapsychology should now have become a conventional field of research, and yet parapsychology's claims are still not generally accepted". He compared this situation to that of Alfred Wegener
Alfred Wegener
Alfred Lothar Wegener was a German scientist, geophysicist, and meteorologist.He is most notable for his theory of continental drift , proposed in 1912, which hypothesized that the continents were slowly drifting around the Earth...
's hypothesis of continental drift
Continental drift
Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other. The hypothesis that continents 'drift' was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596 and was fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912...
, where he believed there was initially great resistance to acceptance despite the strength of the evidence. Only after Wegener's death did further evidence lead to a gradual change of opinion and ultimate acceptance of his ideas. Josephson said that many scientists are not yet swayed by the evidence for parapsychology and the paranormal
Paranormal
Paranormal is a general term that designates experiences that lie outside "the range of normal experience or scientific explanation" or that indicates phenomena understood to be outside of science's current ability to explain or measure...
. Josephson contends that some scientists feel uncomfortable about ideas such as telepathy
Telepathy
Telepathy , is the induction of mental states from one mind to another. The term was coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Fredric W. H. Myers, a founder of the Society for Psychical Research, and has remained more popular than the more-correct expression thought-transference...
and that their emotions sometimes get in the way.
Awards
- New Scientist 1969
- Research Corporation 1969
- Fritz LondonFritz LondonFritz Wolfgang London was a German theoretical physicist. His fundamental contributions to the theories of chemical bonding and of intermolecular forces are today considered classic and are discussed in standard textbooks of physical chemistry.With his brother Heinz, he made a significant...
Memorial Prize, 1970 - Nobel Prize for Physics 1973
Medals
- Guthrie MedalGuthrie Medal and PrizeThe Faraday Medal and Prize is a prize awarded annually by the Institute of Physics. The prize is awarded for "outstanding contributions to experimental physics, to a physicist of international reputation in any sector."...
(Institute of Physics) 1972 - van der Pol 1972
- Elliott Cresson MedalElliott Cresson MedalThe Elliott Cresson Medal, also known as the Elliott Cresson Gold Medal, was the highest award given by the Franklin Institute. The award was established by Elliott Cresson, life member of the Franklin Institute, with $1,000 granted in 1848...
(Franklin Institute) 1972 - Hughes (Royal Society) 1972
- Holweck PrizeHolweck PrizeThe Holweck Prize is a major European prize for Physics awarded jointly every year by the British Institute of Physics and the Société Française de Physique . It is one of the four Grand Prix of the SFP and one of the four International Bilateral Awards of the IOP, consisting of a gold medal and a...
(Institute of Physics and French Institute of Physics) 1972 - Faraday (Institution of Electrical Engineers) 1982
- Sir George Thomson (Institute of Measurement and Control) 1984
- Medal of the town of Marseilles 2004
Selected publications
- Josephson, B.D., 1964: "Coupled Superconductors", Review of Modern Physics, 36 [1P1].
- Josephson, B.D., 1965: "Supercurrents through Barriers", Advances in Physics, 14 [56].
- Josephson, B.D., 1992: "Telepathy Works", New Scientist, 135 [1833], 50-50.
- Josephson, B.D., 1992: "Defining Consciousness", Nature, 358 [6388], 618-618.
- Josephson, B.D., 1993: "All in the Memes", New Statesman & Society, 6 [276], 28-29.
- Josephson, B.D., 1994: "Awkward Eclipse", New Scientist, 144 [1956], 51-51.
- Josephson, B.D., 1995: "Light Barrier", New Scientist, 146 [1975], 55-55.
- Josephson, B.D., 1997: "Skeptics Cornered", Physics World, 10 [9], 20-20.
- Josephson, B.D., 1999: "What is truth?", Physics World, 12 [2], 15-15.
- Josephson, B.D., 2000: "Positive bias to paranormal claims", Physics World, 13 [10], 20-20.
- Josephson, B.D., 2006: "Take nobody's word for it", New Scientist, 192 [2581], 56-57.
See also
- List of physicists
- List of Jewish Nobel laureates
- Quantum pseudo-telepathyQuantum pseudo-telepathyQuantum pseudo-telepathy is a phenomenon in quantum game theory resulting in anomalously high success rates in coordination games between separated players. These high success rates would require communication between the players in a purely classical world; however, the game is set up such that...
- Scientific phenomena named after peopleScientific phenomena named after peopleThis is a list of scientific phenomena and concepts named after people . For other lists of eponyms, see eponym.-A:* Abderhalden–Fauser reaction – Emil Abderhalden* Abney effect, Abney's law of additivity – William de Wiveleslie Abney...
External links
- Brian Josephson's home page.
- Josephson, Brian D. Biography by Britannica.
- "How Josephson Discovered His Effect." by Philip AndersonPhilip AndersonPhilip Anderson may refer to:* Phil Anderson , cyclist* Philip Carr Anderson, , professor of medicine* Philip W. Anderson , film editor* Philip Warren Anderson , physicist-See also:...
, Physics TodayPhysics TodayPhysics Today, created in 1948, is the membership journal of the American Institute of Physics. It is provided to 130,000 members of twelve physics societies, including the American Physical Society...
, November 1970. Anderson's account (he taught the graduate course in solid-state/many-body theory in which Josephson was a student) of Josephson's discovery. - The Discovery of Tunnelling Supercurrents Nobel lecture.
- "The Nobel Laureate Versus the Graduate Student" by Donald G. McDonald, Physics TodayPhysics TodayPhysics Today, created in 1948, is the membership journal of the American Institute of Physics. It is provided to 130,000 members of twelve physics societies, including the American Physical Society...
, July 2001. An account of the historic debate between Josephson and John Bardeen at Queen Mary College in London, September 1962.